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Burmese amber, also known as Burmite or Kachin amber, is
amber Amber is fossilized tree resin that has been appreciated for its color and natural beauty since Neolithic times. Much valued from antiquity to the present as a gemstone, amber is made into a variety of decorative objects."Amber" (2004). In Ma ...
from the
Hukawng Valley The Hukawng Valley ( my, ဟူးကောင်းချိုင့်ဝှမ်း; also spelt Hukaung Valley) is an isolated valley in Myanmar, roughly in area. It is located in Tanaing Township in the Myitkyina District of Kachin State i ...
in northern
Myanmar Myanmar, ; UK pronunciations: US pronunciations incl. . Note: Wikipedia's IPA conventions require indicating /r/ even in British English although only some British English speakers pronounce r at the end of syllables. As John C. Wells, Joh ...
. The amber is dated to around 100 million years ago, during the latest
Albian The Albian is both an age of the geologic timescale and a stage in the stratigraphic column. It is the youngest or uppermost subdivision of the Early/Lower Cretaceous Epoch/Series. Its approximate time range is 113.0 ± 1.0 Ma to 100.5 ± 0.9 M ...
to earliest
Cenomanian The Cenomanian is, in the ICS' geological timescale, the oldest or earliest age of the Late Cretaceous Epoch or the lowest stage of the Upper Cretaceous Series. An age is a unit of geochronology; it is a unit of time; the stage is a unit in the s ...
ages of the mid-
Cretaceous The Cretaceous ( ) is a geological period that lasted from about 145 to 66 million years ago (Mya). It is the third and final period of the Mesozoic Era, as well as the longest. At around 79 million years, it is the longest geological period of th ...
period. The amber is of significant palaeontological interest due to the diversity of flora and fauna contained as inclusions, particularly arthropods including insects and arachnids but also birds, lizards, snakes, frogs and fragmentary dinosaur remains. The amber has been known and commercially exploited since the first century AD, and has been known to science since the mid-nineteenth century. Research on the deposit has attracted controversy due to its alleged role in funding
internal conflict in Myanmar Insurgencies have been ongoing in Myanmar since 1948, the year the country, then known as Burma, gained independence from the United Kingdom. The conflict has largely been ethnic-based, with several ethnic armed groups fighting Myanmar's ...
and hazardous working conditions in the mines where it is collected.


Geological context, depositional environment and age

The amber is found within the Hukawng Basin, a large Cretaceous-
Cenozoic The Cenozoic ( ; ) is Earth's current geological era, representing the last 66million years of Earth's history. It is characterised by the dominance of mammals, birds and flowering plants, a cooling and drying climate, and the current configura ...
sedimentary basin Sedimentary basins are region-scale depressions of the Earth's crust where subsidence has occurred and a thick sequence of sediments have accumulated to form a large three-dimensional body of sedimentary rock. They form when long-term subsidence ...
within northern Myanmar. The strata have undergone
folding Fold, folding or foldable may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media * ''Fold'' (album), the debut release by Australian rock band Epicure * Fold (poker), in the game of poker, to discard one's hand and forfeit interest in the current pot *Abov ...
and
faulting In geology, a fault is a planar fracture or discontinuity in a volume of rock across which there has been significant displacement as a result of rock-mass movements. Large faults within Earth's crust result from the action of plate tectonic ...
. The Hukawng basin is part of the larger Myanmar Central Basin, a N-S orientated synclinal basin extending to the
Gulf of Martaban A gulf is a large inlet from the ocean into the landmass, typically with a narrower opening than a bay, but that is not observable in all geographic areas so named. The term gulf was traditionally used for large highly-indented navigable bodie ...
to the south. The basin is considered to be a part of the West Burma Block or Burma
Terrane In geology, a terrane (; in full, a tectonostratigraphic terrane) is a crust fragment formed on a tectonic plate (or broken off from it) and accreted or " sutured" to crust lying on another plate. The crustal block or fragment preserves its own ...
, which has a debated tectonic history, it is considered to be associated with the concepts of the Cimmeria and Sibumasu terranes. The block was part of
Gondwana Gondwana () was a large landmass, often referred to as a supercontinent, that formed during the late Neoproterozoic (about 550 million years ago) and began to break up during the Jurassic period (about 180 million years ago). The final stages ...
during at least the Early
Paleozoic The Paleozoic (or Palaeozoic) Era is the earliest of three geologic eras of the Phanerozoic Eon. The name ''Paleozoic'' ( ;) was coined by the British geologist Adam Sedgwick in 1838 by combining the Greek words ''palaiós'' (, "old") and ' ...
, but the timing of rifting is very uncertain, with estimates ranging from the
Devonian The Devonian ( ) is a geologic period and system of the Paleozoic era, spanning 60.3 million years from the end of the Silurian, million years ago (Mya), to the beginning of the Carboniferous, Mya. It is named after Devon, England, whe ...
to Early Cretaceous. It is also disputed whether the block had accreted onto the Asian
continental margin A continental margin is the outer edge of continental crust abutting oceanic crust under coastal waters. It is one of the three major zones of the ocean floor, the other two being deep-ocean basins and mid-ocean ridges. The continental margin ...
by the time of the amber deposition. Some members of the flora and fauna have Gondwanan affinities, while others have
Laurasian Laurasia () was the more northern of two large landmasses that formed part of the Pangaea supercontinent from around ( Mya), the other being Gondwana. It separated from Gondwana (beginning in the late Triassic period) during the breakup of Pan ...
affinities. A recent
paleomagnetic Paleomagnetism (or palaeomagnetismsee ), is the study of magnetic fields recorded in rocks, sediment, or archeological materials. Geophysicists who specialize in paleomagnetism are called ''paleomagnetists.'' Certain magnetic minerals in rock ...
reconstruction finds that the Burma Terrane formed an island land mass in the
Tethys Ocean The Tethys Ocean ( el, Τηθύς ''Tēthús''), also called the Tethys Sea or the Neo-Tethys, was a prehistoric ocean that covered most of the Earth during much of the Mesozoic Era and early Cenozoic Era, located between the ancient continents ...
during the Mid Cretaceous at a
latitude In geography, latitude is a coordinate that specifies the north– south position of a point on the surface of the Earth or another celestial body. Latitude is given as an angle that ranges from –90° at the south pole to 90° at the north pol ...
around 5-10 degrees south of the equator. At Noije Bum, located on a ridge, amber is found within fine grained
clastic rock Clastic rocks are composed of fragments, or clasts, of pre-existing minerals and rock. A clast is a fragment of geological detritus,Essentials of Geology, 3rd Ed, Stephen Marshak, p. G-3 chunks, and smaller grains of rock broken off other rocks ...
s, typically medium to greyish green in colour, resulting from the constituent grains being black, yellow, grey and light green. The fine grained rocks are primarily fine to very fine grained
sandstone Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized (0.0625 to 2 mm) silicate grains. Sandstones comprise about 20–25% of all sedimentary rocks. Most sandstone is composed of quartz or feldspar (both silicates) ...
, with beds of
silt Silt is granular material of a size between sand and clay and composed mostly of broken grains of quartz. Silt may occur as a soil (often mixed with sand or clay) or as sediment mixed in suspension with water. Silt usually has a floury feel when ...
and
shale Shale is a fine-grained, clastic sedimentary rock formed from mud that is a mix of flakes of clay minerals (hydrous aluminium phyllosilicates, e.g. kaolin, Al2 Si2 O5( OH)4) and tiny fragments (silt-sized particles) of other minerals, especial ...
and laterally persistent thin (1–2 mm thick)
coal Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock, formed as rock strata called coal seams. Coal is mostly carbon with variable amounts of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen. Coal is formed when dea ...
horizons. Massive micritic
limestone Limestone ( calcium carbonate ) is a type of carbonate sedimentary rock which is the main source of the material lime. It is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of . Limestone forms whe ...
interbeds of 6-8 centimetre thickness, often containing coalified plant material also occur. This
facies In geology, a facies ( , ; same pronunciation and spelling in the plural) is a body of rock with specified characteristics, which can be any observable attribute of rocks (such as their overall appearance, composition, or condition of formatio ...
association is typically around 1 metre thick and typically thinly bedded and
laminated Lamination is the technique/process of manufacturing a Raw material, material in multiple layers, so that the composite material achieves improved strength of materials, strength, stability, sound insulation, visual appearance, appearance, or ...
. Associated with the fine grained facies is a set of medium facies primarily consisting of medium to fine grained sandstones also containing thin beds of siltstone, shale and conglomerate, alongside a persistent conglomerate horizon. A specimen of the
ammonite Ammonoids are a group of extinct marine mollusc animals in the subclass Ammonoidea of the class Cephalopoda. These molluscs, commonly referred to as ammonites, are more closely related to living coleoids (i.e., octopuses, squid and cuttlefish) ...
'' Mortoniceras'' has been found in a sandstone bed 2 metres above the amber horizon, alongside indeterminate gastropods and bivalves. Lead-uranium dating of
zircon Zircon () is a mineral belonging to the group of nesosilicates and is a source of the metal zirconium. Its chemical name is zirconium(IV) silicate, and its corresponding chemical formula is Zr SiO4. An empirical formula showing some of the r ...
crystals of volcanic clasts within the amber bearing horizons has given a maximum age of 98.79 ± 0.62  million years ago ( Ma), making the deposit earliest
Cenomanian The Cenomanian is, in the ICS' geological timescale, the oldest or earliest age of the Late Cretaceous Epoch or the lowest stage of the Upper Cretaceous Series. An age is a unit of geochronology; it is a unit of time; the stage is a unit in the s ...
in age. Unpublished data by Wang Bo on other layers suggests an age range of deposition of at least 5 million years. The amber does not appear to have undergone significant transport since hardening or be redeposited. The strata at the site are younging upwards, striking north north-east and dipping 50-70 degrees E and SE north of the ridge and striking between south south-east and south-east and dipping 35-60 degrees south-west south of the ridge, suggesting the site is on the northwest limb of a syncline plunging to the northeast. A minor fault with a conspicuous gouge zone was noted as present, though it appeared to have no significant displacement. Several other localities are known, including the colonial Khanjamaw and the more recent Inzutzut, Angbamo, and Xipiugong sites, within the vicinity of
Tanai Danai ( my, တနိုင်းမြို့) is a town in Kachin State, in the northernmost part of Myanmar. Kachin State ( Kachin: ''Wunpawng Mungdan''; Burmese: ကချင်ပြည်နယ်) is the northernmost state of Myanmar. ...
. The Hkamti site SW of the Hukawng basin has been determined to be significantly older, dating to the early
Albian The Albian is both an age of the geologic timescale and a stage in the stratigraphic column. It is the youngest or uppermost subdivision of the Early/Lower Cretaceous Epoch/Series. Its approximate time range is 113.0 ± 1.0 Ma to 100.5 ± 0.9 M ...
around ca. 110 Ma and is therefore considered distinct.


Paleoenvironment

The Burmese amber paleoforest is considered to have been a
tropical rainforest Tropical rainforests are rainforests that occur in areas of tropical rainforest climate in which there is no dry season – all months have an average precipitation of at least 60 mm – and may also be referred to as ''lowland equatori ...
, situated near the coast, where resin was subsequently transported into a shallow marine environment. The shell of a dead juvenile ''Puzosia'' (''Bhimaites'') ammonite, four marine
gastropod shell The gastropod shell is part of the body of a Gastropoda, gastropod or snail, a kind of mollusc. The shell is an exoskeleton, which protects from predators, mechanical damage, and dehydration, but also serves for muscle attachment and calcium s ...
s (including '' Mathilda'') and littoral or supralittoral
isopods Isopoda is an order of crustaceans that includes woodlice and their relatives. Isopods live in the sea, in fresh water, or on land. All have rigid, segmented exoskeletons, two pairs of antennae, seven pairs of jointed limbs on the thorax, an ...
entombed in a piece of amber with shell sand, along with growth of Isocrinid
crinoid Crinoids are marine animals that make up the class Crinoidea. Crinoids that are attached to the sea bottom by a stalk in their adult form are commonly called sea lilies, while the unstalked forms are called feather stars or comatulids, which are ...
s,
coral Corals are marine invertebrates within the class Anthozoa of the phylum Cnidaria. They typically form compact colonies of many identical individual polyps. Coral species include the important reef builders that inhabit tropical oceans and sec ...
s and
oyster Oyster is the common name for a number of different families of salt-water bivalve molluscs that live in marine or brackish habitats. In some species, the valves are highly calcified, and many are somewhat irregular in shape. Many, but not al ...
s on the surface of some amber pieces indicate marine conditions for final deposition. Additionally pholadid (piddock) bivalve borings into amber specimens along with at least one pholadid which became trapped was interpreted to show that the resin was still fresh and unhardened when it was being moved into the tidal areas. However, the phloladids in question, belonging to the extinct genus '' Palaeolignopholas,'' were later interpreted as a freshwater species, and the presence of numerous freshwater insects suggests that the initial environment of deposition was a downstream
estuarine An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal body of brackish water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea. Estuaries form a transition zone between river environments and maritime environment ...
to freshwater section of a river, with the forests extending across coastal rivers, river deltas, lakes, lagoons, and coastal bays. The forest environment may have been prone to fire, similar to modern tropical peat swamps, based on the presence of fire adapted plants and burned plant remains found in the amber. The amber itself is primarily disc-shaped and flattened along the
bedding plane In geology, a bed is a layer of sediment, sedimentary rock, or pyroclastic material "bounded above and below by more or less well-defined bedding surfaces".Neuendorf, K.K.E., J.P. Mehl, Jr., and J.A. Jackson, eds., 2005. ''Glossary of Geology'' ...
, and is typically reddish brown, with the colour ranging from shades of yellow to red. The opacity of the amber ranges from clear to opaque. Many amber pieces have thin
calcite Calcite is a Carbonate minerals, carbonate mineral and the most stable Polymorphism (materials science), polymorph of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). It is a very common mineral, particularly as a component of limestone. Calcite defines hardness 3 on ...
veins Veins are blood vessels in humans and most other animals that carry blood towards the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood from the tissues back to the heart; exceptions are the pulmonary and umbilical veins, both of which carry oxygenated b ...
that are typically less than , but up to thick. The number and proportion of veins in a piece of amber varies significantly, in some pieces veins are virtually absent, while others are described as being "packed with veinlets" The amber is considered to be of
coniferous Conifers are a group of cone-bearing seed plants, a subset of gymnosperms. Scientifically, they make up the division Pinophyta (), also known as Coniferophyta () or Coniferae. The division contains a single extant class, Pinopsida. All extant ...
origin, with a likely araucarian source tree, based on spectroscopic analysis and wood fragment inclusions, though a
pine A pine is any conifer tree or shrub in the genus ''Pinus'' () of the family Pinaceae. ''Pinus'' is the sole genus in the subfamily Pinoideae. The World Flora Online created by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Missouri Botanical Garden accep ...
origin has also been suggested.


Fauna and flora

The list of taxa is extraordinarily diverse, with over 42 classes, 108
orders Order, ORDER or Orders may refer to: * Categorization, the process in which ideas and objects are recognized, differentiated, and understood * Heterarchy, a system of organization wherein the elements have the potential to be ranked a number of d ...
, 569
families Family (from la, familia) is a group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its members and of society. Ideall ...
, 1017
genera Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nomenclat ...
and 1379 species described as of the end of 2019, with over 300 species described in 2019 alone, the vast majority (94%) of which are
arthropod Arthropods (, (gen. ποδός)) are invertebrate animals with an exoskeleton, a Segmentation (biology), segmented body, and paired jointed appendages. Arthropods form the phylum Arthropoda. They are distinguished by their jointed limbs and Arth ...
s. A complete list of taxa up until the end of 2018 can be found in Ross 2018 And a supplement covering most of 2019 can be found in Ross 2019b. For the sake of brevity, a complete list of taxa is not given here, and the classification is mostly at family level. For a more complete list of taxa, see Paleobiota of Burmese amber.


Invertebrates

Well over 1000 species of invertebrates are known from the deposit, including, notably the oldest members of
Palpigradi Palpigrades, commonly known as microwhip scorpions, are arachnids belonging to the order Palpigradi. Description Palpigrades belong to the arachnid class. They are the sister group to Solifugae, no more than in length, and averaging . They have ...
('' Electrokoenenia'') and
Schizomida Schizomida (common name shorttailed whipscorpion) is an order of arachnids, generally less than in length. The order is not yet widely studied. About 300 species of schizomids have been described worldwide, most belonging to the Hubbardiidae fa ...
('' Mesozomus'') the oldest
Velvet worm Onychophora (from grc, ονυχής, , "claws"; and , , "to carry"), commonly known as velvet worms (due to their velvety texture and somewhat wormlike appearance) or more ambiguously as peripatus (after the first described genus, '' Peripatus ...
('' Cretoperipatus'') and the only known fossil members of
Mesothelae The Mesothelae are a suborder of spiders (order Araneae) that includes a single extant family, Liphistiidae, and a number of extinct families. This suborder is thought to form the sister group to all other living spiders, and to retain ancestral ...
and
Ricinulei Ricinulei is a small order of arachnids. Like most arachnids, they are predatory, eating small arthropods. They occur today in west-central Africa (''Ricinoides'') and the Neotropics (''Cryptocellus'' and ''Pseudocellus'') as far north as Texas. ...
since the Paleozoic. ''
Chimerarachne ''Chimerarachne'' is a genus of extinct arachnids, sometimes considered as spider itself,Dunlop, J. A., Penney, D. & Jekel, D. 2020A summary list of fossil spiders and their relatives In World Spider Catalog. Natural History Museum Bern, online ...
'' is a unique stem spider still possessing a tail, with similar forms only known from the Paleozoic.


Arachnids


= Araneae

= Forty-four families of
spiders Spiders ( order Araneae) are air-breathing arthropods that have eight legs, chelicerae with fangs generally able to inject venom, and spinnerets that extrude silk. They are the largest order of arachnids and rank seventh in total species dive ...
are known from the Burmese amber, including:
Archaeidae Archaeidae, also known as assassin spiders and pelican spiders, is a spider family with about ninety described species in five genera. It contains small spiders, ranging from long, that prey exclusively on other spiders. They are unusual in that ...
, † Burmadictynidae, † Burmascutidae, † Burmathelidae,
Clubionidae The sac spiders of the family Clubionidae have a very confusing taxonomic history. Once, this family was a large catch-all taxon for a disparate collection of spiders, similar only in that they had eight eyes arranged in two rows and conical anter ...
,
Corinnidae Corinnidae is a family of araneomorph spiders, sometimes called corinnid sac spiders. The family, like other "clubionoid" families, has a confusing taxonomic history. Once it was a part of the large catch-all taxon Clubionidae, now very much small ...
, † Cretaceothelidae,
Deinopidae Deinopidae, also known as net casting spiders, is a family of cribellate spiders first described by Carl Ludwig Koch in 1850. It consists of stick-like elongated spiders that catch prey by stretching a web across their front legs before propelling ...
,
Dipluridae The family Dipluridae, known as curtain-web spiders (or confusingly with other distantly related ones as funnel-web tarantulas) are a group of spiders in the infraorder Mygalomorphae, that have two pairs of booklungs, and chelicerae (fangs) tha ...
, † Eopsilodercidae, † Fossilcalcaridae,
Hersiliidae Hersiliidae is a tropical and subtropical family of spiders first described by Tamerlan Thorell in 1869, which are commonly known as tree trunk spiders. They have two prominent spinnerets that are almost as long as their abdomen, earning them ano ...
,
Hexathelidae Hexathelidae is a family of mygalomorph spiders. It is one of a number of families and genera of spiders known as funnel-web spiders. In 2018, the family was substantially reduced in size by genera being moved to three separate families: Atracid ...
, †
Lagonomegopidae Lagonomegopidae is an extinct family of spiders known from the Cretaceous period. Members of the family are distinguished by a large pair of eyes, positioned on the anterolateral flanks of the carapace, with the rest of the eyes being small. They ...
,
Leptonetidae Leptonetidae is a relatively primitive family of spiders first described by Eugène Simon in 1890. It is made up of tiny haplogyne spiders, meaning they lack the hardened external female genitalia. Their six eyes are arranged in a semicircle of f ...
,
Liphistiidae The spider family Liphistiidae, recognized by Tamerlan Thorell in 1869, comprises 8 genera and about 100 species of medium-sized spiders from Southeast Asia, China, and Japan. They are among the most basal living spiders, belonging to the subord ...
, † Micropalpimanidae, †
Mongolarachnidae ''Mongolarachne'' is an extinct genus of spiders placed in the monogeneric family Mongolarachnidae. The genus contains only one species, ''Mongolarachne jurassica'', described in 2013, which is presently the largest fossilized spider on record. ...
,
Mysmenidae Mysmenidae is a spider family with about 135 described species in thirteen genera. The family is one of the least well known of the orb-weaving spiders because of their small size () and cryptic behaviour. These spiders are found in humid habitats ...
,
Ochyroceratidae Ochyroceratidae is a six-eyed spider family, with 165 described species in ten genera. They are common inhabitants of caves and the tropical forest litter of South Africa, the Caribbean, Asia and South America. Considered an ecological counterpar ...
,
Oecobiidae Oecobiidae, also called disc web spiders, is a family of araneomorph spiders, including about 100 described species. They are small to moderate sized spiders (about long combined head and body length, depending on the species. Larger ones tend to ...
,
Oonopidae Oonopidae, also known as goblin spiders, is a family of spiders consisting of over 1,600 described species in about 113 genera worldwide, with total species diversity estimated at 2000 to 2500 species. The type genus of the family is ''Oonops'' K ...
,
Oxyopidae Lynx spider (Oxyopidae) is a family of araneomorph spiders first described by Tamerlan Thorell in 1870. Most species make little use of webs, instead spending their lives as hunting spiders on plants. Many species frequent flowers in particular, ...
,
Palpimanidae Palpimanidae, also known as palp-footed spiders, is a family of araneomorph spiders first described by Tamerlan Thorell in 1890. They are widely distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of the world, the Mediterranean and one in ...
, † Parvithelidae,
Pholcidae The Pholcidae are a family of araneomorph spiders. The family contains over 1,800 individual species of pholcids, including those commonly known as cellar spider, daddy long-legs spider, carpenter spider, daddy long-legger, vibrating spid ...
, † Pholcochyroceridae, † Plumorsolidae, † Praearaneidae, † Praeterleptonetidae,
Psechridae Psechridae is a family (biology), family of Araneomorphae, araneomorph spiders with about 70 species in two genera. These are among the biggest cribellate spiders with body lengths up to and funnel webs more than in diameter. The family belon ...
,
Psilodercidae ''Psilodercidae'' is a family of spiders first described as a subfamily of Ochyroceratidae by Machado in 1951 and raised to family rank by J. Wunderlich in 2008. These spiders can be distinguished by the "segestriid positioning" of their six eyes, ...
,
Salticidae Jumping spiders are a group of spiders that constitute the family Salticidae. As of 2019, this family contained over 600 described genera and over 6,000 described species, making it the largest family of spiders at 13% of all species. Jumping spi ...
,
Segestriidae Tube-dwelling spiders (Segestriidae) are a family of araneomorph spiders first described by Eugène Simon in 1893. It consists of five genera, two large and widespread, '' Segestria'' and ''Ariadna'', and three smaller genera, '' Citharoceps'', ...
, Telemidae,
Tetrablemmidae Tetrablemmidae, sometimes called armored spiders, is a family of tropical araneomorph spiders first described by Octavius Pickard-Cambridge in 1873. It contains 126 described species in 29 genera from southeast Asia, with a few that occur in Afric ...
,
Tetragnathidae Long-jawed orb weavers or long jawed spiders (Tetragnathidae) are a family of araneomorph spiders first described by Anton Menge in 1866. They have elongated bodies, legs, and chelicerae, and build small orb webs with an open hub with few, wide-se ...
,
Theridiosomatidae The ray spiders (Theridiosomatidae) are a family of spiders first described by Eugène Simon in 1881. They are most recognizable for their construction of cone-shaped webs. The family contains several genera which actively hunt for prey by using ...
,
Theridiidae Theridiidae, also known as the tangle-web spiders, cobweb spiders and comb-footed spiders, is a large family of Araneomorphae, araneomorph spiders first described by Carl Jakob Sundevall in 1833. This diverse, globally distributed family includes ...
,
Thomisidae The Thomisidae are a family of spiders, including about 170 genera and over 2,100 species. The common name crab spider is often linked to species in this family, but is also applied loosely to many other families of spiders. Many members of thi ...
,
Uloboridae Uloboridae is a family of non-venomous spiders, known as cribellate orb weavers or hackled orb weavers. Their lack of venom glands is a secondarily evolved trait. Instead, they wrap their prey thoroughly in silk, cover it in regurgitated digestive ...
and † Vetiaroridae.


= Acariformes

= Twenty families of
acariformes The Acariformes, also known as the Actinotrichida, are the most diverse of the two superorders of mites. Over 32,000 described species are found in 351 families, with an estimated total of 440,000 to 929,000 species, including undescribed species ...
are known from the Burmese amber, including: Anystidae, Archaeorchestidae, Bdellidae, Caeculidae,
Cheyletidae Cheyletidae is a family of mites in the order Trombidiformes The Trombidiformes are a large, diverse order of mites. Taxonomy In 1998, Trombidiformes was divided into the Sphaerolichida and the Prostigmata. The group has few synapomorphies ...
, Enantioppiidae, Eremaeidae,
Erythraeidae Erythraeidae is a family of mites belonging to the Trombidiformes. Larval forms of these mites are parasitic on various other arthropods, for example harvestmen, but the adults are free-living predators. These oval mites are rather large, usually ...
, Eupodidae,
Gymnodamaeidae Gymnodamaeidae is a family of oribatids in the order Oribatida. There are about 8 genera and at least 60 described species in Gymnodamaeidae. Genera * ''Adrodamaeus'' Paschoal, 1984 * ''Arthrodamaeus'' Grandjean, 1954 * ''Austrodamaeus'' Balogh & ...
,
Malaconothridae Malaconothridae is a family of mites belonging to the order Sarcoptiformes. Genera: * ''Elapheremaeus'' Grandjean, 1943 * ''Fossonothrus'' Hammer, 1962 * ''Malaconothrus'' Berlese, 1904 * ''Tyrphonothrus'' Knülle, 1957 * ''Zeanothrus'' Hammer, 1 ...
, Microtrombidiidae, Neoliodidae,
Oribatellidae Oribatellidae is a family of mites belonging to the order Sarcoptiformes. Genera Genera: * ''Berniniella'' Özdikmen, 2008 * ''Cavernella'' Bernini, 1975 * ''Cuspidozetes'' Hammer, 1962 * ''Fberninia'' Özdikmen, 2008 * ''Fenestrobates'' Balog ...
,
Oribotritiidae Oribotritiidae is a family of mites in the order Oribatida Oribatida (formerly Cryptostigmata), also known as oribatid mites, moss mites or beetle mites, are an order of mites, in the "chewing Acariformes" clade Sarcoptiformes. They range in ...
, Resinacaridae,
Smarididae Smarididae is a family of mites belonging to the order Trombidiformes. These large predatory mites have long oval bodies, distinctively pointed in front. They are usually red and densely hairy with slender legs, sometimes very long. They have e ...
, Trombellidae,
Trombidiidae Trombidiidae, also known as red velvet mites, true velvet mites, or rain bugs, are small arachnids (eight-legged arthropods) found in plant litter and are known for their bright red color. While adults are typically in length, some, such as t ...
and
Tuckerellidae The peacock mites of the genus ''Tuckerella'' ( the only genus of the mite family Tuckerellidae) are a significant herbivorous pest in the tropics, for example on citrus fruit. Other species dwell in grasses, possibly as root feeders. The peaco ...
.


= Opiliones

= Nine families of
opiliones The Opiliones (formerly Phalangida) are an order of arachnids colloquially known as harvestmen, harvesters, harvest spiders, or daddy longlegs. , over 6,650 species of harvestmen have been discovered worldwide, although the total number of ext ...
are known from the Burmese amber, including: Beloniscidae, Epedanidae, † Halithersidae, † Mesokanidae,† Monooculricinuleidae, ? Pyramidopidae
Sclerosomatidae The Sclerosomatidae are a family of harvestmen with about 1,300 known species. Name The name is combined from Ancient Greek ''skleros'' "hard" and ''soma'' "body". (2007): Sclerosomatidae. Simon, 1879. In: Pinto-da-Rocha ''et al.'' 2007: 127ff ...
, Stylocellidae and Tithaeidae.


= Pseudoscorpiones

= Twelve families of
pseudoscorpions Pseudoscorpions, also known as false scorpions or book scorpions, are small, scorpion-like arachnids belonging to the order Pseudoscorpiones, also known as Pseudoscorpionida or Chelonethida. Pseudoscorpions are generally beneficial to humans sin ...
are known from the Burmese amber, including: Atemnidae, Cheiridiidae, Cheliferidae,
Chernetidae The Chernetidae are a family of pseudoscorpions with over 650 described species and 110 genera. Subfamilies Subfamilies and genera include: ;Chernetinae Chernetinae is a subfamily of pseudoscorpions in the family Chernetidae. Genera - '' A ...
, Chthoniidae,
Feaellidae The Feaellidae are a family of pseudoscorpions with the single genus ''Feaella''. Species Feaella Ellingsen, 1906 * subgenus ''Feaella'' Ellingsen, 1906 ** '' Feaella mirabilis'' Ellingsen, 1906 — western Africa ** '' Feaella mombasica'' Beie ...
, Garypinidae, Hyidae Ideoroncidae,
Neobisiidae Neobisiidae is a family of pseudoscorpions distributed throughout Africa, the Americas and Eurasia and consist of 550 species in 32 genera. Some species live in caves while some are surface-dwelling. Characteristics The body color ranges from re ...
, Pseudocheiridiidae and Withiidae.


= Scorpiones

= Seven families of
scorpions Scorpions are predatory arachnids of the order Scorpiones. They have eight legs, and are easily recognized by a pair of grasping pincers and a narrow, segmented tail, often carried in a characteristic forward curve over the back and always end ...
are known from the Burmese amber, including:
Buthidae The Buthidae are the largest family of scorpions, containing about 100 genera and 1339 species as of 2022. A few very large genera (''Ananteris'', ''Centruroides'', '' Compsobuthus'', or '' Tityus'') are known, but a high number of species-poor o ...
,
Chaerilidae Chaerilidae is a family of scorpions. It contains two genera, the extant ''Chaerilus'' (Simon, 1877) and the extinct ''Electrochaerilus'' (Santiago-Blay, Fet, Soleglad & Anderson, 2004). References External links

* Scorpion familie ...
, † Chaerilobuthidae, † Palaeoburmesebuthidae, † Palaeoeuscorpiidae, † Palaeotrilineatidae and † Sucinolourencoidae.


= Parasitiformes

= Seven families of
parasitiformes Parasitiformes are a superorder of Arachnids, constituting one of the two major groups of mites, alongside Acariformes. Parasitiformes has, at times, been classified at the rank of order or suborder. It is uncertain whether Parasitiformes and A ...
are known from the Burmese amber, including:
Argasidae The Argasidae are the family of soft ticks, one of the three families of ticks. The family contains 193 species, although the composition of the genera is less certain, and more study is needed before the genera can become stable. The currently a ...
, †
Deinocrotonidae ''Deinocroton'' is an extinct genus of tick. It is known from two species found in Burmese amber, dating to the earliest part of the Cenomanian stage of the Late Cretaceous, around 99 million years ago. Amongst the oldest ticks known, it is distin ...
, † Khimairidae,
Ixodidae The Ixodidae are the family of hard ticks or scale ticks, one of the three families of ticks, consisting of over 700 species. They are known as 'hard ticks' because they have a scutum or hard shield, which the other major family of ticks, the 'sof ...
,
Opilioacaridae Opilioacaridae is the sole family of mites in the order Opilioacarida, made up of about 13 genera. The mites of this family are rare, large (1.5 to 2.5 mm) mites, and are widely considered primitive, as they retain six pairs of eyes, and ...
,
Polyaspididae Polyaspididae is a family of mites in the order Mesostigmata Mesostigmata is an order of mites belonging to the Parasitiformes. They are by far the largest group of Parasitiformes, with over 8,000 species in 130 families. Mesostigmata includes ...
and
Sejidae Sejidae is a family of mites in the order Mesostigmata. The oldest known record of the group is an indeterminate deutonymph from the mid Cretaceous (Albian-Cenomanian) aged Burmese amber Burmese amber, also known as Burmite or Kachin amber, is ...
.


= Schizomida

= One family of
schizomida Schizomida (common name shorttailed whipscorpion) is an order of arachnids, generally less than in length. The order is not yet widely studied. About 300 species of schizomids have been described worldwide, most belonging to the Hubbardiidae fa ...
is known from the Burmese amber:
Hubbardiidae Hubbardiidae is a family of arachnids, superficially resembling spiders. It is the larger of the two extant families of the order, Schizomida, and is divided into two subfamilies. The family is based on the description published by Orator F. Co ...


= Palpigradi

= One genus of
palpigradi Palpigrades, commonly known as microwhip scorpions, are arachnids belonging to the order Palpigradi. Description Palpigrades belong to the arachnid class. They are the sister group to Solifugae, no more than in length, and averaging . They have ...
is known: '' Electrokoenenia'', which belongs to
Eukoeneniidae Palpigrades, commonly known as microwhip scorpions, are arachnids belonging to the order Palpigradi. Description Palpigrades belong to the arachnid class. They are the sister group to Solifugae, no more than in length, and averaging . They have ...


= Amblypygi

= Two genera of
Amblypygi Amblypygi is an ancient order of arachnid chelicerate arthropods also known as African cave-dwelling spiders, whip spiders and tailless whip scorpions (not to be confused with whip scorpions or vinegaroons that belong to the related order Thelyph ...
are known: '' Kronocharon'' and '' Burmacharon'' which do not belong to any extant family.


= Solfugae

= One genus of
camel spider Solifugae is an order of animals in the class Arachnida known variously as camel spiders, wind scorpions, sun spiders, or solifuges. The order includes more than 1,000 described species in about 147 genera. Despite the common names, they are ne ...
is known: '' Cushingia'', which does not belong to any extant family.


= Thelyphonida

= Two genera of
whip scorpion Thelyphonida is an arachnid order comprising invertebrates commonly known as whip scorpions or vinegaroons (also spelled vinegarroons and vinegarones). They are often called uropygids in the scientific community based on an alternative name for ...
are known: '' Mesothelyphonus'', which belongs to
Thelyphonidae Thelyphonidae is the sole family in the Thelyphonida order of arachnids. Description These arachnids can reach a length of . The body consists of a cephalothorax coated with chitin and of an abdomen divided into 12 segments. Fossil record The ...
and '' Burmathelyphonia,'' which does not belong to any extant family.


= Ricinulei

= Three genera of
Ricinulei Ricinulei is a small order of arachnids. Like most arachnids, they are predatory, eating small arthropods. They occur today in west-central Africa (''Ricinoides'') and the Neotropics (''Cryptocellus'' and ''Pseudocellus'') as far north as Texas. ...
are known: '' Hirsutisoma'', ?'' Poliochera'' (an otherwise Carboniferous taxon) and '' Primoricinuleus,'' none of which belong to extant families


Myriapoda

Sixteen families of
Myriapods Myriapods () are the members of subphylum Myriapoda, containing arthropods such as millipedes and centipedes. The group contains about 13,000 species, all of them terrestrial. The fossil record of myriapods reaches back into the late Silurian, a ...
are known, including: Anthroleucosomatidae, † Electrocambalidae, Tingupidae,
Glomeridellidae Glomeridellidae is a family of millipedes belonging to the order Glomerida. The adult males in this family have two pairs of telopods (leg pair 18 as well as leg pair 19) rather than the single pair (leg pair 19 only) found in other families in ...
,
Andrognathidae Andrognathidae is a family of millipede in the order Platydesmida. There are about 17 genera and more than 30 described species in Andrognathidae. Genera These 17 genera belong to the family Andrognathidae: * '' Andrognathus'' Cope, 1869 * '' ...
,
Paradoxosomatidae Paradoxosomatidae, the only family in the suborder Paradoxosomatidea (also known as Strongylosomatidea), is a family of flat-backed millipedes in the order Polydesmida. Containing nearly 200 genera and 975 species , it is one of the largest fami ...
,
Polydesmidae Polydesmidae is a family of millipedes in the order Polydesmida. These millipedes range from 4 mm to 30 mm in length. This family includes species notable for featuring sexual dimorphism in segment number: Adult females in the genus ''Perapolydes ...
,
Polyxenidae Polyxenidae is a family of millipedes in the order Polyxenida containing approximately 47 species in 19 genera. Adults in all species in this family have 13 pairs of legs. Genera * '' Allographis'' Silvestri 1948 * '' Anopsxenus'' Condé & J ...
,
Synxenidae Synxenidae is a family of bristly millipedes (Polyxenida). Three genera and around 10 species are known. Adult synxenids possess 15 or 17 pairs of legs, with the last two pair modified for small jumps. Adults in most species in this family have 1 ...
, Polyzoniidae, Siphoniulidae,
Siphonophoridae Siphonophoridae is a family of millipede in the order Siphonophorida. There are about 12 genera and more than 110 described species in Siphonophoridae. Genera These 12 genera belong to the family Siphonophoridae: * ''Bactrois'' Cook, 1896 * ''B ...
,
Siphonorhinidae Siphonorhinidae is a family of millipede in the order Siphonophorida. There are at least 4 genera and about 12 described species in Siphonorhinidae. Genera These four genera belong to the family Siphonorhinidae: * '' Illacme'' Cook & Loomis, 19 ...
, Zephroniidae,
Cambalidae Cambalidae is a family of millipedes in the order Spirostreptida. There are at least 20 genera and 80 described species in Cambalidae. Genera References Further reading

* * * * Spirostreptida Millipede families {{myria ...
,
Scolopendrellidae Scolopendrellidae is a family of symphylans in the class Symphyla. There are about 7 genera and at least 30 described species in Scolopendrellidae. In this family, the first pair of legs is reduced in size and is never more than half as lon ...
and † Burmanopetalidae.


Entognatha

Eight families of
Entognatha The Entognatha are a class (biology), class of wingless and Ametabolism, ametabolous arthropods, which, together with the insects, makes up the subphylum Hexapoda. Their Arthropod mouthparts, mouthparts are entognathous, meaning that they are r ...
ns are known, including:
Campodeidae The Campodeidae are a family of hexapods belonging to the order Diplura. These pale, eyeless hexapods, the largest of which grow to around 12 mm in length, can be recognised by the two long, many-segmented cerci at the end of the abdomen. ...
,
Japygidae thumb The japygids (family Japygidae) are a taxon of hexapods, of the order Diplura, commonly known as forcepstails. In this family, the paired cerci at the end of their abdomens are pincer-like (superficially similar to the unrelated earwig ...
,
Isotomidae Isotomidae is a family of elongate-bodied springtails in the order Entomobryomorpha. Genera These 109 genera belong to the family Isotomidae: * '' Aackia'' Yosii, 1966 * '' Acanthomurus'' Womersley, 1934 * '' Aggressopygus'' Potapov & Babenko, ...
, †
Praentomobryidae :''Entomobryoidea is also the old name of Entomobryomorpha, when these were placed in the "Arthropleona" The Entomobryoidea are a superfamily of springtails (Collembola), tiny hexapods related to insects. In the modern sense, this group is placed ...
, Tomoceridae,
Neanuridae The family Neanuridae contains pudgy short-legged springtails of the order Poduromorpha. It was established by Carl Börner in 1901. Systematics There are six subfamilies currently recognized: * Caputanurininae * Frieseinae * Morulininae * ...
, Odontellidae and
Sminthuridae Sminthuridae is a family of springtails of the order Symphypleona. Sminthurids are commonly referred to as globular springtails. Description Like other Symphypleona, Sminthuridae are globular in shape and have a furcula that allows them to ju ...
.


Insects


= Archaeognatha

= Two families of
archaeognatha The Archaeognatha are an order of apterygotes, known by various common names such as jumping bristletails. Among extant insect taxa they are some of the most evolutionarily primitive; they appeared in the Middle Devonian period at about the sa ...
ns are known from the Burmese amber:
Machilidae The Machilidae are a family of insects belonging to the order Archaeognatha (the bristletails). There are around 250 described species worldwide. These insects are wingless, elongated and more or less cylindrical with a distinctive humped thorax ...
and
Meinertellidae The Meinertellidae are a small family of basal insects belonging to the order Archaeognatha. They are sometimes known as rock bristletails. These insects can be distinguished from members of the other Archaeognatha family, Machilidae, by the lac ...


= Zygentoma

= One family of
Zygentoma Zygentoma are an order in the class Insecta, and consist of about 550 known species. The Zygentoma include the so-called silverfish or fishmoths, and the firebrats. A conspicuous feature of the order are the three long caudal filaments. The two ...
n is known:
Lepismatidae Lepismatidae is a family of primitive wingless insects with about 190 described species. This family contains the two most familiar members of the order Zygentoma: the silverfish (''Lepisma saccharinum'') and the firebrat (''Thermobia domestica'' ...


= Ephemeroptera

= Seven families of
mayfly Mayflies (also known as shadflies or fishflies in Canada and the upper Midwestern United States, as Canadian soldiers in the American Great Lakes region, and as up-winged flies in the United Kingdom) are aquatic insects belonging to the ord ...
are known: † Australiphemeridae,
Baetidae Baetidae is a family of mayfly, mayflies with about 1000 described species in 110 genera distributed worldwide. These are among the smallest of mayflies, adults rarely exceeding 10 mm in length excluding the two long slender tails and someti ...
,
Ephemeridae Ephemeridae is a family of mayflies with about 150 described species found throughout the world except Australia and Oceania. These are generally quite large mayflies (up to 35 mm) with either two or three very long tails. Many species have ...
,
Heptageniidae The Heptageniidae (synonym: Ecdyonuridae) are a family of mayflies with over 500 described species mainly distributed in the Holarctic, Oriental, and Afrotropical regions, and also present in the Central American Tropics and extreme northern Sou ...
, † Hexagenitidae, Isonychiidae, Prosopistomatidae.


= Odonata

= Twenty families of
odonata Odonata is an order of flying insects that includes the dragonflies and damselflies. Members of the group first appeared during the Triassic, though members of their total group, Odonatoptera, first appeared in Late Carboniferous. The two comm ...
n are known from the Burmese amber, including:
Aeshnidae The Aeshnidae, also called aeshnids, hawkers, or darners, is a family of dragonflies. The family includes the largest dragonflies found in North America and Europe Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its o ...
, † Araripegomphidae, † Burmacoenagrionidae, † Burmaeshnidae, † Burmagomphidae, † Burmaphlebiidae,
Calopterygidae The Calopterygidae are a family of damselflies, in the suborder Zygoptera. They are commonly known as the broad-winged damselflies, demoiselles, or jewelwings. These rather large damselflies have wingspans of 50–80 mm (compared to about 44 ...
,
Coenagrionidae The insect family Coenagrionidae is placed in the order Odonata and the suborder Zygoptera. The Zygoptera are the damselflies, which although less known than the dragonflies, are no less common. More than 1,300 species are in this family, making i ...
, Dysagrionidae, Gomphaeschnidae,
Gomphidae The Gomphidae are a family of dragonflies commonly referred to as clubtails or club-tailed dragonflies. The family contains about 90 genera and 900 species found across North and South America, Europe, Asia, and Australia. The name refers to the ...
,
Hemiphlebiidae Hemiphlebiidae is a family of damselflies, it contains only one extant species, the ancient greenling, native to Southern Australia and Tasmania. The fossil record of the group extends back to the Late Jurassic, making them the oldest known crow ...
,
Libellulidae The skimmers or perchers and their relatives form the Libellulidae, the largest dragonfly family in the world. It is sometimes considered to contain the Corduliidae as the subfamily Corduliinae and the Macromiidae as the subfamily Macromiinae. Ev ...
, Lindeniidae,
Megapodagrionidae The Megapodagrionidae are a family Family (from la, familia) is a group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-bei ...
, † Mesomegaloprepidae, † Paracoryphagrionidae,
Perilestidae The Perilestidae are a family of damselflies commonly known as shortwings and twigtails.Haber, W. and Wagner, DPerilestidae: Shortwings.Dragonflies and Damselflies of Ecuador. It is a small family of around 19 species.Neiss, U. G. and Neusa, H. ( ...
,
Platycnemididae The Platycnemididae are a family of damselflies. They are known commonly as white-legged damselflies. There are over 400 species native to the Old World.Dijkstra, K. D. B., Kalkman, V. J., Dow, R. A., Stokvis, F. R., & Van Tol, J. (2014)Redefini ...
,
Platystictidae Platystictidae is a family of damselflies, commonly known as shadowdamsels. They look very similar to the threadtail damselfly family ( Protoneuridae). They can mostly be found throughout Asia, Central America, and South America. Most members of ...
.


= Hymenopterans

= Over fifty families of
hymenopteran Hymenoptera is a large order (biology), order of insects, comprising the sawfly, sawflies, wasps, bees, and ants. Over 150,000 living species of Hymenoptera have been described, in addition to over 2,000 extinct ones. Many of the species are Par ...
s have been described beginning with the papers of Cockerell who described a group of
Bethylidae The Bethylidae are a family of aculeate wasps in the superfamily Chrysidoidea. As a family, their biology ranges between parasitoid wasps and hunting wasps. Overview Like most of the Chrysidoidea, the Bethylidae are stinging Hymenoptera and m ...
and
Aulacidae The Aulacidae are a small, cosmopolitan family of wasps, with two extant genera containing some 200 known species. They are primarily endoparasitoids of wood wasps (Xiphydriidae) and xylophagous beetles (Cerambycidae and Buprestidae). They are c ...
species between 1917 and 1920. The monotypic family Melittosphecidae is only known from the Burmese amber species ''
Melittosphex burmensis ''Melittosphex burmensis'' is an aculeate wasp that was formerly considered one of the two oldest-known species of bees. The species was described from an inclusion in Burmese amber in the year 2006 by George Poinar Jr., a zoologist at Oregon ...
'' and eight species belonging to '' Aptenoperissus'' of the monotypic family Aptenoperissidae are also known. Originally described as an
Aneuretinae Aneuretinae is a subfamily of ants consisting of a single extant species, ''Aneuretus simoni'' ( Sri Lankan relict ant), and 9 fossil species. Earlier, the phylogenetic position of ''A. simoni'' was thought to be intermediate between primitive a ...
ant '' Burmomyrma rossi'' was moved to the extinct
Chrysidoidea The superfamily Chrysidoidea is a very large cosmopolitan group (some 6,000 described species, and many more undescribed) , all of which are parasitoids or cleptoparasites of other insects. There are three large, common families (Bethylidae, Chr ...
family Falsiformicidae. A number of Formicidae species known, belonging to '' Baikuris'' (indet) '' Camelomecia janovitzi, Ceratomyrmex ellenbergeri,'' 11 species of ''
Gerontoformica ''Gerontoformica'' is an extinct genus of stem-group ants. The genus contains thirteen described species known from Late Cretaceous fossils found in Asia and Europe. The species were described between 2004 and 2016, with a number of the specie ...
,'' 3 species of ''
Haidomyrmex ''Haidomyrmex'' is an extinct genus of ants in the formicid subfamily Haidomyrmecinae, and is one of nine genera placed in the subfamily Haidomyrmecinae. The genus contains three described species ''Haidomyrmex cerberus'', ''Haidomyrmex scimit ...
'', '' Linguamyrmex vladi'', 2 species of ''
Zigrasimecia ''Zigrasimecia'' is an extinct genus of ants which existed in the Cretaceous period approximately 98 million years ago. The first specimens were collected from Burmese amber in Kachin State, west of Myitkyina town in Myanmar. In 2013, palaeo ...
'', '' Dhagnathos autokrator'', '' Chonidris insolita'', '' Aquilomyrmex huangi'', '' Protoceratomyrmex revelatus'' and '' Linguamyrmex brevicornis''. Other families include
Ampulicidae The Ampulicidae, or cockroach wasps, are a small (about 170 species), primarily tropical family of sphecoid wasps, all of which use various cockroaches as prey for their larvae. They tend to have elongated jaws, pronounced neck-like constrictions ...
,
Braconidae The Braconidae are a family of parasitoid wasps. After the closely related Ichneumonidae, braconids make up the second-largest family in the order Hymenoptera, with about 17,000 recognized species and many thousands more undescribed. One analysis ...
,
Cephidae Cephidae is a family of stem sawflies in the order Hymenoptera. There are about 27 genera and more than 160 described species in Cephidae. Genera These 27 genera belong to the family Cephidae: * '' Athetocephus'' Benson, 1935 * '' Australcep ...
,
Ceraphronidae The Ceraphronidae are a small hymenopteran family with 14 genera and some 360 known species, though a great many species are still undescribed. It is a poorly known group as a whole, though most are believed to be parasitoids (especially of f ...
,
Chalcididae The Chalcididae are a moderate-sized family within the Chalcidoidea, composed mostly of parasitoids and a few hyperparasitoids. The family is apparently polyphyletic, though the different subfamilies may each be monophyletic, and some may be elev ...
,
Chrysididae Commonly known as cuckoo wasps or emerald wasps, the hymenopteran family Chrysididae is a very large cosmopolitan group (over 3000 described species) of parasitoid or kleptoparasitic wasps, often highly sculptured, with brilliant metallic colors ...
,
Crabronidae The Crabronidae are a large paraphyletic group (nominally a family) of wasps, including nearly all of the species formerly comprising the now-defunct superfamily Sphecoidea. It collectively includes well over 200 genera, containing well over 9 ...
,
Diapriidae The Diapriidae are a family of parasitoid wasps. These tiny insects have an average length of 2–4 mm and never exceed 8 mm. They typically attack larvae and pupae of a wide range of insects, especially flies. The about 2,300 described ...
,
Dryinidae Dryinidae is a cosmopolitan family of solitary wasps. Its name comes from the Greek ''drys'' for oak: Latreille named the type genus ''Dryinus'' because the first species was collected in an oak plant in Spain. The larvae are parasitoids of the ...
,
Embolemidae Embolemidae is a family of small solitary parasitoid wasps with around 70 species in 2 genera distributed around the world.van Achterberg, Cornelis & Kats, R.. (2000). Revision of the Palaearctic Embolemidae (Hymenoptera). Zoöl. Med. 74 (2000), ...
,
Evaniidae Evaniidae is a family of parasitoid wasps also known as ensign wasps, nightshade wasps, hatchet wasps, or cockroach egg parasitoid wasps. They number around 20 extant genera containing over 400 described species, and are found all over the world e ...
,
Gasteruptiidae The Gasteruptiidae are one of the more distinctive families among the apocritan wasps, with surprisingly little variation in appearance for a group that contains around 500 species in two subfamilies ( Gasteruptiinae and Hyptiogastrinae) and wi ...
, Geoscelionidae,
Heloridae Heloridae is a family of wasps in the order Hymenoptera known primarily from fossils, and only one extant genus, '' Helorus'', with 12 species found worldwide. Members of ''Helorus'' are parasitic on green lacewings. Extant genera *'' Helorus'' ( ...
,
Ichneumonidae The Ichneumonidae, also known as the ichneumon wasps, Darwin wasps, or ichneumonids, are a family (biology), family of parasitoid wasps of the insect order Hymenoptera. They are one of the most diverse groups within the Hymenoptera with roughly 2 ...
,
Megalyridae Megalyroidea is a small hymenopteran superfamily of wasps that includes a single family, Megalyridae, with eight extant genera (plus around a dozen extinct ones) and 49 described species. Modern megalyrids are found primarily in the southern hem ...
,
Megaspilidae The Megaspilidae are a small hymenopteran family with 13 genera in two subfamilies, and some 450 known species, with a great many species still undescribed. It is a poorly known group as a whole, though most are believed to be parasitoids (espe ...
,
Mymaridae The Mymaridae, commonly known as fairyflies or fairy wasps, are a family (biology), family of chalcid wasp, chalcidoid wasps found in temperate and tropical regions throughout the world. The family contains around 100 genera with 1400 species. F ...
,
Mymarommatidae The Mymarommatidae, sometimes referred to as false fairy wasps. are a very small family of microscopic parasitic wasps. Only about half of the known species are living taxa (the others are fossils), but they are found worldwide.Gibson, G.A.P.; Re ...
,
Pelecinidae Pelecinidae is a family of parasitic wasps in the superfamily Proctotrupoidea. It contains only one living genus, '' Pelecinus'', with three species known from the Americas. The earliest fossil species are known from the Jurassic, and the group ...
,
Platygastridae The hymenopteran family Platygastridae (sometimes incorrectly spelled Platygasteridae) is a large group (over 4000 species) of exclusively parasitoid wasps, mostly very small (1–2 mm), black, and shining, with geniculate (elbowed) antennae ...
,
Rhopalosomatidae Rhopalosomatidae is a family of Hymenoptera containing about 68 extant species in four genera that are found worldwide. Three fossil genera are known. The adults resemble ants and may be confused with them. They are yellowish with red or brown m ...
. Rotoitidae,
Sapygidae The Sapygidae are a family of solitary kleptoparasitic aculeate wasps. They are generally black wasps, similar in appearance to some Tiphiidae or Thynnidae, with white or yellow markings developed to various degrees. The female oviposits her egg ...
,
Scelionidae The hymenopteran family Scelionidae is a very large cosmopolitan group (over 3000 described species in some 176 genera) of exclusively parasitoid wasps, mostly small (0.5–10 mm), often black, often highly sculptured, with (typically) elbowe ...
,
Sclerogibbidae The Sclerogibbidae are a small family of aculeate wasps in the superfamily Chrysidoidea. Overview Sclerogibbidae are ectoparasitoids of Embioptera. The female wasp oviposits an egg on the abdomen of a host. Once the larva emerges, it attaches i ...
,
Scolebythidae The Scolebythidae are a small family of aculeate wasps in the superfamily Chrysidoidea. These chrysidoid wasps are found in Africa, Australia, the Neotropics, north China, Thailand and Fiji. They are parasites on larvae of Cerambycidae and Ptini ...
,
Sepulcidae Sepulcidae is an extinct family of stem sawflies in the order Hymenoptera. The family is known primarily from late Mesozoic fossils found in 1968 in Transbaikalia. The insects were distant relatives of modern sawflies and are part of the living ...
,
Sierolomorphidae The Sierolomorphidae are a family of 13 extant species of wasps, in the genera ''Sierolomorpha'' and ''Proscleroderma'', mostly found in the Northern Hemisphere. They are rare and very little is known of their biology. A fossil species ''Loreisom ...
, Siricidae,
Sparasionidae Sparasionidae is a family of wasps in the superfamily Platygastroidea. Known species are parasitioids of the eggs of orthopterans. Taxonomy * '' Archaeoteleia'' Masner Burmese amber, Late Cretaceous ( Cenomanian) Baltic amber, Eocene The ...
,
Sphecidae The Sphecidae are a cosmopolitan family of wasps of the suborder Apocrita that includes sand wasps, mud daubers, and other thread-waisted wasps. The name Sphecidae was formerly given to a much larger grouping of wasps. This was found to be p ...
, Stephanidae,
Tiphiidae The Tiphiidae (also known as the tiphiid wasps) are a family of large, solitary wasps whose larvae are parasitoids of various beetle larvae, especially those in the superfamily Scarabaeoidea. Until recently, this family contained several additiona ...
,
Vespidae The Vespidae are a large (nearly 5000 species), diverse, cosmopolitan family of wasps, including nearly all the known eusocial wasps (such as ''Polistes fuscatus'', ''Vespa orientalis'', and ''Vespula germanica'') and many solitary wasps. Each ...
,
Xiphydriidae Xiphydriidae are a family of wood wasps that includes around 150 species. They are located all over the world including North and South America, Australia, Europe, and others. Xiphydriidae larvae are wood borers in dead trees or branches of a ran ...
, †
Angarosphecidae Angarosphecidae is an extinct family of Mesozoic and early Cenozoic wasps in the superfamily Apoidea. Genera * †'' Angarosphex'' Rasnitsyn 1975 Weald Clay, United Kingdom, Hauterivian/Barremian La Pedrera de Rúbies Formation, Spain, Barremi ...
, †
Aptenoperissidae ''Aptenoperissus'' is a genus of extinct wasp with eight described species, placed into the monotypic family Aptenoperissidae. The type species ''Aptenoperissus burmanicus'' resembles a mix between a grasshopper, an ant, and a wasp. It was descr ...
, † Bryopompilidae, † BurmorussidaeBurmusculidae, † Chrysobythidae, † Dipterommatidae, † Diversinitidae, † Falsiformicidae, †
Gallorommatidae The Gallorommatidae is an extinct family of microscopic parasitoid wasps, belonging to the Mymarommatoidea. It is known from several species found in Cretaceous aged amber.Engel, M.S.; Grimaldi, D.A. (2007) New false fairy wasps in Cretaceous amb ...
, † Ohlhoffiidae, † Panguidae, †
Plumalexiidae ''Plumalexius'' is a genus of wasps in the extinct monotypic family Plumalexiidae, containing two species: the type species ''Plumalexius rasnitsyni'', known from the Late Cretaceous White Oaks Pit in Sayreville, New Jersey, and ''Plumalexius ohm ...
, †
Maimetshidae Maimetshidae is an extinct family of wasps, known from the Cretaceous period.M. S. Engel. 2016A new genus and species of maimetshid wasps in Lebanese Early Cretaceous amber (Hymenoptera: Maimetshidae).''Novitates Paleoentomologicae'' 18:1-14 While ...
, † Myanmarinidae, † Othniodellithidae, † Peleserphidae, † Praeaulacidae, † Proterosceliopsidae, †
Serphitidae Serphitidae is a family of microscopic parasitic wasps known from the Cretaceous period. Taxonomy This family was described in 1937 by the American entomologist Charles Thomas Brues to classify a fossil insect caught in an amber piece from Cana ...
, †
Spathiopterygidae Spathiopterygidae is an extinct family of small parasitic wasps, known from the Cretaceous (Barremian to Santonian) of Laurasia and Northern Gondwana. They are suggested to be members of Diaprioidea, in part due to their similarly reduced wing v ...
, † Syspastoxyelidae and several ''incertae sedis'' taxa.


= Dipterans

= Over forty families of
dipterans Flies are insects of the order Diptera, the name being derived from the Greek δι- ''di-'' "two", and πτερόν ''pteron'' "wing". Insects of this order use only a single pair of wings to fly, the hindwings having evolved into advanced m ...
are known from the Burmese amber, including:
Acroceridae The Acroceridae are a small family (biology), family of odd-looking flies. They have a hump-backed appearance with a strikingly small head, generally with a long proboscis for accessing nectar. They are rare and not widely known. The most frequen ...
,
Anisopodidae The Anisopodidae are a small cosmopolitan family of gnat-like flies known as wood gnats or window-gnats, with 154 described extant species in 15 genera, and several described fossil taxa. Some species are saprophagous or fungivorous. They are mo ...
,
Apsilocephalidae Apsilocephalidae is a family of flies in the superfamily Asiloidea. It was historically treated as a subfamily within Therevidae, but placed in a separate family in 1991, and subsequently recognized as more distantly related. The family contains ...
,
Apystomyiidae Apystomyiidae is a small family (biology), family of fly, flies containing the living genus ''Apystomyia'' and the extinct genera ''Apystomimus'' and ''Hilarimorphites''. The single living Apystomyiidae species, ''Apystomyia elinguis'', is native ...
,
Asilidae The Asilidae are the robber fly family, also called assassin flies. They are powerfully built, bristly flies with a short, stout proboscis enclosing the sharp, sucking hypopharynx. The name "robber flies" reflects their notoriously aggressive pre ...
, Atelestidae,
Blephariceridae The Blephariceridae, commonly known as net-winged midges, are a nematoceran family (biology), family in the order Fly, Diptera. The adults resemble tipulidae, crane flies except with a projecting anal angle in the wings, and different head shape, ...
,
Bombyliidae The Bombyliidae are a family of flies, commonly known as bee flies. Adults generally feed on nectar and pollen, some being important pollinators. Larvae are mostly parasitoids of other insects. Overview The Bombyliidae are a large family of fl ...
,
Cecidomyiidae Cecidomyiidae is a family of flies known as gall midges or gall gnats. As the name implies, the larvae of most gall midges feed within plant tissue, creating abnormal plant growths called galls. Cecidomyiidae are very fragile small insects usu ...
,
Ceratopogonidae Ceratopogonidae is a family of flies commonly known as no-see-ums, or biting midges, generally in length. The family includes more than 5,000 species, distributed worldwide, apart from the Antarctic and the Arctic. Ceratopogonidae are holomet ...
,
Chaoboridae Chaoboridae, commonly known as phantom midges or glassworms, is a family of fairly common midges with a cosmopolitan distribution. They are closely related to the Corethrellidae and Chironomidae; the adults are differentiated through peculiarit ...
,
Chironomidae The Chironomidae (informally known as chironomids, nonbiting midges, or lake flies) comprise a family of nematoceran flies with a global distribution. They are closely related to the Ceratopogonidae, Simuliidae, and Thaumaleidae. Many species ...
,
Corethrellidae Corethrellidae are a family of biting midges, small flying insects belonging to the order Diptera, females of which feed on the blood of frogs. The members of the family are sometimes known as frog-biting midges. The family currently consists of ...
,
Culicidae Mosquitoes (or mosquitos) are members of a group of almost 3,600 species of small flies within the family Culicidae (from the Latin ''culex'' meaning "gnat"). The word "mosquito" (formed by ''mosca'' and diminutive ''-ito'') is Spanish for "litt ...
,
Diadocidiidae The Diadocidiidae are a family of flies (Diptera), containing one extant genus with over 20 species and one extinct genus. Diadocidiidae are found worldwide, except in Africa and Antarctica. They are usually considered close to the Keroplatidae, B ...
,
Dolichopodidae Dolichopodidae, the long-legged flies, are a large, cosmopolitan family of true flies with more than 7,000 described species in about 230 genera. The genus ''Dolichopus'' is the most speciose, with some 600 species. Dolichopodidae generally are ...
,
Empididae __NOTOC__ Empididae is a family of flies with over 3,000 described species occurring worldwide in all the biogeographic realms but the majority are found in the Holarctic. They are mainly predatory flies like most of their relatives in the Empid ...
, Hybotidae, Ironomyiidae,
Keroplatidae The Keroplatidae are a family of small fly, flies known as fungus gnats. About 950 species are described, but the true number of species is undoubtedly much higher. They are generally forest dwellers found in the damp habitats favoured by their h ...
, Limoniidae,
Lygistorrhinidae Lygistorrhinidae is a family of long-beaked fungus gnats in the order Diptera. There are about 7 genera and at least 30 described species in Lygistorrhinidae. Genera *†'' Archaeognoriste'' Blagoderov & Grimaldi, 2004 *'' Asiorrhina'' Bl ...
,
Mycetophilidae The Mycetophilidae are a family of small flies, forming the bulk of those species known as fungus gnats. About 3000 described species are placed in 150 genera, but the true number of species is undoubtedly much higher. They are generally found ...
,
Mythicomyiidae Mythicomyiidae, commonly called mythicomyiids, are very tiny flies (0.5–5.0 mm) found throughout most parts of the world, especially desert and semi-desert regions, except the highest altitudes and latitudes. They are not as common in the t ...
,
Nemestrinidae Nemestrinidae, or tangle-veined flies is a family of flies in the superfamily Nemestrinoidea, closely related to Acroceridae. The family is small but distributed worldwide, with about 300 species in 34 genera. Larvae are endoparasitoids of eithe ...
,
Phoridae The Phoridae are a family of small, hump-backed flies resembling fruit flies. Phorid flies can often be identified by their escape habit of running rapidly across a surface rather than taking to the wing. This behaviour is a source of one of thei ...
,
Pipunculidae Pipunculidae is a family of flies (Diptera) commonly termed big-headed flies, a reference to the large ( holoptic) eyes, which cover nearly the entire head. The family is found worldwide and more than 1300 species have been described. The larva ...
,
Platypezidae Platypezidae is a family (biology), family of Fly, true flies of the Taxonomic rank, superfamily Platypezoidea. The more than 250 species are Cosmopolitan distribution, found worldwide primarily in woodland habitats. A common name is flat-foote ...
,
Psychodidae Psychodidae, called drain flies, sink flies, filter flies, sewer flies, or sewer gnats, is a family of true flies. Some genera have short, hairy bodies and wings giving them a "furry" moth-like appearance, hence one of their common names, moth f ...
,
Ptychopteridae The Ptychopteridae, phantom crane flies, are a small family (three extant genera) of nematocerous Diptera. Superficially similar in appearance to other "tipuloid" families, they lack the ocelli of the Trichoceridae, the five-branched radial vein ...
, Rachiceridae,
Rhagionidae Rhagionidae or snipe flies are a small family of flies. They get their name from the similarity of their often prominent proboscis that looks like the beak of a snipe. Description Rhagionidae are medium-sized to large flies with slender bodies a ...
,
Scatopsidae __NOTOC__ The minute black scavenger flies or "dung midges", are a family, Scatopsidae, of nematoceran flies. Despite being distributed throughout the world, they form a small family with only around 250 described species in 27 genera, although m ...
,
Sciaridae The Sciaridae are a family of flies, commonly known as dark-winged fungus gnats. Commonly found in moist environments, they are known to be a pest of mushroom farms and are commonly found in household plant pots. This is one of the least studie ...
,
Stratiomyidae The soldier flies (Stratiomyidae, sometimes misspelled as Stratiomyiidae, from Greek - soldier; - fly) are a family of flies (historically placed in the now-obsolete group Orthorrhapha). The family contains over 2,700 species in over 380 extan ...
,
Tabanidae Horse-flies or horseflies are true flies in the family Tabanidae in the insect order Diptera. They are often large and agile in flight, and only the female horseflies bite animals, including humans, to obtain blood. They prefer to fly in s ...
,
Tanyderidae Tanyderidae, sometimes called primitive crane flies, are long, thin, delicate flies with spotted wings, superficially similar in appearance to some Tipulidae, Trichoceridae, and Ptychopteridae. Most species are restricted in distribution. They ...
,
Tipulidae Crane fly is a common name referring to any member of the insect family (biology), family Tipulidae. Cylindrotominae, Limoniinae, and Pediciinae have been ranked as subfamilies of Tipulidae by most authors, though occasionally elevated to family ...
,
Valeseguyidae Valeseguyidae is a family of flies, belonging to Scatopsoidea. It contains only one known extant species, ''Valeseguya rieki'', known from a single male specimen found in Victoria, Australia, described in 1990. It was initially classified as a me ...
,
Xylomyidae Xylomyidae is a family of flies known commonly as the wood soldier flies. They are xylophagous and are associated with dead or dying wood. Description For terms see Morphology of Diptera. These flies are 4 to 14 millimeters long. Their colorat ...
, †
Archizelmiridae Archizelmiridae is an extinct family of flies, known from the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. It belongs to the Sciaroidea, and has suggested to have a close relationship with Sciaridae. Genera * '' Archimelzira'' Grimaldi et al. 2003 New J ...
, † Chimeromyiidae, †
Eremochaetidae Eremochaetidae is an extinct family of brachyceran flies known from the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods of Asia. It is part of the extinct superfamily Archisargoidea. The morphology of the ovipositor of the only 3 dimensionally preserved genus '' ...
, † Eucaudomyiidae, † Mysteromyiidae, † Rhagionemestriidae, † Tethepomyiidae, †
Zhangsolvidae Zhangsolvidae is an extinct family of brachyceran Fly, flies known from the Cretaceous period. Members of the family possess a long proboscis, varying in length between 1.3 and 7 mm depending on the species, and were probably nectarivores. A ...
and several ''incertae sedis'' taxa.


= Coleopterans

= Over ninety families of
coleopterans Beetles are insects that form the order Coleoptera (), in the superorder Endopterygota. Their front pair of wings are hardened into wing-cases, elytra, distinguishing them from most other insects. The Coleoptera, with about 400,000 describe ...
are known from the Burmese amber, including:
Aderidae The Aderidae, sometimes called ant-like leaf beetles, are a family of beetles that bear some resemblance to ants. The family consists of about 1,000 species in about 40 genera, of which most are tropical, although overall distribution is worldwid ...
,
Anthicidae The Anthicidae are a family of beetles that resemble ants. They are sometimes called ant-like flower beetles or ant-like beetles. The family comprises over 3,500 species in about 100 genera. Description Their heads constrict just in front of ...
,
Anthribidae Anthribidae is a family of beetles also known as fungus weevils. The antennae are not elbowed, may occasionally be longer than the body and thread-like, and can be the longest of any members of Curculionoidea. As in the Nemonychidae, the labrum ...
, † Apotomouridae,
Belidae Belidae is a family of weevils, called belids or primitive weevils because they have straight antennae, unlike the "true weevils" or Curculionidae which have geniculate (elbowed) antennae. They are sometimes known as "cycad weevils", but this pro ...
,
Boganiidae Boganiidae is a family of beetles, in the superfamily Cucujoidea. Members of the family are found in southern Africa, Australia and New Caledonia. Adults and larvae are pollenivorous, feeding on the pollen of cycads and flowering plants of the f ...
,
Bostrichidae The Bostrichidae are a family of beetles with more than 700 described species. They are commonly called auger beetles, false powderpost beetles, or horned powderpost beetles. The head of most auger beetles cannot be seen from above, as it is down ...
,
Brachypsectridae The Brachypsectridae are a family of beetles commonly known as the Texas beetles. There are only two extant genera, '' Brachypsectra'' and '' Asiopsectra. Brachypsectra'' has a cosmopolitan distribution, mostly in arid regions, while ''Asiopsectr ...
,
Buprestidae Buprestidae is a family of beetles known as jewel beetles or metallic wood-boring beetles because of their glossy iridescent colors. Larvae of this family are known as flatheaded borers. The family is among the largest of the beetles, with some ...
,
Cantharidae The soldier beetles (Cantharidae) are relatively soft-bodied, straight-sided beetles. They are cosmopolitan in distribution. One of the first described species has a color pattern reminiscent of the Red coat (British army), red coats of early Bri ...
,
Carabidae Ground beetles are a large, cosmopolitan family of beetles, the Carabidae, with more than 40,000 species worldwide, around 2,000 of which are found in North America and 2,700 in Europe. As of 2015, it is one of the 10 most species-rich animal fami ...
,
Caridae Caridae is a small Gondwanan family of weevils. They are considered part of the primitive weevil group, because they have straight rather than geniculate (elbowed) antennae. The insertion of the antennae on the rostrum cannot be seen from above. ...
,
Cerambycidae The longhorn beetles (Cerambycidae), also known as long-horned or longicorns, are a large family of beetles, with over 35,000 species described. Most species are characterized by extremely long antennae, which are often as long as or longer than ...
,
Cerophytidae The Cerophytidae are a family of beetles belonging to Elateroidea. Larvae are associated with rotting wood, on which they are presumed to feed.Costa, Cleide, Vanin, Sergio A., Lawrence, John F. and Ide, Sergio. "4.4. Cerophytidae Latreille, 1834" ...
, Cerylonidae,
Chrysomelidae The insects of the beetle family Chrysomelidae are commonly known as leaf beetles, and include over 37,000 (and probably at least 50,000) species in more than 2,500 genera, making up one of the largest and most commonly encountered of all beetle ...
,
Ciidae The minute tree-fungus beetles, family (biology), family Ciidae, are a sizeable group of beetles which inhabit Polyporales bracket fungi or coarse woody debris. Most numerous in warmer regions, they are nonetheless widespread and a considerable n ...
,
Clambidae Clambidae is a family of beetles. They are known commonly as the minute beetlesMajka, C. G., & Langor, D. (2009)Clambidae (Coleoptera) of Atlantic Canada.''Journal of the Acadian Entomological Society'' 5(7), 32-40. or the fringe-winged beetles.< ...
,
Cleridae Cleridae are a family of beetles of the superfamily Cleroidea. They are commonly known as checkered beetles. The family Cleridae has a worldwide distribution, and a variety of habitats and feeding preferences. Cleridae have many niches and fe ...
,
Cucujidae The Cucujidae, "flat bark beetles," are a family of distinctively flat beetles found worldwide (except Africa and Antarctica) under the bark of dead trees. The family has received considerable taxonomic attention in recent years and now consists ...
,
Cupedidae The Cupedidae are a small family of beetles, notable for the square pattern of "windows" on their elytra (hard forewings), which give the family their common name of reticulated beetles. The family consists of about 30 species in 9 genera, with ...
,
Curculionidae The Curculionidae are a family of weevils, commonly called snout beetles or true weevils. They are one of the largest animal families, with 6,800 genera and 83,000 species described worldwide. They are the sister group to the family Brentidae. T ...
,
Cyclaxyridae Cyclaxyridae are a family of beetles in the superfamily Cucujoidea. The only living genus is ''Cyclaxyra'', with two species endemic to New Zealand. Other species have been named from fossils. They are also known as sooty mould beetles due to the ...
,
Dascillidae Dascillidae is a family of beetles within the clade Elateriformia. There are about 100 extant species in 11 genera, which are found worldwide. Dascillidae together with Rhipiceridae form the super family Dascilloidea. Taxonomy The family was na ...
,
Dermestidae Dermestidae are a family of Coleoptera that are commonly referred to as skin beetles. Other common names include larder beetle, hide or leather beetles, carpet beetles, and khapra beetles. There are over 1,100 species described. Dermestids have ...
,
Dytiscidae The Dytiscidae – based on the Greek ''dytikos'' (δυτικός), "able to dive" – are the predaceous diving beetles, a family of water beetles. They occur in virtually any freshwater habitat around the world, but a few species live a ...
,
Elateridae Elateridae or click beetles (or "typical click beetles" to distinguish them from the related families Cerophytidae and Eucnemidae, which are also capable of clicking) are a family of beetles. Other names include elaters, snapping beetles, spr ...
,
Elmidae Elmidae, commonly known as riffle beetles, is a family (biology), family of beetles in the superfamily Byrrhoidea described by John Curtis (entomologist), John Curtis in 1830. Both adults and larvae are usually aquatic, living under rocks in fas ...
,
Endomychidae Endomychidae, or handsome fungus beetles, is a family of beetles with representatives found in all biogeographic realms. There are around 120 genera and 1300 species. The family was established based on the type genus '' Endomychus'', a genus ere ...
,
Eucinetidae Eucinetidae is a family of beetles, notable for their large coxal plates that cover much of the first ventrite of the abdomen, sometimes called plate-thigh beetles. The family is small for beetles, with about 50 species in 11 genera, but are ...
,
Eucnemidae Eucnemidae, or false click beetles, are a family of elateroid beetles including about 1700 species distributed worldwide. Description Closely related to the family Elateridae, specimens of Eucnemidae can reach a length of . Bodies are slightl ...
,
Geotrupidae Geotrupidae (from Greek γῆ ''(gē)'', earth, and τρῡπητής ''(trȳpētēs)'', borer) is a family of beetles in the order Coleoptera. They are commonly called earth-boring dung beetles or dor beetles. Most excavate burrows in which ...
,
Glaresidae ''Glaresis'' is a genus of beetles, sometimes called "Enigmatic scarab beetles", in its own family, the Glaresidae. It is closely related to, and was formerly included in, the family Scarabaeidae. Although its members occur in arid and sandy area ...
,
Gyrinidae The whirligig beetles are water beetles, comprising the family Gyrinidae that usually swim on the surface of the water if undisturbed, though they swim underwater when threatened. They get their common name from their habit of swimming rapidly i ...
,
Heteroceridae Heteroceridae, the variegated mud-loving beetles, are a widespread and relatively common family of beetles found on every continent except for Antarctica. Around two hundred and fifty species of heterocerids are known to occur worldwide. They a ...
,
Histeridae Histeridae is a family of beetles commonly known as clown beetles or Hister beetles. This very diverse group of beetles contains 3,900 species found worldwide. They can be easily identified by their shortened elytra that leaves two of the seven t ...
,
Hybosoridae Hybosoridae, sometimes known as the scavenger scarab beetles, is a family of scarabaeiform beetles. The 690 species in 97 genera occur widely in the tropics, but little is known of their biology. Hybosorids are small, 5–7 mm in length a ...
,
Hydraenidae Hydraenidae is a family of very small aquatic beetles, sometimes called "Minute moss beetles", with a worldwide distribution. They are around 0.8 to 3.3 mm in length. The adults store air on the underside of the body as well as beneath the el ...
,
Hydrophilidae Hydrophilidae, also known colloquially as water scavenger beetles, is a family of beetles. Aquatic hydrophilids are notable for their long maxillary palps, which are longer than their antennae. Several of the former subfamilies of Hydrophilidae ...
,
Jacobsoniidae Jacobsoniidae are a family of tiny beetles belonging to Staphylinoidea. The larvae and adults live under bark, in plant litter, fungi, bat guano and rotten wood. There are around 28 described species in three genera: Description Members of this ...
,
Kateretidae Kateretidae also known as short-winged flower beetles are a family of beetles in the superfamily Cucujoidea. There are 10 extant and 4 extinct genera, and at least 40 described species. They are found worldwide except in New Zealand. Adults are a ...
,
Laemophloeidae Laemophloeidae, "lined flat bark beetles," is a family in the superfamily Cucujoidea characterized by predominantly dorso-ventrally compressed bodies, head and pronotal discs bordered by ridges or grooves, and inverted male genitalia. Size range ...
,
Lampyridae The Lampyridae are a family (biology), family of Elateroidea, elateroid beetles with more than 2,000 described species, many of which are bioluminescence, light-emitting. They are soft-bodied beetles commonly called fireflies, lightning bugs, ...
,
Latridiidae Latridiidae (sometimes spelled "Lathridiidae") is a family of tiny, little-known beetles commonly called minute brown scavenger beetles or fungus beetles. The number of described species currently stands at around 1050 in 29 genera but the number ...
,
Leiodidae Leiodidae is a family of beetles with around 3800 described species found worldwide. Members of this family are commonly called round fungus beetles due to the globular shape of many species, although some are more elongated in shape. They are g ...
,
Lepiceridae ''Lepicerus'' is a genus of myxophagan beetles containing three described species in the family Lepiceridae; it is the only extant genus in the family, with another genus, '' Lepiceratus'' only known from fossils.Jałoszyński, Paweł; Luo, Xiao- ...
,
Lucanidae Stag beetles are a family of about 1,200 species of beetles in the family Lucanidae, currently classified in four subfamilies.Smith, A.B.T. (2006). A review of the family-group names for the superfamily Scarabaeoidea (Coleoptera) with corrections ...
,
Lycidae The Lycidae are a family in the beetle order Coleoptera, members of which are commonly called net-winged beetles. These beetles are cosmopolitan, being found in Nearctic, Palearctic, Neotropical, Afrotropical, Oriental, and Australian ecoregions ...
,
Lymexylidae The Lymexylidae (historically often spelled Lymexylonidae), also known as ship-timber beetles, are a family of wood-boring beetles. Lymexylidae belong to the suborder Polyphaga and are the sole member of the superfamily Lymexyloidea. Habitat a ...
,
Melandryidae Melandryidae is a family of beetles in the superfamily Tenebrionoidea. Members of the family are found worldwide, with around 420 species in 60 genera. Larvae and adults are generally associated with rotting wood and wood-decomposing fungi. Ge ...
,
Meloidae Blister beetles are beetles of the family Meloidae, so called for their defensive secretion of a blistering agent, cantharidin. About 7,500 species are known worldwide. Many are conspicuous and some are aposematically colored, announcing their ...
,
Melyridae Melyridae (common name: soft-winged flower beetles) are a family of beetles of the superfamily Cleroidea. Description Most are elongate-oval, soft-bodied beetles 10 mm long or less. Many are brightly patterned in black and brown, yellow, ...
, †
Mesophyletidae Mesophyletidae is an extinct family of weevils known from a number of genera preserved in Cretaceous amber. The family was first described as a subfamily in the Extant taxon, extant family Caridae, and subsequently raised to family status in 201 ...
, Micromalthidae,
Monotomidae Monotomidae is a family of beetles in the superfamily Cucujoidea. The family is found worldwide, with approximately 240 species in 33 genera. The ecological habits of the family are diverse, with different members of the group being found under t ...
,
Mordellidae The Mordellidae are a family of beetles commonly known as tumbling flower beetles for the typical irregular movements they make when escaping predators, or as pintail beetles due to their abdominal tip which aids them in performing these tumbling ...
, †
Mysteriomorphidae ''Mysteriomorphus'' is an extinct genus of beetle, and the only member of the family Mysteriomorphidae. It is known from one described species, ''Mysteriomorphus pelevini'' found in Burmese amber, dating to the early part of the Cenomanian stage ...
,
Nemonychidae Nemonychidae is a small family of weevils, placed within the ''primitive weevil'' group because they have straight rather than geniculate (elbowed) antennae. They are often called pine flower weevils. As in the Anthribidae, the labrum appears as ...
,
Nitidulidae The sap beetles, also known as Nitidulidae, are a family (biology), family of beetles. They are small (2–6 mm) ovoid, usually dull-coloured beetles, with knobbed antenna (biology), antennae. Some have red or yellow spots or bands. They fe ...
,
Oedemeridae The family Oedemeridae is a cosmopolitan group of beetles commonly known as false blister beetles, though some recent authors have coined the name pollen-feeding beetles. There are some 100 genera and 1,500 species in the family, mostly associate ...
,
Ommatidae The Ommatidae are a family of beetles in the suborder Archostemata. The Ommatidae are considered the extant beetle family that has most ancestral characteristics. There are only seven extant species, confined to Australia and South America. How ...
,
Passalidae Passalidae is a family of beetles known variously as "bessbugs", "bess beetles", "betsy beetles" or "horned passalus beetles". Nearly all of the 500-odd species are tropical; species found in North America are notable for their size, ranging fro ...
, † Parandrexidae, † Passalopalpidae, Passandridae, Phloeostichidae,
Prostomidae Prostomidae is a family of beetles with no vernacular common name, though recent authors have coined the name jugular-horned beetles. They are often found in dead wood. The family consist of two extant genera with about 20 species. '' Prostomis a ...
,
Psephenidae Water-penny beetles are a family (the Psephenidae) of 272 species (in 35 genera) of aquatic beetles found on all continents except Antarctica, in both tropical and temperate areas. The young, which live in water, resemble tiny pennies. The larv ...
,
Ptiliidae Ptiliidae is a family of very tiny beetles with a cosmopolitan distribution. This family contains the smallest of all beetles, with a length when fully grown of . The weight is approximately 0.4 milligrams. They are colloquially called feat ...
,
Ptinidae Ptinidae is a family of beetles in the superfamily Bostrichoidea. There are at least 220 genera and 2,200 described species in Ptinidae worldwide. The family includes spider beetles and deathwatch beetles. The Ptinidae family species are hard ...
,
Ptilodactylidae Ptilodactylidae is a family of beetles belonging to the Elateriformia. There around 500 extant species in 35 genera. They are generally associated with riparian and aquatic habitats. The larvae generally live associated with rotting wood or veg ...
,
Ripiphoridae Ripiphoridae (formerly spelled Rhipiphoridae) is a cosmopolitan family of some 450 described species of beetles sometimes called "wedge-shaped beetles". Ripiphoridae are unusual among beetle families in that many species are hypermetamorphic pa ...
,
Salpingidae Salpingidae or narrow-waisted bark beetles is a family of beetles in the superfamily Tenebrionoidea. The species are small, about 1.5 – 7 mm in length. The family is globally distributed and consists of about 45 genera and 300 species, w ...
,
Scarabaeidae The family Scarabaeidae, as currently defined, consists of over 30,000 species of beetles worldwide; they are often called scarabs or scarab beetles. The classification of this family has undergone significant change in recent years. Several sub ...
,
Scirtidae Scirtidae is a family of beetles ( Coleoptera). These beetles are commonly referred to as marsh beetles, as the larvae are typically associated with stagnant water, but can be found in flowing water. Adults prefer decomposing plant material nea ...
, Scraptiidae,
Silphidae Silphidae is a family of beetles that are known commonly as large carrion beetles, carrion beetles or burying beetles. There are two subfamilies: Silphinae and Nicrophorinae. Nicrophorines are sometimes known as sexton beetles. The number of sp ...
,
Silvanidae Silvanidae, "silvan flat bark beetles", is a family of beetles in the superfamily Cucujoidea,Thomas, M. C., and R.A. B. Leschen. 2010. Silvanidae Kirby, 1837. p. 346-350. In: Leschen, R.A.B., R.G. Beutel, and J.F. Lawrence. Coleoptera, Beetles. Vo ...
, Smicripidae,
Sphaeriusidae ''Sphaerius'' is a genus of beetles, comprising 23 species, which are the only living members of the family Sphaeriusidae. They are typically found along the edges of streams and rivers, where they feed on algae; they occur on all continents ex ...
,
Staphylinidae The rove beetles are a family (Staphylinidae) of beetles, primarily distinguished by their short elytra (wing covers) that typically leave more than half of their abdominal segments exposed. With roughly 63,000 species in thousands of genera, the ...
,
Tenebrionidae Darkling beetle is the common name for members of the beetle family Tenebrionidae. The number of species in the Tenebrionidae is estimated at more than 20,000 and the family is cosmopolitan in distribution. Taxonomy ''Tenebrio'' is the Latin gen ...
,
Tetratomidae Tetratomidae is a small family of beetles sometimes called polypore fungus beetles. The family consists of several genera, most of which used to be in the family Melandryidae. Tetratomidae can be found worldwide. Their food consists of fruiti ...
,
Thanerocleridae Thanerocleridae is a family of beetles belonging to the superfamily Cleroidea. It was formerly considered a subfamily of Cleridae, but was recently elevated to the rank of family. The family has 36 living species in 10 genera, which are found glo ...
,
Throscidae Throscidae is a family of elateroid beetles found worldwide (except New Zealand) with around 150 species in 5 extant genera. The larvae are soil-dwelling, siphoning fluid from mycorrhizae attached to trees. The adults are short-lived, with the ...
,
Trogidae Trogidae, sometimes called hide beetles, is a family of beetles with a distinctive warty or bumpy appearance. Found worldwide, the family includes about 300 species contained in four or five genera. Trogids range in length from 2 to 20 mm. Thei ...
,
Trogossitidae Trogossitidae, also known as bark-gnawing beetles, are a small family in the superfamily Cleroidea. Many taxa formerly within this family have been removed (as of 2019) to other families, such as Lophocateridae, Peltidae, Protopeltidae, Rentoni ...
and
Zopheridae The Zopheridae family of beetles has grown considerably in recent years as the members of two other families have been included within its circumscription; these former families are the Monommatidae and the Colydiidae, which are now both incl ...
.


= Neuroptera

= Over twenty families of
neuroptera The insect order Neuroptera, or net-winged insects, includes the lacewings, mantidflies, antlions, and their relatives. The order consists of some 6,000 species. Neuroptera can be grouped together with the Megaloptera and Raphidioptera in th ...
ns are known from the Burmese amber, including: † Araripeneuridae,
Ascalaphidae Ascalaphidae is a family of insects in the order Neuroptera, commonly called owlflies; there are some 450 extant species. They are fast-flying crepuscular or diurnal predators of other flying insects, and have large bulging eyes and strongly ...
, †
Babinskaiidae Babinskaiidae is an extinct family of neuropterans known from the Cretaceous period. They are part of the superfamily Myrmeleontoidea. Their distinguishing characters include: "long filiform antennae, narrowly elongated wings, with features suc ...
,
Berothidae The Berothidae are a family of winged insects of the order Neuroptera. They are known commonly as the beaded lacewings. The family was first named by Anton Handlirsch in 1906. The family consists of 24 genera and 110 living species distributed ...
,
Chrysopidae Green lacewings are insects in the large family Chrysopidae of the order Neuroptera. There are about 85 genera and (differing between sources) 1,300–2,000 species in this widespread group. Members of the genera '' Chrysopa'' and '' Chrysoperl ...
,
Coniopterygidae The dustywings, Coniopterygidae, are a family of Pterygota (winged insects) of the net-winged insect order ( Neuroptera). About 460 living species are known.Engel & Grimaldi (2007) These tiny insects can usually be determined to genus with a han ...
, † Corydasialidae,
Dilaridae Dilaridae is a family of Euneuropteran insects in the order Neuroptera, known as "pleasing lacewings". They were formerly placed in the paraphyletic superfamily Hemerobioidea, though the group is currently placed in the monophyletic superfamily ...
, † Dipteromantispidae,
Hemerobiidae Hemerobiidae is a family of Neuropteran insects commonly known as brown lacewings, comprising about 500 species in 28 genera. Most are yellow to dark brown, but some species are green. They are small; most have forewings 4–10 mm long (som ...
,
Ithonidae Ithonidae, commonly called moth lacewings and giant lacewings, is a small family of winged insects of the insect order Neuroptera. The family contains a total of ten living genera, and over a dozen extinct genera described from fossils. The mod ...
,
Kalligrammatidae Kalligrammatidae, sometimes known as kalligrammatids or kalligrammatid lacewings, is a family of extinct insects in the order Neuroptera (lacewings) that contains twenty genera and a number of species. The family lived from the Middle Jurassic t ...
,
Mantispidae Mantispidae, known commonly as mantidflies, mantispids, mantid lacewings, mantisflies or mantis-flies, is a family of small to moderate-sized insects in the order Neuroptera. There are many genera with around 400 species worldwide, especially in ...
, † Mesochrysopidae,
Myrmeleontidae The antlions are a group of about 2,000 species of insect in the neuropteran family Myrmeleontidae. They are known for the predatory habits of their larvae, which mostly dig pits to trap passing ants or other prey. In North America, the larvae ...
,
Nemopteridae Nemopteridae, the spoonwings, are a family of neuropteran insects. They are also called thread-winged antlions. They are found in the Ethiopian, Palearctic, Australasian and Neotropical realms but absent in North America (though a fossil has been ...
,
Nevrorthidae The Nevrorthidae, (often incorrectly spelled "Neurorthidae"), are a small family of winged insects of the order Neuroptera. Extant species may be described as living fossils. There are 19 extant species in four genera, with a geographically di ...
,
Nymphidae Nymphidae, sometimes called split-footed lacewings, are a family of winged insects of the order Neuroptera. There are 35 extant species native to Australia and New Guinea. Nymphidae stand somewhat apart from other living Myrmeleontoidea. The ...
,
Osmylidae Osmylidae are a small family of winged insects of the net-winged insect order Neuroptera. The osmylids, also called lance lacewings, stream lacewings or giant lacewings, are found all over the world. There are around 225 extant species. Descr ...
,
Psychopsidae Psychopsidae is a family of winged insects of the order Neuroptera. They are commonly called silky lacewings. The silky lacewings are distinguishable in their adult stage by their spectacularly patterned and pubescent wings, broad wing shape, d ...
, Rachiberothidae,
Sisyridae Sisyridae, commonly known as spongeflies or spongillaflies, are a family of winged insects in the order Neuroptera. There are approximately 60 living species described, and several extinct species identified from the fossil record. Description ...
and several ''incertae sedis'' taxa.


= Hemiptera

= Over sixty families of
hemiptera Hemiptera (; ) is an order (biology), order of insects, commonly called true bugs, comprising over 80,000 species within groups such as the cicadas, aphids, planthoppers, leafhoppers, Reduviidae, assassin bugs, Cimex, bed bugs, and shield bugs. ...
ns are known from the Burmese amber, including:
Achilidae Achilidae is a family of achilid planthoppers in the order Hemiptera Hemiptera (; ) is an order (biology), order of insects, commonly called true bugs, comprising over 80,000 species within groups such as the cicadas, aphids, planthoppers, le ...
, †
Albicoccidae ''Albicoccus'' is an extinct genus of scale insect in the extinct monotypic family Albicoccidae, containing a single species, ''Albicoccus dimai''. The genus is solely known from the Albian - Cenomanian Burmese amber deposits. History and class ...
,
Aleyrodidae Whiteflies are Hemipterans that typically feed on the undersides of plant leaves. They comprise the family Aleyrodidae, the only family in the superfamily Aleyrodoidea. More than 1550 species have been described. Description and taxonomy The A ...
,
Aphrophoridae The Aphrophoridae or spittlebugs are a family of insects belonging to the order Hemiptera. There are at least 160 genera and 990 described species in Aphrophoridae. European genera * ''Aphrophora'' Germar 1821 * ''Lepyronia'' Amyot & Serville ...
,
Aradidae Aradidae is a family of flat bugs, and a member of true bugs (Heteroptera). The common name for these insects refers to their dorsoventrally flattened bodies. With few exceptions, these cryptic insects are of no economic importance. This famil ...
, † Berstidae, †
Burmacoccidae ''Burmacoccus'' is an extinct genus of scale insect in the extinct monotypic family Burmacoccidae, containing a single species, ''Burmacoccus danyi''. The genus is solely known from the Albian – Cenomanian Burmese amber deposits. History a ...
, † Burmitaphidae, Callaphididae,
Cercopidae Cercopidae are the largest family of Cercopoidea, a xylem-feeding insect group, commonly called froghoppers or spittlebugs. They belong to the hemipteran suborder Auchenorrhyncha. Genera A-C *'' Abidama'' *'' Aeneolamia'' *†'' Allocerco ...
, Cicadellidae,
Cicadidae Cicadidae, the true cicadas, is the largest family of cicadas, with more than 3,200 species worldwide. The oldest known definitive fossils are from the Paleocene, a nymph from the Cretaceous Burmese amber has been attributed to the family, but co ...
,
Cimicidae The Cimicidae are a family of small parasitic bugs that feed exclusively on the blood of warm-blooded animals. They are called cimicids or, loosely, bed bugs, though the latter term properly refers to the most famous member of the family, ''C ...
,
Cixiidae The Cixiidae are a family of Fulgoroidea, fulgoroid insects, one of many families commonly known as planthoppers, distributed worldwide and comprising more than 2,000 species from over 150 Genus (biology), genera. The genera are placed into thre ...
,
Coccidae The Coccidae are a family of scale insects belonging to the superfamily Coccoidea. They are commonly known as soft scales, wax scales or tortoise scales. The females are flat with elongated oval bodies and a smooth integument which may be cover ...
,
Coreidae Coreidae is a large family of predominantly sap-sucking insects in the Hemipteran suborder Heteroptera. The name "Coreidae" derives from the genus ''Coreus'', which derives from the Ancient Greek () meaning bedbug. As a family, the Coreidae a ...
,
Cydnidae Cydnidae are a family of pentatomoid bugs, known by common names including burrowing bugs or burrower bugs. As the common name would suggest, many members of the group live a subterranean lifestyle, burrowing into soil using their head and forel ...
,
Dictyopharidae Dictyopharidae is a family of planthoppers, related to the Fulgoridae. The family comprises nearly 760 species in more than 150 genera which are grouped into two subfamilies, Dictyopharinae and Orgeriinae. Description Like all other fulgoroi ...
, †
Dinglidae Dinglidae is an extinct family of hemipteran insects belonging to the suborder Sternorrhyncha. It does not belong to any of the major living sternorrhynchan subgroups, and is a distinct lineage most closely related to whiteflies. The family con ...
Dipsocoridae, † Dorytocidae,
Enicocephalidae Enicocephalidae, also called unique-headed bugs and gnat bugs, are a family of around 300 species of the suborder Heteroptera. They are typically 4 mm long, and found throughout the world. They have an elongated head, constricted in places, ...
,
Fulgoridae The family Fulgoridae is a large group of hemipteran insects, especially abundant and diverse in the tropics, containing over 125 genera worldwide. They are mostly of moderate to large size, many with a superficial resemblance to Lepidoptera due t ...
,
Gelastocoridae The Gelastocoridae (toad bugs) is a family of about 100 species of insects in the suborder Heteroptera. These fall into two genera, about 15 species of '' Gelastocoris'' from the New World and 85 of '' Nerthra'' from the Old World. They are rem ...
,
Gerridae The Gerridae are a family of insects in the order Hemiptera, commonly known as water striders, water skeeters, water scooters, water bugs, pond skaters, water skippers, or water skimmers. Consistent with the classification of the Gerridae as t ...
, † Hodgsonicoccidae,
Hydrometridae Hydrometridae is a family of semiaquatic insects, known as ''marsh treaders'' or ''water measurers''. They have a characteristic elongated head and body which makes them resemble a yardstick for measuring the water surface. Appearance Hydrometri ...
,
Issidae Issidae is a family of planthoppers described by Spinola in 1839, belonging to the order Hemiptera, suborder Auchenorrhyncha superfamily Fulgoroidea. Distribution Species of this family are present throughout the Northern Hemisphere. Descrip ...
, † Jubisentidae, † Juraphididae, † Katlasidae,
Kinnaridae Kinnaridae is a family of fulgoroid planthoppers. This is a small family with a little more than 20 genera and about a 100 species. The family was erected by Muir in 1925 and most members are found in the Oriental and Neotropical regions and on ...
, † Kozariidae, † Lalacidae,
Leptopodidae Leptopodidae is a family of spiny-legged bugs in the order Hemiptera. There are about 15 genera and more than 40 described species in Leptopodidae. Genera These 15 genera belong to the family Leptopodidae: * '' Erianotoides'' J.Polhemus & D.Po ...
, †
Liadopsyllidae Liadopsyllidae is an extinct family of hemipteran insects belonging to Psylloidea ranging from the Early Jurassic to Upper Cretaceous. The family was named by Andrey Vasilyevich Martynov in 1926.A. V. Martynov. 1926. Jurassic fossil Insect from Tu ...
, † Macrodrilidae,
Margarodidae The Margarodidae (illegitimately as Margodidae) or ground pearls are a family of scale insects within the superfamily Coccoidea. Members of the family include the Polish cochineal and Armenian cochineal (genus ''Porphyrophora'') and the original ...
, Matsucoccidae, †
Mimarachnidae Mimarachnidae is an extinct family of planthoppers known from the Cretaceous period. Their name is derived from spots on the wings of the first described genera, ''Mimarachne'' and ''Saltissus'', being suggestive of spider mimicry, but these char ...
, † Minlagerrontidae,
Miridae The Miridae are a large and diverse insect family at one time known by the taxonomic synonym Capsidae. Species in the family may be referred to as capsid bugs or "mirid bugs". Common names include plant bugs, leaf bugs, and grass bugs. It is the ...
,
Monophlebidae Monophlebidae is a family of scale insects commonly known as the giant scales or monophlebids. They occur in most parts of the world but more genera are found in the tropics than elsewhere.Naucoridae Naucoridae is a small family of insects commonly known as the creeping water bugs and saucer bugs. They are similar in appearance and behavior to Belostomatidae (giant water bugs), but considerably smaller, at long. Naucoridae are found around the ...
,
Nabidae The insecta, insect family (biology), family Nabidae contains the damsel bugs. There are over 500 species in 20 genera. They are soft-bodied, elongate, winged terrestrial predators. Many damsel bugs catch and hold prey with their forelegs, sim ...
, † Neazoniidae,
Ochteridae The Ochteridae comprise a small family of insects. Eight genera with about 80 species have been described. They occur worldwide along the shore of various types of water (for example, streams and ponds) and the greatest diversity is in tropical ...
,
Ortheziidae Ortheziidae is a family of scale insects commonly known as the ensign scales or ortheziids. They occur in most parts of the world but the majority of the species are found in the Neotropical and Nearctic regions while there are not many species i ...
,† Palaeoleptidae, †
Parvaverrucosidae ''Parvaverrucosa'' is an insect genus in the extinct, monotypic family Parvaverrucosidae, of the order Hemiptera. It contains the monotypic species ''Parvaverrucosa annulata'' known from the Cenomanian aged Burmese amber Burmese amber, also ...
, † Perforissidae, † Protopsyllidiidae, †
Procercopidae Procercopidae is an extinct family of froghoppers. They are known from the Early Jurassic to early Late Cretaceous of Eurasia. They are one of two main families of Mesozoic froghoppers alongside Sinoalidae. Procercopidae are considered to be the ...
,
Pseudococcidae Mealybugs are insects in the family Pseudococcidae, unarmored scale insects found in moist, warm habitats. Many species are considered pests as they feed on plant juices of greenhouse plants, house plants and subtropical trees and also act as a ...
, Reduvidae, Schizopteridae, †
Sinoalidae Sinoalidae is an extinct family of froghoppers known from the late Middle Jurassic to the early Late Cretaceous of Asia. They are one of two main Mesozoic families of froghoppers, alongside Procercopidae, unlike Procercopidae, Sinoalidae is thou ...
, † Tajmyraphididae,
Tettigarctidae The Tettigarctidae, known as the hairy cicadas, are a small relict (mostly extinct) family of primitive cicadas. Along with more than 20 extinct genera, Tettigarctidae contains a single extant genus, ''Tettigarcta'', with two extant species, on ...
,
Tingidae The Tingidae are a family of very small () insects in the order Hemiptera that are commonly referred to as lace bugs. This group is distributed worldwide with about 2,000 described species. They are called lace bugs because the pronotum and f ...
,
Tropiduchidae Tropiduchidae is a family of planthoppers in the order Hemiptera. There are at least 160 genera and 600 described species In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of ...
, Velocipedidae,
Veliidae Veliidae is a family of gregarious predatory insects in the suborder Heteroptera. They are commonly known as riffle bugs, small water striders, or broad-shouldered water striders because the segment immediately behind the head is wider than the r ...
, † Weitschatidae, Xylococcidae, † Yetkhatidae, †
Yuripopovinidae Yuripopovinidae is an extinct family of Coreoidea Hemipteran true bugs. Member species are known from the Early Cretaceous and early Late Cretaceous of Asia and northern Gondwana. Among the distinguishing characters are "the hemelytral costal ve ...
and several ''incertae sedis'' taxa such as '' Mesophthirus'', formerly believed to be an
ectoparasite Parasitism is a close relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives on or inside another organism, the host, causing it some harm, and is adapted structurally to this way of life. The entomologist E. O. Wilson has ...
but since determined to be a basal
scale insect Scale insects are small insects of the order Hemiptera, suborder Sternorrhyncha. Of dramatically variable appearance and extreme sexual dimorphism, they comprise the infraorder Coccomorpha which is considered a more convenient grouping than the ...
.


= Dictyoptera

= Twenty one families of
dictyoptera Dictyoptera (from Greek δίκτυον ''diktyon'' "net" and πτερόν ''pteron'' "wing") is an insect superorder that includes two extant orders of polyneopterous insects: the order Blattodea (termites and cockroaches together) and the ord ...
ns are known from the Burmese amber, including:
Blaberidae Giant cockroaches, or blaberids (family Blaberidae) are the second-largest cockroach family by number of species. Notable species Notable species within this family include: * Cape mountain cockroach – ''Aptera fusca'' * Dwarf cave cockroa ...
, † Blattulidae,
Blattidae Blattidae is a cockroach family in the order Blattodea containing several of the most common household cockroaches. Some notable species include: * ''Blatta orientalis'': Oriental cockroach, * Common shining cockroach: (''Drymaplaneta commun ...
, † Caloblattinidae,
Corydiidae Corydiidae, previously known as Polyphagidae, is a family of the order Blattodea (cockroaches). Many are known as sand cockroaches. The family is divided into five subfamilies, comprising some 40 genera. One prominent species is the desert cockroa ...
,
Ectobiidae Ectobiidae (formerly Blattellidae) is a family of the order Blattodea (cockroaches). This family contains many of the smaller common household pest cockroaches, among others. They are sometimes called wood cockroaches. A few notable species inclu ...
, † Olidae, † Liberiblattinidae, †
Alienopteridae Alienopteridae is an extinct family of dictyopterans, known from the Mid-Cretaceous to Eocene. They are noted for their unusual combination of features not found in other dictyopterans. Taxonomy It was originally assigned to its own order Alie ...
, † Manipulatoridae
Umenocoleidae Umenocoleidae is an extinct family of dictyopteran insects known from the Cretaceous. They are considered to be closely related to the Alienopteridae. They were originally considered to be beetles due to their beetle-like morphology, with sclero ...
,
Nocticolidae Nocticolidae is a small family in the order Blattodea (cockroaches). It consists of only 32 known species in 9 genera. They are found in Africa, Asia and Australia. Most live in cave habitats, although a few are associated with termites. Cave ad ...
, † Pabuonqedidae
Termite Termites are small insects that live in colonies and have distinct castes (eusocial) and feed on wood or other dead plant matter. Termites comprise the infraorder Isoptera, or alternatively the epifamily Termitoidae, within the order Blattode ...
s (†
Archeorhinotermitidae ''Archeorhinotermes'' is an extinct genus of termites in the family Archeorhinotermitidae, and is the sole genus of the family. There is one described species in ''Archeorhinotermes'', ''A. rossi''. It was discovered in Burmese amber. Refe ...
,
Hodotermitidae The harvester termites (from Greek ὁδός (hodós), travelling; Latin '' termes'', woodworm) are an ancient, Old World family of termites, the Hodotermitidae. They are distinguished by the serrated inner edge of their mandibles, and their func ...
,
Stolotermitidae Stolotermitidae is a family of termites in the order Blattodea Blattodea is an order of insects that contains cockroaches and termites. Formerly, termites were considered a separate order, Isoptera, but genetic and molecular evidence suggests ...
,
Termitidae Termitidae is the largest family of termites whose members are commonly known as the higher termites. They are evolutionarily the most specialised termite group, with their highly compartmentalized hindgut lacking the flagellated protozoans comm ...
and
Mastotermitidae Mastotermitidae is a family of termites with one sole living species, ''Mastotermes darwiniensis'' which is found only in northern Australia. The remaining genera of this family are only known from the fossil record. Fossil record Numerous foss ...
) and mantid '' Burmantis''.


= Mecoptera

= Six families of
mecoptera Mecoptera (from the Greek: ''mecos'' = "long", ''ptera'' = "wings") is an order of insects in the superorder Endopterygota with about six hundred species in nine families worldwide. Mecopterans are sometimes called scorpionflies after their lar ...
n are known, including: Bittacidae,
Eomeropidae Eomeropidae is a family of aberrant, flattened scorpionflies represented today by only a single living species, ''Notiothauma reedi'', known from the ''Nothofagus'' forests in southern Chile, while all other recognized genera in the family are kn ...
,
Meropeidae Meropeidae is a family of tiny scorpionflies within the order Mecoptera with only three living species, commonly referred to as "earwigflies" (or sometimes "forcepflies"). These include the North American '' Merope tuber'', the Western Australia ...
, †
Orthophlebiidae Orthophlebiidae is an extinct family of scorpionflies known from the Triassic to Cretaceous, belonging to the superfamily Panorpoidea. The family is poorly defined and is probably paraphyletic, representing many primitive members of Panorpoidea ...
, †
Pseudopolycentropodidae Pseudopolycentropodidae is an extinct family of scorpionflies known from the Mesozoic. Fossils are known from the Middle Triassic (Anisian) to the early Late Cretaceous ( Cenomanian). It is part of Mesopsychoidea, a group of scorpionflies with ...
and †
Aneuretopsychidae Aneuretopsychidae is an extinct family of scorpionflies known from the Mesozoic. Fossils are known from the Jurassic (Callovian- Oxfordian) to the early Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian). It is part of Mesopsychoidea, a group of scorpionflies with sip ...
.


= Psocoptera

= Ten families of
psocoptera Psocoptera are a paraphyletic group of insects that are commonly known as booklice, barklice or barkflies. The name Psocoptera has been replaced with Psocodea in recent literature, with the inclusion of the former order Phthiraptera into Psocode ...
n are known, including: † Archaeatropidae,
Compsocidae Compsocidae is a family of Psocodea (formerly Psocoptera) belonging to the suborder Troctomorpha. The family comprises two extant species in two genera, both found in Mesoamerica. ''Compsocus elegans'' is found in Mexico and Central America, wh ...
, † CormopsocidaeEmpheriidae,
Liposcelididae Liposcelididae (historically often referred to as "Liposcelidae") is a family of booklice of the order Psocodea (formerly Psocoptera), belonging to the suborder Troctomorpha. Members of this family are small and flattened, and often wingless. Th ...
, Manicapsocidae,
Pachytroctidae Pachytroctidae is a family of thick barklice in the order Psocodea (formerly Psocoptera). There are about 15 genera and at least 90 described species in Pachytroctidae. Members of this family are small, often macropterous, with a distinct win ...
,
Prionoglarididae Prionoglarididae is a family of the order Psocodea (formerly Psocoptera) that are barklice characterized by the reduction or simplification of the lacinia in adults and the specialised form of the male genitalia. It contains the only known genu ...
, Psyllipsocidae,
Sphaeropsocidae Sphaeropsocidae is a family of Psocodea (formerly Psocoptera), belonging to the suborder Troctomorpha. Females of this family have reduced, beetle-like elytra, and lack hindwings, with males have either small or absent wings. The family compris ...
and Trogiidae.


= Orthoptera

= Seven families of
orthopteran Orthoptera () is an order of insects that comprises the grasshoppers, locusts, and crickets, including closely related insects, such as the bush crickets or katydids and wētā. The order is subdivided into two suborders: Caelifera – grasshop ...
are known, including: †
Elcanidae Elcanidae are an extinct family of Mesozoic and early Cenozoic orthopterans. Members of the family are distinguished by the presence of spurs on the distal part of the metatibia, unique among orthopterans, these have been suggested to have been ...
,
Gryllidae The family ''Gryllidae'' contains the subfamilies and genera which entomologists now term true crickets. Having long, whip-like antennae, they belong to the Orthopteran suborder Ensifera, which has been greatly reduced in the last 100 years (''e ...
,
Mogoplistidae Mogoplistidae is a family of scaly crickets within the superfamily Grylloidea. Considered to be monophyletic, a sister taxon to the Gryllidae crickets. This family consists of more than 370 species worldwide; 20 species in 4 genera occur in North ...
, Ripipterygidae,
Tetrigidae Tetrigidae is an ancient family in the order Orthoptera, which also includes similar families such as crickets, grasshoppers, and their allies. Species within the Tetrigidae are variously called groundhoppers, pygmy grasshoppers,Borror DJ, Tripp ...
,
Tettigoniidae Insects in the family Tettigoniidae are commonly called katydids (especially in North America), or bush crickets. They have previously been known as "long-horned grasshoppers". More than 8,000 species are known. Part of the suborder Ensifera, t ...
and
Tridactylidae The Tridactylidae are a family in the insect order Orthoptera. They are small, mole-cricket-like insects, almost always less than long when mature. Generally they are shiny, dark or black, sometimes variegated or sandy-coloured. They commonly ...


= Trichoptera

= Eight families of trichopteran are known, including:
Calamoceratidae Calamoceratidae is a family of caddisflies in the order Trichoptera The caddisflies, or order Trichoptera, are a group of insects with aquatic larvae and terrestrial adults. There are approximately 14,500 described species, most of which ca ...
, †
Dysoneuridae Dysoneuridae is an extinct family of insect in the order Trichoptera, the caddisflies. The family was first described by I.D. Sukacheva (also spelled Sukatsheva) in 1968, and lived from the Middle Jurassic to mid-Cretaceous. In Wichard et al. (20 ...
,
Helicopsychidae Helicopsychidae (snail-case caddisflies) are a family of Trichoptera. The name refers to the helix shaped larval cases and they should not be confused with Limnephilidae which sometimes inhabit the snail shells. Their shells range from and are c ...
,
Hydroptilidae The Hydroptilidae are a large family of caddisflies (Trichoptera) with a worldwide distribution. They are commonly known as microcaddisflies or purse-case caddisflies, in reference to two characteristic traits of this family: Hydroptilidae are ...
,
Odontoceridae Odontoceridae is a family of mortarjoint casemakers in the order Trichoptera. There are about 12 genera and at least 100 described species in Odontoceridae. The type genus In biological taxonomy, the type genus is the genus which defin ...
,
Philopotamidae Philopotamidae is a family of insects in the order Trichoptera, the caddisflies. They are known commonly as the finger-net caddisflies.Polycentropodidae and
Psychomyiidae The Psychomyiidae are a family of tube-making caddisflies. Members of this family are typically very similar to polycentropodids, most of them can be differentiated by the spur formula is 2-4-4, thyridial cell short, absence of the forewing for ...
.


= Dermaptera

= Five families of dermapteran are known, including: Anisolabididae,
Diplatyidae Diplatyidae is a family of earwigs in the suborder Neodermaptera. It contains three subfamilies,Labiduridae Labiduridae, whose members are known commonly as striped earwigs, is a relatively large family of earwigs in the suborder Forficulina.See first entry in external links section for reference. Taxonomy The family contains a total of approximatel ...
and
Pygidicranidae Pygidicranidae is a family of earwigs, formerly placed in the suborder Forficulina, now in the suborder Neodermaptera. The family currently contains twelve subfamilies and twenty six genera. Eight of the subfamilies are monotypic, each containi ...
.


= Embioptera

= Four families of embiopteran are known, including:
Clothodidae Clothodidae is a family of webspinners in the order Embioptera The order Embioptera, commonly known as webspinners or footspinners, are a small group of mostly tropical and subtropical insects, classified under the subclass Pterygota. Th ...
,
Oligotomidae Oligotomidae is a family of webspinners in the order Embioptera. There are about 6 genera and at least 40 described species in Oligotomidae. They are known to be found in warmer regions of the Old World and in the Southwestern United Sta ...
, Notoligotomidae and † Sorellembiidae.


= Notoptera

= One species of
notoptera The wingless insect order Notoptera, a group first proposed in 1915, had been largely unrecognized since its original conception, until resurrected in 2004. As now defined, the order comprises five families, three of them known only from fossils ...
n is known, a nymph ice crawler (
Grylloblattidae Grylloblattidae, commonly known as the icebugs, or ice crawlers, is a family of extremophile (psychrophile) and wingless insects that live in the cold on top of mountains and the edges of glaciers. They belong, along with Mantophasmatidae (rock c ...
) '' Sylvalitoralis cheni.''


= Strepsiptera

= Two families of strepsipteran are known, † Cretostylopidae and † Phthanoxenidae


= Lepidoptera

= Six families of
lepidoptera Lepidoptera ( ) is an order (biology), order of insects that includes butterfly, butterflies and moths (both are called lepidopterans). About 180,000 species of the Lepidoptera are described, in 126 Family (biology), families and 46 Taxonomic r ...
n are known, including:
Agathiphagidae ''Agathiphaga'' is a genus of moths, known as kauri moths. It is the only living in the family Agathiphagidae. This caddisfly-like lineage of primitive moths was first reported by Lionel Jack Dumbleton in 1952, as a new genus of Micropterigidae ...
,
Douglasiidae Douglasiidae is a small Lepidopteran family including around 28 species of micromoth whose adults are collectively called Douglas moths. The largest genus in the family is ''Tinagma''. They are primarily found in the Palearctic (20 spp.) and Near ...
,
Gelechiidae The Gelechiidae are a family of moths commonly referred to as twirler moths or gelechiid moths. They are the namesake family of the huge and little-studied superfamily Gelechioidea, and the family's taxonomy has been subject to considerable dis ...
,
Gracillariidae Gracillariidae is an important family of insects in the order Lepidoptera and the principal family of leaf miners that includes several economic, horticultural or recently invasive pest species such as the horse-chestnut leaf miner, ''Cameraria ...
, Lophocoronidae and
Micropterigidae Micropterigoidea is the superfamily of "mandibulate archaic moths", all placed in the single family Micropterigidae, containing currently about twenty living genera. They are considered the most primitive extant lineage of lepidoptera (Kristense ...
.


= Megaloptera

= One species of
megaloptera Megaloptera is an order of insects. It contains the alderflies, dobsonflies and fishflies, and there are about 300 known species. The order's name comes from Ancient Greek, from ''mega-'' (μέγα-) "large" + ''pteryx'' (πτέρυξ) "wing ...
n is known, '' Haplosialodes liui'' of the family
Sialidae Alderflies are megalopteran insects of the family Sialidae. They are closely related to the dobsonflies and fishflies as well as to the prehistoric Euchauliodidae. All living alderflies – about 66 species all together – are part of the subf ...
.


= Phasmatodea

= Four families of phasmatodean are known: † Archipseudophasmatidae,
Phasmatidae The Phasmatidae are a family of the stick insects ( order Phasmatodea). They belong to the superfamily Anareolatae of suborder Verophasmatodea. Like many of their relatives, the Phasmatidae are capable of regenerating limbs and commonly repr ...
. † Pterophasmatidae and Timematidae


= Thysanoptera

= Five families of
thrips Thrips ( order Thysanoptera) are minute (mostly long or less), slender insects with fringed wings and unique asymmetrical mouthparts. Different thrips species feed mostly on plants by puncturing and sucking up the contents, although a few are ...
are known, including:
Aeolothripidae The Aeolothripidae are a family of thrips. They are particularly common in the holarctic region, although several occur in the drier parts of the subtropics, including dozens in Australia. Adults and larvae are usually found in flowers, but they ...
,
Melanthripidae Melanthripidae is a family of thrips belonging to the order Thysanoptera. Genera: * ''Ankothrips ''Ankothrips'' is a genus of thrip in the family Melanthripidae. Species ''Catalogue of Life The Catalogue of Life is an online database ...
, † Rohrthripidae,
Thripidae The Thripidae are the most speciose family of thrips, with over 290 genera representing just over two thousand species. They can be distinguished from other thrips by a saw-like ovipositor curving downwards, narrow wings with two veins, and anten ...
and
Stenurothripidae Stenurothripidae is a family of thrips belonging to the order Thysanoptera Thrips ( order Thysanoptera) are minute (mostly long or less), slender insects with fringed wings and unique asymmetrical mouthparts. Different thrips species feed m ...
.


= Plecoptera

= Two families of stoneflies are known,
Perlidae The Perlidae are a family of stoneflies, with more than 50 genera and 1,100 described species. The majority of the Perlidae are found in eastern North America, but they occur worldwide except for Antarctica and parts of Africa. Their lifecycle ...
and † Petroperlidae.


= Raphidioptera

= One family of
Raphidioptera Snakeflies are a group of predatory insects comprising the order Raphidioptera with two extant families: Raphidiidae and Inocelliidae, consisting of roughly 260 species. In the past, the group had a much wider distribution than it does now; sn ...
n is known, † Mesoraphidiidae.


= †Chresmodidae

= A species of the enigmatic long legged chresmodid insect ''
Chresmoda ''Chresmoda'' is an extinct genus of insects within the family Chresmodidae. Description ''Chresmoda'' are large enigmatic insects with very long specialized legs, probably adapted for skating on the water surface similar to pond skaters. They ...
'' is known.


= †Tarachoptera

= One family of
Tarachoptera Tarachoptera is an extinct order of insects, currently solely known from the mid Cretaceous aged Burmese amber. It belongs to Amphiesmenoptera alongside living Lepidopterans (butterflies and moths) and Trichoptera (caddiesflies), but is outside ...
n is known: † Tarachocelidae


= †Permopsocida

= One family of
Permopsocida Permopsocida is an extinct order of insects known from the Early Permian to the Mid-Cretaceous. It is part of Paraneoptera, alongside bark lice (including lice), bugs and thrips. Within Paraneoptera it is considered to be closer to the clade co ...
n is known: † Archipsyllidae


= Zoraptera

= Multiple species of ''
Zorotypus ''Zorotypus''Silvestri F (1913) ''Boll. Lab. Zool. gen. agr. Portici'' 7: 196. is a genus of angel insects in the family Zorotypidae. Species The type species is '' Zorotypus guineensis'' from West Africa. Other species are found worldwide ...
'' and the monotypic genus '' Xenozorotypus'' are known.


Nematoda

Five families of
nematode The nematodes ( or grc-gre, Νηματώδη; la, Nematoda) or roundworms constitute the phylum Nematoda (also called Nemathelminthes), with plant-Parasitism, parasitic nematodes also known as eelworms. They are a diverse animal phylum inhab ...
s are known, including: Cosmocercidae,
Heterorhabditidae ''Heterorhabditis'' is a genus of nematodes belonging to the order Rhabditida. All species of this genus are obligate parasites of insects, and some are used as biological control agents for the control of pest insects. ''Heterorhabditis'' nemato ...
,
Mermithidae Mermithidae is a family of nematode worms that are endoparasites in arthropods. As early as 1877, Mermithidae was listed as one of nine subdivisions of the Nematoidea. Mermithidae are confused with the horsehair worms of the phylum Nematomorpha t ...
,
Thelastomatidae Thelastomatidae is a family of nematodes belonging to the order Oxyurida Oxyurida is an order of nematode worms of the class Secernentea. It consists of four families, one of which contains the human pinworm (''Enterobius vermicularis''). ...
,
Aphelenchoididae Aphelenchoididae is a nematode family in the order Aphelenchida. List of genera Subfamily Anomyctinae * Genus '' Anomyctus'' Subfamily Aphelenchoidinae'' * Genus '' Aphelenchoides'' * Genus '' Ficophagus'' * Genus '' Laimaphelenchus'' * Ge ...


Nematomorpha

One genus of nematomorph is known: '' Cretachordodes'' (
Chordodidae Chordodidae is a family of parasitic horsehair worms belonging to the order Gordioidea; its taxonomy is under review. Genera Two subfamilies are currently recognised; unless referenced otherwise, the Global Biodiversity Information Facility inc ...
,
Gordioidea Gordioidea is an order (sometimes placed at superfamily level) of parasitic horsehair worms. Its taxonomy remains uncertain, but appears to be contained in the monotypic class Gordioida and contains about 320 known species. Biology Gordioidean ...
)


Mollusca

Aside from the previously mentioned ammonites and marine gastropod shells, Seven families of terrestrial gastropod are known:
Diplommatinidae Diplommatinidae is a family (biology), family of small land snails, also known as staircase snails, with an operculum (gastropod), operculum, Terrestrial molluscs, terrestrial gastropod mollusks in the superfamily Cyclophoroidea. The Cochlostoma ...
,
Pupinidae Pupinidae is a taxonomic family of land snails with an operculum, terrestrial gastropod mollusks in the superfamily Cyclophoroidea (according to the taxonomy of the Gastropoda by Bouchet & Rocroi, 2005).MolluscaBase eds. (2021). MolluscaBase ...
,
Achatinidae Achatinidae (New Latin, from Greek "''agate''") is a family of medium to large sized tropical land snails, terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusks from Africa. Well known species include ''Achatina achatina'' the Giant African Snail, and ''Lis ...
,
Punctidae Punctidae, common name the "dot snails" or "pinhead snails", is a family of minute air-breathing land snails, terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusks or micromollusks in the informal group Sigmurethra (according to the taxonomy of the Ga ...
,
Valloniidae Valloniidae is a taxonomic family of small and minute, air-breathing land snails, terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusks in the superfamily Pupilloidea. MolluscaBase eds. (2020). MolluscaBase. Valloniidae Morse, 1864. Accessed through: World R ...
, Assimineidae and
Cyclophoridae Cyclophoridae is a taxonomic family of small to large tropical land snails with an operculum, terrestrial gastropod mollusks in the order Architaenioglossa belonging to the subclass Caenogastropoda (according to the taxonomy of the Gastropo ...


Vertebrates

While the deposit is well known for invertebrate inclusions, some vertebrate inclusions have been found as well. One of the more notable discoveries was a well preserved theropod dinosaur tail, with preserved feathers. As well as fossils of
enantiornithine The Enantiornithes, also known as enantiornithines or enantiornitheans in literature, are a group of extinct avialans ("birds" in the broad sense), the most abundant and diverse group known from the Mesozoic era. Almost all retained teeth and cla ...
birds including juveniles and partial wings and preserved feet, including a diagnostic taxon, '' Elektorornis''. A complete skull of the lizard ''
Oculudentavis ''Oculudentavis'' is an extinct genus of lizard of uncertain taxonomic placement,Bolet et al., 2021 originally identified as an avialan dinosaur (bird, in the broad sense). It contains two known species, ''O. khaungraae'' and ''O. naga''. Each ...
'' is known. ''
Electrorana ''Electrorana'' is an extinct genus of frog that lived in what is now Myanmar during the mid-Cretaceous, around 99 million years ago. The type and only species is ''E. limoae''. The generic name is derived from the Latin () and (), while the sp ...
'' is a well preserved frog known from the amber. Other notable specimens include an embryonic snake. Several specimens of lizard have been described from the deposit including a
gecko Geckos are small, mostly carnivorous lizards that have a wide distribution, found on every continent except Antarctica. Belonging to the infraorder Gekkota, geckos are found in warm climates throughout the world. They range from . Geckos ar ...
with preserved toe pads ('' Cretaceogekko''). and a miniaturised (~2 cm) long possible stem-
anguimorph The Anguimorpha is a suborder of squamates. The group was named by Fürbringer in 1900 to include all autarchoglossans closer to '' Varanus'' and ''Anguis'' than ''Scincus''. These lizards, along with iguanians and snakes, constitute the propo ...
('' Barlochersaurus'') One of the "lizard" specimens was initially described to be a chamelonid, actually turned out to be an
albanerpetontid The Albanerpetontidae are an extinct family of small amphibians, native to the Northern Hemisphere during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic. The only members of the order Allocaudata, they are thought to be allied with living amphibians belonging to Lissa ...
amphibian. This was described in 2020 as the new genus and species ''
Yaksha perettii ''Yaksha perettii'' is an extinct species of albanerpetontid amphibian, and the only species in the genus ''Yaksha''. It is known from three specimens found in Cenomanian aged Burmese amber from Myanmar. The remains of ''Yaksha perettii'' are the ...
.''


Flora


Angiosperms

Eleven species of
Angiosperm Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (), commonly called angiosperms. The term "angiosperm" is derived from the Greek words ('container, vessel') and ('seed'), and refers to those plants th ...
are known in nine genera, including members of
Cornaceae The Cornaceae are a cosmopolitan family of flowering plants in the order Cornales. The family contains approximately 85 species in two genera, ''Alangium'' and ''Cornus''. They are mostly trees and shrubs, which may be deciduous or evergreen, alt ...
,
Cunoniaceae Cunoniaceae is a family of 27 Genus, genera and about 335 species of woody plants in the order Oxalidales, mostly found in the tropical and wet temperate regions of the Southern Hemisphere. The greatest diversity of genera are in Australia and Ta ...
,
Lauraceae Lauraceae, or the laurels, is a plant family that includes the true laurel and its closest relatives. This family comprises about 2850 known species in about 45 genera worldwide (Christenhusz & Byng 2016 ). They are dicotyledons, and occur ma ...
, ?
Monimiaceae The Monimiaceae is a family (biology), family of flowering plants in the magnoliid Order (biology), order Laurales.Peter F. Stevens (2001 onwards). "Monimiaceae" At: Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. At: Botanical Databases At: Missouri Botanical Gar ...
and
Laurales The Laurales are an order of flowering plants. They are magnoliids, related to the Magnoliales. The order includes about 2500-2800 species from 85-90 genera, which comprise seven families of trees and shrubs. Most of the species are tropical and ...
''incertae sedis''.
Poales The Poales are a large order of flowering plants in the monocotyledons, and includes families of plants such as the grasses, bromeliads, and sedges. Sixteen plant families are currently recognized by botanists to be part of Poales. Descriptio ...
''incertae sedis'' and Angiosperm incertae sedis.


Bryopsida

Two genera of
Bryopsida The Bryopsida constitute the largest class of mosses, containing 95% of all moss species. It consists of approximately 11,500 species, common throughout the whole world. The group is distinguished by having spore capsules with teeth that are '' ...
in the separate orders
Dicranales Dicranales is an order of haplolepideous mosses in the subclass Dicranidae The Dicranidae are a widespread and diverse subclass of mosses in class Bryopsida, with many species of dry or disturbed areas. They are distinguished by their spore ...
and
Hypnodendrales Hypnodendrales is an order of mosses. Description Species in the order are robust pleurocarpous mosses that are epiphytic. They are generally characterized by basally reiterating stems or stipes with secondary branching towards the apex. The o ...


Jungermanniopsida

Three families of
Jungermanniopsida Jungermanniopsida is the largest of three classes within the division Marchantiophyta (liverworts). Phylogeny Based on the work by Novíkov & Barabaš-Krasni 2015. Taxonomy * Jungermanniidae Engler 1893 ** Jungermanniales von Klinggräff 185 ...
are known,
Frullaniaceae ''Frullania'' is the only genus of liverworts in family Frullaniaceae. It contains the following species: A *'' Frullania aculeata'' Taylor, 1846 *'' Frullania acutata'' Caspary, 1887 *'' Frullania acutiloba'' Gerola, 1947 *'' Frullania akiy ...
, Lepidolaeanaceae, Radulaceae.


Pinophyta

Two families of
Pinopsida Conifers are a group of cone-bearing seed plants, a subset of gymnosperms. Scientifically, they make up the division Pinophyta (), also known as Coniferophyta () or Coniferae. The division contains a single extant class, Pinopsida. All extan ...
are known:
Araucariaceae Araucariaceae – also known as araucarians – is an extremely ancient family of coniferous trees. The family achieved its maximum diversity during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods and the early Cenozoic, when it was distributed almost worldw ...
and
Cupressaceae Cupressaceae is a conifer family, the cypress family, with worldwide distribution. The family includes 27–30 genera (17 monotypic), which include the junipers and redwoods, with about 130–140 species in total. They are monoecious, subdio ...
including ''
Metasequoia ''Metasequoia'', or dawn redwoods, is a genus of fast-growing deciduous trees, one of three species of pinophyta, conifers known as redwoods. The living species ''Metasequoia glyptostroboides'' is native to Lichuan, Hubei, Lichuan county in Hube ...
''.


Pteridopsida

Five families of Pteridopsidan are known:
Cystodiaceae ''Cystodium'' is a fern in its own family, Cystodiaceae. It contains a single species: ''Cystodium sorbifolium'' . Because it looks like a small tree fern, it had previously been placed in the tree fern family Dicksoniaceae. Subsequent analysis h ...
,
Dennstaedtiaceae Dennstaedtiaceae is one of fifteen families in the order Polypodiales, the most derived families within monilophytes (ferns). It comprises 10 genera with ca 240 known species, including one of the world's most abundant ferns, ''Pteridium aquilin ...
,
Lindsaeaceae Lindsaeaceae is a pantropical family of ferns in the order Polypodiales. It contains six or seven genera with about 220 known species, some of which also extend into the more temperate regions of eastern Asia, New Zealand, and South America.
,
Pteridaceae Pteridaceae is a family of ferns in the order Polypodiales, including some 1150 known species in ca 45 genera (depending on taxonomic opinions), divided over five subfamilies. The family includes four groups of genera that are sometimes recogni ...
,
Thyrsopteridaceae ''Thyrsopteris'' is a genus of tree fern. It contains a single living species, ''Thyrsopteris elegans'', endemic to the Juan Fernandez Archipelago off the coast of Chile. ''Thyrsopteris'' is the only genus in the family Thyrsopteridaceae in the ...
, and several genera of
Polypodiales The order Polypodiales encompasses the major lineages of polypod ferns, which comprise more than 80% of today's fern species. They are found in many parts of the world including tropical, semitropical and temperate areas. Description Polypodiale ...
''incertae sedis.''


Amoebozoa


Myxogastria

Sporocarps of extant
myxogastrid Myxogastria/Myxogastrea (myxogastrids, ICZN) or Myxomycetes ( ICN), is a class of slime molds that contains 5 orders, 14 families, 62 genera, and 888 species. They are colloquially known as the ''plasmodial'' or ''acellular' ...
slime mould Slime mold or slime mould is an informal name given to several kinds of unrelated eukaryotic organisms with a life cycle that includes a free-living single-celled stage and the formation of spores. Spores are often produced in macroscopic mu ...
genus ''
Stemonitis ''Stemonitis'' is a distinctive genus of slime moulds found throughout the world (except Antarctica). They are characterised by the tall brown sporangia, supported on slender stalks, which grow in clusters on rotting wood. The genus was first des ...
'' are known.


Dictyostelia

A possible
dictyostelid The dictyostelids (Dictyostelia/Dictyostelea, International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, ICZN, or Dictyosteliomycetes, ICBN) are a group of cellular slime molds, or social amoebae. Multicellular behavior When food (normally bacteria) is rea ...
'' Paleoplastes burmanica'' has been described.


History

The amber is apparently referred to in ancient Chinese sources as originating from
Yunnan Province Yunnan , () is a landlocked province in the southwest of the People's Republic of China. The province spans approximately and has a population of 48.3 million (as of 2018). The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders the C ...
as early as the first century AD according to the ''
Book of the Later Han The ''Book of the Later Han'', also known as the ''History of the Later Han'' and by its Chinese name ''Hou Hanshu'' (), is one of the Twenty-Four Histories and covers the history of the Han dynasty from 6 to 189 CE, a period known as the Later ...
'' and trade with China had been ongoing for centuries. This has been confirmed by
Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is a technique used to obtain an infrared spectrum of absorption or emission of a solid, liquid, or gas. An FTIR spectrometer simultaneously collects high-resolution spectral data over a wide spectra ...
(FTIR) analysis of amber artifacts from the Eastern
Han Dynasty The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a warr ...
(25 - 220 CE). It was first mentioned in European sources by the
Jesuit , image = Ihs-logo.svg , image_size = 175px , caption = ChristogramOfficial seal of the Jesuits , abbreviation = SJ , nickname = Jesuits , formation = , founders ...
Priest
Álvaro Semedo Álvaro de Semedo (Latinized form: Alvarus de Semedo; , ''Zeng Dezhao'', earlier 謝務祿 ''Xie Wulu'') (1585 or 1586,. Mungello quotes sources for both 1585 and 1586 as Semedo's date of birth. - 18 July 1658), was a Portuguese Jesuit priest and ...
who visited China in 1613, it was described as being "digged out of mines, and sometimes in great pieces, it is redder than our amber though not so cleane".Zherikhin, V.V., Ross, A.J., 2000
A review of the history, geology and age of Burmese amber (Burmite).
Bulletin of the Natural History Museum, London (Geology) 56 (1), 3–10.
The locality itself has been known to European explorers since the 1800s with visitation to the Hukawng Valley by Simon Fraser Hannay in 1836–1837. At that time the principle products of the valley mines were salt, gold, and amber, with the majority of gold and amber being bought by Chinese traders. Hannay visited the amber mines themselves on March 21, 1836, and he noted that the last three miles to the mines were marked with numerous abandoned pits, up to in depth, where amber had been dug in the past. The mining had moved over the hill to a series of 10 pits but no visible amber was seen, suggesting that miners possibly hid the amber found that day before the party arrived. Mining was being performed manually at the time through the use of sharpened
bamboo Bamboos are a diverse group of evergreen perennial flowering plants making up the subfamily Bambusoideae of the grass family Poaceae. Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family. The origin of the word "bamboo" is uncertain, bu ...
rods and small wooden shovels. Finer pieces of amber were recovered from the deeper pits, with clear yellow being recovered from depths of The recovered amber was bought with silver or often exchanged for jackets, hats, copper pots, or
opium Opium (or poppy tears, scientific name: ''Lachryma papaveris'') is dried latex obtained from the seed capsules of the opium poppy ''Papaver somniferum''. Approximately 12 percent of opium is made up of the analgesic alkaloid morphine, which i ...
among other goods. mixed and lower quality amber was sold from around ticals to 4 rupees per Seer (unit), seer. Pieces that were considered high quality or fit or use as ornamentation were described as expensive and price varied depending on clarity and color. Women of the valley were noted to wear amber earrings as part of their jewelry. In 1885 the Konbaung dynasty was annexed to the British Raj and a survey of the area was conducted by Dr. Fritz Noetling on behalf of the Geological Survey of India. The final research before Burmese independence in 1947 was conducted by Dr. H.L. Chhibber in 1934, who provided the most detailed description of Burmite occurrences.


History of research

The first research on the inclusions in the Burmese amber was published in 1916 by Theodore Dru Alison Cockerell, who initially concluded that the amber was Miocene in age. However, he subsequently noted the archaic nature of the insects, and concluded that the amber must be older.


Modern exploitation and controversy

Leeward Capital Corp, a small Canadian mining firm, controlled the deposit from the mid-1990s to c. 2000, though the history of exploitation during the 2000s is obscure. The Kachin Independence Army (KIA), an armed rebel group seeking to secede Kachin province from Myanmar, controlled the area during the early to mid 2010's. During the early 2010s, production rapidly increased. The working conditions at the mines have been described as extremely unsafe, down deep pits barely wide enough to crawl through, with no accident compensation. The KIA controlled amber export via numerous licenses, taxes, restrictions on movement of labor, and enforced auctions. The main amber market in Myanmar is Myitkyina. Most amber is smuggled into China, primarily for jewelry, with estimates of around 100 tonnes passing through to the main market of Tengchong, Yunnan in 2015, with an estimated value between five and seven billion Yuan (currency), yuan. Burmese amber was estimated to make up 30% of Tenchong's gemstone market (the rest being Jade trade in Myanmar, Myanmar Jade), and was declared one of the cities eight main industries by the local government. The presence of calcite veins are a major factor in determining the gem quality of pieces, with pieces with a large number of veins having significantly lower value. In June 2017 the Tatmadaw seized control of the mines from the KIA. Sales of amber were alleged to help fund the Kachin conflict by various news organisations in 2019. Interest in this discussion rose in March 2020 after the highly publicised description of ''
Oculudentavis ''Oculudentavis'' is an extinct genus of lizard of uncertain taxonomic placement,Bolet et al., 2021 originally identified as an avialan dinosaur (bird, in the broad sense). It contains two known species, ''O. khaungraae'' and ''O. naga''. Each ...
,'' which made the cover of Nature (journal), ''Nature''. On April 21, 2020, the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology (SVP) published a letter of recommendation to journal editors asking for “a moratorium on publication for any fossil specimens purchased from sources in Myanmar after June 2017 when the Myanmar military began its campaign to seize control of the amber mining”. On April 23, 2020 ''Acta Palaeontologica Polonica'' stated that it would not accept papers on Burmese amber material collected from 2017 onwards, after the Burmese military took control of the deposit, requiring "certification or other demonstrable evidence, that they were acquired before the date both legally and ethically". On May 13, 2020, the ''Journal of Systematic Palaeontology'' published an editorial stating that it would no longer consider papers based whole or in part on Burmese amber material, regardless of whether in historic collections or not. On 30 June 2020, a statement from the International Palaeoentomological Society was published in response to the SVP, criticising the proposal to ban publishing on Burmese amber material. In August 2020, a comment from over 50 authors was published in ''PalZ'' responding to the SVP statement. The authors disagreed with the proposal of a moratorium, describing the focus on the Burmese amber as "arbitrary" and that "The SVP’s recommendation for a moratorium on Burmese amber affects fossil non-vertebrate research much more than fossil vertebrate research and clearly does not represent this part of the palaeontological community." The conclusion that Burmese amber funded the Tatmadaw was disputed by George Poinar and Sieghard Ellenberger, who found that the supply of amber collapsed after the 2017 takeover of the mines by the Tatmandaw, and that most of the current circulation of amber in Chinese markets was extracted prior to 2017. A story in ''Science'' in 2019 stated: "Two former mine owners, speaking through an interpreter in phone interviews, say taxes have been even steeper since government troops took control of the area. Both shut their mines when they became unprofitable after the government takeover, and almost all deep mines are now out of business, dealers here corroborate. Only shallow mines and perhaps a few secret operations are still running." There were around 200,000 miners working in the Hukawng valley mines prior to the takeover by the Tatmadaw, which shrunk to 20,000 or less after the military operations. Adolf Peretti, a gemologist who owns a museum with Burmese amber specimens, noted that the 2017 cutoff suggested by the SVP does not take into account that the export of Burmese amber prior to 2017 was also funding internal conflict in Myanmar due to the control by the KIA. Much of the amber cutting since 2017 has been done in internally displaced person camps, under humanitarian and non-conflict conditions.


Other Myanmar ambers

Other deposits of amber are known from several regions in Myanmar, with noted deposits in the Shwebo District of the Sagaing Region, from the Pakokku District, Pakokku and Thayet District, Thayet districts of Magway Region and the Bago District of the Bago Region. Unlike the Hukawng deposit, none of these sources have produce notable quantities of amber.


Tilin amber

A 2018 study on an amber deposit from Htilin, Tilin in central Myanmar indicated that deposit to be 27 million years younger than the Hukawng deposit, dating to approximately 72 million years old, placing it in the latest Campanian age. The deposit was associated with an overlying tuffaceous layer, and underlying nodules of brown sandstone yielded remains of the ammonite ''Sphenodiscus.'' Within a number of arthropod specimens were described though much more poorly preserved than specimens in the Hukawng amber. These include members of Hymenoptera (
Braconidae The Braconidae are a family of parasitoid wasps. After the closely related Ichneumonidae, braconids make up the second-largest family in the order Hymenoptera, with about 17,000 recognized species and many thousands more undescribed. One analysis ...
,
Diapriidae The Diapriidae are a family of parasitoid wasps. These tiny insects have an average length of 2–4 mm and never exceed 8 mm. They typically attack larvae and pupae of a wide range of insects, especially flies. The about 2,300 described ...
, Scelioninae, Scelionidae) Diptera (
Ceratopogonidae Ceratopogonidae is a family of flies commonly known as no-see-ums, or biting midges, generally in length. The family includes more than 5,000 species, distributed worldwide, apart from the Antarctic and the Arctic. Ceratopogonidae are holomet ...
,
Chironomidae The Chironomidae (informally known as chironomids, nonbiting midges, or lake flies) comprise a family of nematoceran flies with a global distribution. They are closely related to the Ceratopogonidae, Simuliidae, and Thaumaleidae. Many species ...
) Dictyoptera (Cockroach, Blattaria, Mantodea) planthoppers,
Berothidae The Berothidae are a family of winged insects of the order Neuroptera. They are known commonly as the beaded lacewings. The family was first named by Anton Handlirsch in 1906. The family consists of 24 genera and 110 living species distributed ...
and bark lice (Lepidopsocidae) as well as extant ant subfamilies Dolichoderinae and tentatively Ponerinae, as well as fragments of moss.


Hkamti amber

The Hkamti site is located ca. 90 km southwest of the Angbamo site and predominantly consists of limestone, interbedded with mudstone and tuff, the amber is found within the unconsolidated mudstone/tuff layers. A crinoid was found attached to one amber specimen, alongside marine plant remains in the surrounding sediment, indicating deposition in a shallow marine setting. The amber is generally red-brown, and yellow colouration is rare, the amber is generally found as angular clasts, indicating short transport distance and is more brittle than other northern Myanmar ambers. Zircon dating has constrained the age of the deposit to the early Albian, c. 110 Ma, significantly older than the dates obtained from other deposits. Fauna found within the amber includes: Archaeognatha, Millipede, Diplopoda, Beetle, Coleoptera, Spider, Araneae, Trichoptera, Neuroptera, Psocodea, Isoptera Diptera, Orthoptera, Pseudoscorpionida, Hymenoptera and Thysanoptera.


See also

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References

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External links


Blood Amber Military resource grab clears out indigenous peoples in Kachin State’s Hugawng Valley ''Kachin Development Networking Group''
Burmese amber, Paleontological sites of Asia Paleontology in Myanmar