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Zen ( zh, t=禪, p=Chán; ja, text= , translit=zen; ko, text=선, translit=Seon; vi, text=Thiền) is a
school A school is an educational institution designed to provide learning spaces and learning environments for the teaching of students under the direction of teachers. Most countries have systems of formal education, which is sometimes comp ...
of Mahayana Buddhism that originated in China during the
Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdom ...
, known as the Chan School (''Chánzong'' 禪宗), and later developed into various sub-schools and branches. From China, Chán spread south to
Vietnam Vietnam or Viet Nam ( vi, Việt Nam, ), officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam,., group="n" is a country in Southeast Asia, at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of and population of 96 million, making i ...
and became
Vietnamese Thiền Vietnamese may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to Vietnam, a country in Southeast Asia ** A citizen of Vietnam. See Demographics of Vietnam. * Vietnamese people, or Kinh people, a Southeast Asian ethnic group native to Vietnam ** Over ...
, northeast to
Korea Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic o ...
to become
Seon Buddhism Seon or Sŏn Buddhism (Korean: 선, 禪; IPA: ʌn is the Korean name for Chan Buddhism, a branch of Mahāyāna Buddhism commonly known in English as Zen Buddhism. Seon is the Sino-Korean pronunciation of Chan () an abbreviation of 禪那 ('' ...
, and east to Japan, becoming Japanese Zen. The term Zen is derived from the
Japanese Japanese may refer to: * Something from or related to Japan, an island country in East Asia * Japanese language, spoken mainly in Japan * Japanese people, the ethnic group that identifies with Japan through ancestry or culture ** Japanese diaspor ...
pronunciation of the
Middle Chinese Middle Chinese (formerly known as Ancient Chinese) or the Qieyun system (QYS) is the historical variety of Chinese recorded in the '' Qieyun'', a rime dictionary first published in 601 and followed by several revised and expanded editions. The ...
word 禪 (''chán''), an abbreviation of 禪那 (''chánnà''), which is a Chinese transliteration of the
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
word ध्यान ''dhyāna'' ("
meditation Meditation is a practice in which an individual uses a technique – such as mindfulness, or focusing the mind on a particular object, thought, or activity – to train attention and awareness, and achieve a mentally clear and emotionally calm ...
"). Zen emphasizes rigorous self-restraint, meditation-practice and the subsequent
insight Insight is the understanding of a specific cause and effect within a particular context. The term insight can have several related meanings: *a piece of information *the act or result of understanding the inner nature of things or of seeing intui ...
into
nature of mind Nature, in the broadest sense, is the physical world or universe. "Nature" can refer to the phenomena of the physical world, and also to life in general. The study of nature is a large, if not the only, part of science. Although humans are p ...
(見性, Ch. ''jiànxìng,'' Jp. '' kensho,'' "perceiving the true nature") and nature of things (without arrogance or egotism), and the personal expression of this insight in daily life, especially for the benefit of others. As such, it de-emphasizes knowledge alone of sutras and doctrine, and favors direct understanding through
spiritual practice A spiritual practice or spiritual discipline (often including spiritual exercises) is the regular or full-time performance of actions and activities undertaken for the purpose of inducing spiritual experiences and cultivating spiritual developme ...
and interaction with an accomplished teacher or Master. Zen teaching draws from numerous sources of Sarvastivada meditation practice and Mahāyāna thought, especially
Yogachara Yogachara ( sa, योगाचार, IAST: '; literally "yoga practice"; "one whose practice is yoga") is an influential tradition of Buddhist philosophy and psychology emphasizing the study of cognition, perception, and consciousness through ...
, the
Tathāgatagarbha sūtras The Tathāgatagarbha sūtras are a group of Mahayana sutras that present the concept of the "womb" or "embryo" (''garbha'') of the tathāgata, the buddha. Every sentient being has the possibility to attain Buddhahood because of the ''tathāgata ...
, the
Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra The ''Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra'' (Sanskrit, "Discourse of the Descent into Laṅka" bo, ལང་ཀར་བཤེགས་པའི་མདོ་, Chinese:入楞伽經) is a prominent Mahayana Buddhist sūtra. This sūtra recounts a teachi ...
, and the
Huayan school The Huayan or Flower Garland school of Buddhism (, from sa, अवतंसक, Avataṃsaka) is a tradition of Mahayana Buddhist philosophy that first flourished in China during the Tang dynasty (618-907). The Huayan worldview is based prima ...
, with their emphasis on Buddha-nature, totality, and the
Bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood. In the Early Buddhist schools ...
-ideal. The Prajñāpāramitā literature, as well as
Madhyamaka Mādhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; ; Tibetan: དབུ་མ་པ ; ''dbu ma pa''), otherwise known as Śūnyavāda ("the emptiness doctrine") and Niḥsvabhāvavāda ("the no ''svabhāva'' doctrine"), refers to a tradition of Buddhi ...
thought, have also been influential in the shaping of the apophatic and sometimes
iconoclastic Iconoclasm (from Ancient Greek, Greek: grc, wikt:εἰκών, εἰκών, lit=figure, icon, translit=eikṓn, label=none + grc, wikt:κλάω, κλάω, lit=to break, translit=kláō, label=none)From grc, wikt:εἰκών, εἰκών + wi ...
nature of Zen rhetoric. Furthermore, the Chan School was also influenced by
Taoist philosophy Taoist philosophy ( Chinese: ; pinyin: '; ) also known as Taology refers to the various philosophical currents of Taoism, a tradition of Chinese origin which emphasizes living in harmony with the '' Dào'' (, also romanized as ''Tao''). The ' ...
, especially Neo-Daoist thought.


Etymology

The word ''Zen'' is derived from the
Japanese Japanese may refer to: * Something from or related to Japan, an island country in East Asia * Japanese language, spoken mainly in Japan * Japanese people, the ethnic group that identifies with Japan through ancestry or culture ** Japanese diaspor ...
pronunciation (
kana The term may refer to a number of syllabaries used to write Japanese phonological units, morae. Such syllabaries include (1) the original kana, or , which were Chinese characters (kanji) used phonetically to transcribe Japanese, the most p ...
: ぜん) of the
Middle Chinese Middle Chinese (formerly known as Ancient Chinese) or the Qieyun system (QYS) is the historical variety of Chinese recorded in the '' Qieyun'', a rime dictionary first published in 601 and followed by several revised and expanded editions. The ...
word 禪 (
Middle Chinese Middle Chinese (formerly known as Ancient Chinese) or the Qieyun system (QYS) is the historical variety of Chinese recorded in the '' Qieyun'', a rime dictionary first published in 601 and followed by several revised and expanded editions. The ...
: ʑian ), which in turn is derived from the
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
word '' dhyāna'' (ध्यान), which can be approximately translated as "contemplation", "absorption", or " meditative state". The actual Chinese term for the "Zen school" is 禪宗 (), while "Chan" just refers to the practice of meditation itself () or the study of meditation () though it is often used as an abbreviated form of ''Chánzong''. "Zen" is traditionally a proper noun as it usually describes a particular Buddhist sect. In more recent times, the lowercase "zen" is used when discussing the philosophy and was officially added to the Merriam-Webster dictionary in 2018.


Practice


Dhyāna

The practice of ''dhyana'' or
meditation Meditation is a practice in which an individual uses a technique – such as mindfulness, or focusing the mind on a particular object, thought, or activity – to train attention and awareness, and achieve a mentally clear and emotionally calm ...
, especially sitting meditation (坐禪,
Chinese Chinese can refer to: * Something related to China * Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity **''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation ** List of ethnic groups in China, people of ...
: ''zuòchán'',
Japanese Japanese may refer to: * Something from or related to Japan, an island country in East Asia * Japanese language, spoken mainly in Japan * Japanese people, the ethnic group that identifies with Japan through ancestry or culture ** Japanese diaspor ...
: ''
zazen ''Zazen'' (literally " seated meditation"; ja, 座禅; , pronounced ) is a meditative discipline that is typically the primary practice of the Zen Buddhist tradition. However, the term is a general one not unique to Zen, and thus technicall ...
'' / ざぜん) is a central part of Zen Buddhism.


Chinese Buddhism

The practice of
Buddhist meditation Buddhist meditation is the practice of meditation in Buddhism. The closest words for meditation in the classical languages of Buddhism are ''bhāvanā'' ("mental development") and '' jhāna/dhyāna'' (mental training resulting in a calm and ...
first entered China through the translations of
An Shigao An Shigao (, Korean: An Sego, Japanese: An Seikō, Vietnamese: An Thế Cao) (fl. c. 148-180 CE) was an early Buddhist missionary to China, and the earliest known translator of Indian Buddhist texts into Chinese. According to legend, he was a pri ...
(fl. c. 148–180 CE), and
Kumārajīva Kumārajīva (Sanskrit: कुमारजीव; , 344–413 CE) was a Buddhist monk, scholar, missionary and translator from the Kingdom of Kucha (present-day Aksu Prefecture, Xinjiang, China). Kumārajīva is seen as one of the greatest ...
(334–413 CE), who both translated '' Dhyāna sutras'', which were influential early meditation texts mostly based on the ''Yogacara'' (
yoga Yoga (; sa, योग, lit=yoke' or 'union ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India and aim to control (yoke) and still the mind, recognizing a detached witness-consci ...
praxis) teachings of the
Kashmiri Kashmiri may refer to: * People or things related to the Kashmir Valley or the broader region of Kashmir * Kashmiris, an ethnic group native to the Kashmir Valley * Kashmiri language, their language People with the name * Kashmiri Saikia Baruah ...
Sarvāstivāda The ''Sarvāstivāda'' (Sanskrit and Pali: 𑀲𑀩𑁆𑀩𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀺𑀯𑀸𑀤, ) was one of the early Buddhist schools established around the reign of Ashoka (3rd century BCE).Westerhoff, The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy ...
circa 1st–4th centuries CE.Deleanu, Florin (1992)
Mindfulness of Breathing in the Dhyāna Sūtras
Transactions of the International Conference of Orientalists in Japan (TICOJ) 37, 42–57.
Among the most influential early Chinese meditation texts include the ''
Anban Shouyi Jing Anban may refer to: *Anban, a utensil used in Korean cooking Korean cuisine has evolved through centuries of social and political change. Originating from ancient agricultural and nomadic traditions in Korea and southern Manchuria, Kore ...
'' (安般守意經, Sutra on ''ānāpānasmṛti''), the ''Zuochan Sanmei Jing'' (坐禪三昧經,Sutra of sitting dhyāna
samādhi ''Samadhi'' (Pali and sa, समाधि), in Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and yogic schools, is a state of meditative consciousness. In Buddhism, it is the last of the eight elements of the Noble Eightfold Path. In the Ashtanga Yoga ...
) and the ''Damoduoluo Chan Jing'' (達摩多羅禪經, Dharmatrata dhyāna sutra)''.'' These early Chinese meditation works continued to exert influence on Zen practice well into the modern era. For example, the 18th century Rinzai Zen master
Tōrei Enji (8 May 1721 - 10 April 1792) was an eminent Japanese Zen Buddhist monk, teacher, author, painter and calligrapher. He was the chief disciple and Dharma heir of famed Japanese Rinzai master Hakuin Ekaku (1685-1786) and was a major figure in the r ...
wrote a commentary on the ''Damoduoluo Chan Jing'' and used the ''Zuochan Sanmei Jing'' as source in the writing of this commentary. Tōrei believed that the ''Damoduoluo Chan Jing'' had been authored by Bodhidharma. While '' dhyāna'' in a strict sense refers to the four ''dhyānas'', in
Chinese Buddhism Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism ( zh, s=汉传佛教, t=漢傳佛教, p=Hànchuán Fójiào) is a Chinese form of Mahayana Buddhism which has shaped Chinese culture in a wide variety of areas including art, politics, literature, philosophy, ...
, ''dhyāna'' may refer to various kinds of meditation techniques and their preparatory practices, which are necessary to practice ''dhyāna''. The five main types of meditation in the ''Dhyāna sutras'' are ''ānāpānasmṛti'' (mindfulness of breathing); ''paṭikūlamanasikāra'' meditation (mindfulness of the impurities of the body); ''maitrī'' meditation (loving-kindness); the contemplation on the twelve links of '' pratītyasamutpāda''; and contemplation on the Buddha.Ven. Dr. Yuanci
A Study of the Meditation Methods in the DESM and Other Early Chinese Texts
The Buddhist Academy of China.
According to the modern Chan master
Sheng Yen Sheng Yen (), born Zhang Baokang (), (January 22, 1931 – February 3, 2009) was a Taiwanese Buddhist monk, religious scholar, and writer. He was one of the mainstream teachers of Chan Buddhism. He was a 57th generational dharma heir of Lin ...
, these practices are termed the "five methods for stilling or pacifying the mind" and serve to focus and purify the mind, and support the development of the stages of ''dhyana''. Chan also shares the practice of the four foundations of mindfulness and the Three Gates of Liberation ( emptyness or ''śūnyatā'', signlessness or ''animitta'', and wishlessness or ''apraṇihita'') with early Buddhism and classic
Mahayana ''Mahāyāna'' (; "Great Vehicle") is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India (c. 1st century BCE onwards) and is considered one of the three main existing br ...
.


Pointing to the nature of the mind

According to Charles Luk, in the earliest traditions of Chán, there was no fixed method or formula for teaching meditation, and all instructions were simply heuristic methods, to point to the true nature of the mind, also known as '' Buddha-nature''.Luk, Charles. ''The Secrets of Chinese Meditation.'' 1964. p. 44 According to Luk, this method is referred to as the "Mind Dharma", and exemplified in the story (in the
Flower Sermon The Flower Sermon is a story of the origin of Zen Buddhism in which Gautama Buddha transmits direct '' prajñā'' (wisdom) to the disciple Mahākāśyapa. In the original Chinese, the story is ''Niān huā wēi xiào'' (拈花微笑, literally " ...
) of Śākyamuni Buddha holding up a flower silently, and
Mahākāśyapa Mahākāśyapa ( pi, Mahākassapa) was one of the principal disciples of Gautama Buddha. He is regarded in Buddhism as an enlightened disciple, being foremost in ascetic practice. Mahākāśyapa assumed leadership of the monastic community fol ...
smiling as he understood. A traditional formula of this is, "Chán points directly to the human mind, to enable people to see their true nature and become buddhas."


Observing the mind

According to John McRae, "one of the most important issues in the development of early Ch'an doctrine is the rejection of traditional meditation techniques," that is, gradual self-perfection and the practices of contemplation on the body impurities and the four foundations of mindfulness. According to John R. McRae the "first explicit statement of the sudden and direct approach that was to become the hallmark of Ch'an religious practice" is associated with the East Mountain School. It is a method named "Maintaining the one without wavering" (''shou-i pu i,'' 守一不移), ''the one'' being the
nature of mind Nature, in the broadest sense, is the physical world or universe. "Nature" can refer to the phenomena of the physical world, and also to life in general. The study of nature is a large, if not the only, part of science. Although humans are p ...
, which is equated with Buddha-nature. According to Sharf, in this practice, one turns the attention from the objects of experience, to the
nature of mind Nature, in the broadest sense, is the physical world or universe. "Nature" can refer to the phenomena of the physical world, and also to life in general. The study of nature is a large, if not the only, part of science. Although humans are p ...
, the perceiving subject itself, which is equated with Buddha-nature. According to McRae, this type of meditation resembles the methods of "virtually all schools of Mahāyāna Buddhism," but differs in that "no preparatory requirements, no moral prerequisites or preliminary exercises are given," and is "without steps or gradations. One concentrates, understands, and is enlightened, all in one undifferentiated practice." Sharf notes that the notion of "Mind" came to be criticised by radical subitists, and was replaced by "No Mind," to avoid any reifications.


Meditation manuals

Early Chan texts also teach forms of meditation that are unique to
Mahāyāna ''Mahāyāna'' (; "Great Vehicle") is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India (c. 1st century BCE onwards) and is considered one of the three main existing br ...
Buddhism, for example, the ''Treatise on the Essentials of Cultivating the Mind'', which depicts the teachings of the 7th-century East Mountain school teaches a visualization of a sun disk, similar to that taught in the '' Sutra of the Contemplation of the Buddha Amitáyus.'' Later Chinese Buddhists developed their own meditation manuals and texts, one of the most influential being the works of the
Tiantai Tiantai or T'ien-t'ai () is an East Asian Buddhist school of Mahāyāna Buddhism that developed in 6th-century China. The school emphasizes the ''Lotus Sutra's'' doctrine of the "One Vehicle" (''Ekayāna'') as well as Mādhyamaka philosophy ...
patriarch,
Zhiyi Zhiyi (; 538–597 CE) also Chen De'an (陳德安), is the fourth patriarch of the Tiantai tradition of Buddhism in China. His standard title was Śramaṇa Zhiyi (沙門智顗), linking him to the broad tradition of Indian asceticism. Zhiyi i ...
. His works seemed to have exerted some influence on the earliest meditation manuals of the Chán school proper, an early work being the widely imitated and influential ''
Tso-chan-i The ''Zuòchán Yí'' or ''Principles of Zazen'' (), is a short Chan Buddhist meditation manual attributed to a monk named Changlu Zongze (c. 11th century) during the Northern Song dynasty (CE 960 - 1126) which exemplifies the practice of seated m ...
'' (Principles of sitting meditation, c. 11th century), which doesn't outline a
vipassana ''Samatha'' (Pāli; sa, शमथ ''śamatha''; ), "calm," "serenity," "tranquillity of awareness," and ''vipassanā'' (Pāli; Sanskrit ''vipaśyanā''), literally "special, super (''vi-''), seeing (''-passanā'')", are two qualities of the ...
practice which leads to wisdom ('' prajña''), but only recommends practicing samadhi which will lead to the discovery of inherent wisdom already present in the mind.


Common contemporary meditation forms


Mindfulness of breathing

During sitting meditation (坐禅, Ch. ''zuòchán,'' Jp. ''
zazen ''Zazen'' (literally " seated meditation"; ja, 座禅; , pronounced ) is a meditative discipline that is typically the primary practice of the Zen Buddhist tradition. However, the term is a general one not unique to Zen, and thus technicall ...
'', Ko. ''jwaseon''), practitioners usually assume a position such as the lotus position, half-lotus, Burmese, or
seiza ): "proper/correct sitting", seiza ( ja, , link=no): "quiet sitting" , Jing zuo '' Seiza '' ( or , literally "proper sitting") is the formal, traditional way of sitting in Japan. Form To sit ''seiza''-style, one must first be kneeling on the ...
, often using the dhyāna mudrā. Often, a square or round cushion placed on a padded mat is used to sit on; in some other cases, a chair may be used. To regulate the mind, Zen students are often directed towards counting breaths. Either both exhalations and inhalations are counted, or one of them only. The count can be up to ten, and then this process is repeated until the mind is calmed. Zen teachers like Omori Sogen teach a series of long and deep exhalations and inhalations as a way to prepare for regular breath meditation. Attention is usually placed on the energy center (''
dantian Dantian, dan t'ian, dan tien or tan t'ien is loosely translated as "elixir field", "sea of qi", or simply "energy center". Dantian are the "qi focus flow centers", important focal points for meditative and exercise techniques such as qigong, m ...
'') below the navel. Zen teachers often promote
diaphragmatic breathing Diaphragmatic breathing, abdominal breathing, belly breathing, or deep breathing, is breathing that is done by contracting the diaphragm, a muscle located horizontally between the thoracic cavity and abdominal cavity. Air enters the lungs as ...
, stating that the breath must come from the lower abdomen (known as hara or tanden in Japanese), and that this part of the body should expand forward slightly as one breathes. Over time the breathing should become smoother, deeper and slower. When the counting becomes an encumbrance, the practice of simply following the natural rhythm of breathing with concentrated attention is recommended.


Silent Illumination and ''shikantaza''

A common form of sitting meditation is called "Silent illumination" (Ch. ''mòzhào,'' Jp''. mokushō''). This practice was traditionally promoted by the
Caodong Caodong school () is a Chinese Chan Buddhist sect and one of the Five Houses of Chán. Etymology The key figure in the Caodong school was founder Dongshan Liangjie (807-869, 洞山良价 or Jpn. Tozan Ryokai). Some attribute the name "Cáodòng" ...
school of
Chinese Chan Chan (; of ), from Sanskrit '' dhyāna'' (meaning "meditation" or "meditative state"), is a Chinese school of Mahāyāna Buddhism. It developed in China from the 6th century CE onwards, becoming especially popular during the Tang and So ...
and is associated with
Hongzhi Zhengjue Hongzhi Zhengjue (, ), also sometimes called Tiantong Zhengjue (; ) (1091–1157), was an influential Chinese Chan Buddhist monk who authored or compiled several influential texts. Hongzhi's conception of ''silent illumination'' is of particular ...
(1091—1157) who wrote various works on the practice. This method derives from the Indian Buddhist practice of the union ( Skt. ''yuganaddha'') of ''
śamatha ''Samatha'' (Pāli; sa, शमथ ''śamatha''; ), "calm," "serenity," "tranquillity of awareness," and ''vipassanā'' (Pāli; Sanskrit ''vipaśyanā''), literally "special, super (''vi-''), seeing (''-passanā'')", are two qualities of the ...
'' and ''
vipaśyanā ''Samatha'' (Pāli; sa, शमथ ''śamatha''; ), "calm," "serenity," "tranquillity of awareness," and ''vipassanā'' (Pāli; Sanskrit ''vipaśyanā''), literally "special, super (''vi-''), seeing (''-passanā'')", are two qualities of the ...
.'' In Hongzhi's practice of "nondual objectless meditation" the mediator strives to be aware of the totality of phenomena instead of focusing on a single object, without any interference, conceptualizing, grasping, goal seeking, or subject-object duality. This practice is also popular in the major schools of Japanese Zen, but especially
Sōtō Sōtō Zen or is the largest of the three traditional sects of Zen in Japanese Buddhism (the others being Rinzai and Ōbaku). It is the Japanese line of the Chinese Cáodòng school, which was founded during the Tang dynasty by Dòngsh ...
, where it is more widely known as '' Shikantaza (Ch. zhǐguǎn dǎzuò, "Just sitting").'' Considerable textual, philosophical, and phenomenological justification of the practice can be found throughout the work of the Japanese
Sōtō Sōtō Zen or is the largest of the three traditional sects of Zen in Japanese Buddhism (the others being Rinzai and Ōbaku). It is the Japanese line of the Chinese Cáodòng school, which was founded during the Tang dynasty by Dòngsh ...
Zen thinker
Dōgen Dōgen Zenji (道元禅師; 26 January 1200 – 22 September 1253), also known as Dōgen Kigen (道元希玄), Eihei Dōgen (永平道元), Kōso Jōyō Daishi (高祖承陽大師), or Busshō Dentō Kokushi (仏性伝東国師), was a J ...
, especially in his ''
Shōbōgenzō is the title most commonly used to refer to the collection of works written in Japan by the 13th century Buddhist monk and founder of the Sōtō Zen school, Eihei Dōgen. Several other works exist with the same title (see above), and it is som ...
'', for example in the "Principles of Zazen" and the "Universally Recommended Instructions for Zazen". While the Japanese and the Chinese forms are similar, they are distinct approaches.


Hua Tou and Kōan contemplation

During the
Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdom ...
, ''gōng'àn ('' Jp. ''
kōan A (; , ; ko, 화두, ; vi, công án) is a story, dialogue, question, or statement which is used in Zen practice to provoke the "great doubt" and to practice or test a student's progress in Zen. Etymology The Japanese term is the Sino-J ...
)'' literature became popular. Literally meaning "public case", they were stories or dialogues, describing teachings and interactions between
Zen master Zen master is a somewhat vague English term that arose in the first half of the 20th century, sometimes used to refer to an individual who teaches Zen Buddhist meditation and practices, usually implying longtime study and subsequent authoriz ...
s and their students. These anecdotes give a demonstration of the master's insight. Kōan are meant to illustrate the non-conceptual insight ('' prajña'') that the Buddhist teachings point to. During the
Sòng dynasty The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...
, a new meditation method was popularized by figures such as Dahui, which was called ''kanhua chan'' ("observing the phrase" meditation), which referred to contemplation on a single word or phrase (called the '' huatou'', "critical phrase") of a ''gōng'àn''. In
Chinese Chan Chan (; of ), from Sanskrit '' dhyāna'' (meaning "meditation" or "meditative state"), is a Chinese school of Mahāyāna Buddhism. It developed in China from the 6th century CE onwards, becoming especially popular during the Tang and So ...
and
Korean Seon Seon or Sŏn Buddhism ( Korean: 선, 禪; IPA: ʌn is the Korean name for Chan Buddhism, a branch of Mahāyāna Buddhism commonly known in English as Zen Buddhism. Seon is the Sino-Korean pronunciation of Chan () an abbreviation of 禪那 ( ...
, this practice of "observing the ''huatou''" (''hwadu'' in Korean) is a widely practiced method. It was taught by the influential Seon master
Chinul Jinul Puril Bojo Daesa (, "Bojo Jinul"; 1158–1210), often called Jinul or Chinul for short, was a Korean monk of the Goryeo period, who is considered to be the most influential figure in the formation of Korean Seon (Zen) Buddhism. He is credi ...
(1158–1210), and modern Chinese masters like
Sheng Yen Sheng Yen (), born Zhang Baokang (), (January 22, 1931 – February 3, 2009) was a Taiwanese Buddhist monk, religious scholar, and writer. He was one of the mainstream teachers of Chan Buddhism. He was a 57th generational dharma heir of Lin ...
and
Xuyun Xuyun or Hsu Yun (; 5 September 1840? – 13 October 1959) was a renowned Chinese Chan Buddhist master and an influential Buddhist teacher of the 19th and 20th centuries. Early life Xuyun was purportedly born on 5 September 1840 in Fujian, Q ...
. Yet, while Dahui famously criticised "silent illumination," he nevertheless "did not completely condemn quiet-sitting; in fact, he seems to have recommended it, at least to his monastic disciples." In the Japanese
Rinzai The Rinzai school ( ja, , Rinzai-shū, zh, t=臨濟宗, s=临济宗, p=Línjì zōng) is one of three sects of Zen in Japanese Buddhism (along with Sōtō and Ōbaku). The Chinese Linji school of Chan was first transmitted to Japan by Myōan ...
school, ''
kōan A (; , ; ko, 화두, ; vi, công án) is a story, dialogue, question, or statement which is used in Zen practice to provoke the "great doubt" and to practice or test a student's progress in Zen. Etymology The Japanese term is the Sino-J ...
'' introspection developed its own formalized style, with a standardized curriculum of ''
kōan A (; , ; ko, 화두, ; vi, công án) is a story, dialogue, question, or statement which is used in Zen practice to provoke the "great doubt" and to practice or test a student's progress in Zen. Etymology The Japanese term is the Sino-J ...
s'', which must be studied and "passed" in sequence. This process includes standardized "checking questions" (''sassho'') and common sets of "capping phrases" (''
jakugo , or of a '' kōan'' is a proof of solution of the case riddle, but not the solution itself. In Zen Buddhism, kōan is used both as a meditation device and as an expression of – a radical experiential insight into the nature of things and ...
'') or poetry citations that are memorized by students as answers. The Zen student's mastery of a given kōan is presented to the teacher in a private interview (referred to in Japanese as ''dokusan'', ''daisan'', or ''sanzen''). While there is no unique answer to a kōan, practitioners are expected to demonstrate their spiritual understanding through their responses. The teacher may approve or disapprove of the answer and guide the student in the right direction. The interaction with a teacher is central in Zen, but makes Zen practice also vulnerable to misunderstanding and exploitation. Kōan-inquiry may be practiced during ''
zazen ''Zazen'' (literally " seated meditation"; ja, 座禅; , pronounced ) is a meditative discipline that is typically the primary practice of the Zen Buddhist tradition. However, the term is a general one not unique to Zen, and thus technicall ...
'' (sitting meditation)'',
kinhin Walking meditation, sometimes known as kinhin ( Chinese: 經行; Pinyin: ''jīngxíng''; Romaji: ''kinhin'' or ''kyōgyō''; Korean: ''gyeonghyaeng''; Vietnamese: ''kinh hành''), is a practice within several forms of Buddhism that involve moveme ...
'' (walking meditation), and throughout all the activities of daily life. The goal of the practice is often termed '' kensho'' (seeing one's true nature), and is to be followed by further practice to attain a natural, effortless, down-to-earth state of being, the "ultimate liberation", "knowing without any kind of defilement". Kōan practice is particularly emphasized in
Rinzai The Rinzai school ( ja, , Rinzai-shū, zh, t=臨濟宗, s=临济宗, p=Línjì zōng) is one of three sects of Zen in Japanese Buddhism (along with Sōtō and Ōbaku). The Chinese Linji school of Chan was first transmitted to Japan by Myōan ...
, but it also occurs in other schools or branches of Zen depending on the teaching line.


Nianfo chan

''
Nianfo Nianfo (, Japanese: , , vi, niệm Phật) is a term commonly seen in Pure Land Buddhism. In the context of Pure Land practice, it generally refers to the repetition of the name of Amitābha. It is a translation of Sanskrit '' '' (or, "recoll ...
'' (Jp. ''nembutsu,'' from Skt. ''
buddhānusmṛti Buddhānusmṛti (Sanskrit; Pali: Buddhānussati), meaning "Buddha-mindfulness", is a common Buddhist practice in all Buddhist traditions which involves meditating on the virtues of the Buddha, mainly Gautama Buddha as the meditation or contemplat ...
'' "recollection of the Buddha") refers to the recitation of the Buddha's name, in most cases the Buddha Amitabha. In Chinese Chan, the Pure Land practice of ''nianfo'' based on the phrase ''Nāmó Āmítuófó'' (Homage to Amitabha) is a widely practiced form of Zen meditation. This practice was adopted from
Pure land Buddhism Pure Land Buddhism (; ja, 浄土仏教, translit=Jōdo bukkyō; , also referred to as Amidism in English,) is a broad branch of Mahayana Buddhism focused on achieving rebirth in a Buddha's Buddha-field or Pure Land. It is one of the most wid ...
and syncretized with Chan meditation by Chinese figures such as
Yongming Yanshou Yongming Yanshou (; ) (904–976) was a prominent Buddhist monk during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period and early Song Dynasty in China. Biography Yongming Yanshou is first mentioned in biographical form by Zanning (贊寧) in a work ca ...
, Zhongfen Mingben, and Tianru Weize. During the late Ming, the harmonization of Pure land practices with Chan meditation was continued by figures such as Yunqi Zhuhong and
Hanshan Deqing Hānshān Déqīng () (1546–1623), formerly transliterated Han-Shan Te-Ch’ing, was a leading Buddhist monk and poet of Ming dynasty China who widely propagated the teachings of Chán and Pure Land Buddhism. Life According to his autob ...
. This practice, as well as its adaptation into the "''nembutsu
kōan A (; , ; ko, 화두, ; vi, công án) is a story, dialogue, question, or statement which is used in Zen practice to provoke the "great doubt" and to practice or test a student's progress in Zen. Etymology The Japanese term is the Sino-J ...
''" was also used by the Japanese
Ōbaku school The is one of several schools of Zen in Japanese Buddhism, in addition to Sōtō and Rinzai. History Often termed the third sect of Zen Buddhism in Japan, Ōbaku-shū was established in 1661 by a small faction of masters from China and thei ...
of Zen.


Bodhisattva virtues and vows

Since Zen is a form of Mahayana Buddhism, it is grounded on the schema of the
bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood. In the Early Buddhist schools ...
path, which is based on the practice of the "transcendent virtues" or "perfections" ( Skt. ''
pāramitā ''Pāramitā'' (Sanskrit, Pali: पारमिता) or ''pāramī'' (Pāli: पारमी), is a Buddhist term often translated as "perfection". It is described in Buddhist commentaries as noble character qualities generally associated wit ...
'', Ch. ''bōluómì'', Jp. ''baramitsu'') as well as the taking of the
bodhisattva vow The Bodhisattva vow is a vow (Sanskrit: ''praṇidhāna,'' lit. aspiration or resolution) taken by some Mahāyāna Buddhists to achieve full buddhahood for the sake of all sentient beings. One who has taken the vow is nominally known as a bodhi ...
s. The most widely used list of six virtues is:
generosity Generosity (also called largess) is the virtue of being liberal in giving, often as gifts. Generosity is regarded as a virtue by various world religions and philosophies, and is often celebrated in cultural and religious ceremonies. Scientific ...
, moral training (incl.
five precepts The Five precepts ( sa, pañcaśīla, italic=yes; pi, pañcasīla, italic=yes) or five rules of training ( sa, pañcaśikṣapada, italic=yes; pi, pañcasikkhapada, italic=yes) is the most important system of morality for Buddhist lay peo ...
), patient endurance, energy or effort,
meditation Meditation is a practice in which an individual uses a technique – such as mindfulness, or focusing the mind on a particular object, thought, or activity – to train attention and awareness, and achieve a mentally clear and emotionally calm ...
(''
dhyana Dhyana may refer to: Meditative practices in Indian religions * Dhyana in Buddhism (Pāli: ''jhāna'') * Dhyana in Hinduism * Jain Dhyāna, see Jain meditation Other *''Dhyana'', a work by British composer John Tavener (1944-2013) * ''Dhyana'' ...
''),
wisdom Wisdom, sapience, or sagacity is the ability to contemplate and act using knowledge, experience, understanding, common sense and insight. Wisdom is associated with attributes such as unbiased judgment, compassion, experiential self-knowle ...
. An important source for these teachings is the ''Avatamsaka sutra'', which also outlines the grounds ('' bhumis'') or levels of the bodhisattva path. The ''pāramitās'' are mentioned in early Chan works such as Bodhidharma's '' Two entrances and four practices'' and are seen as an important part of gradual cultivation (''jianxiu'') by later Chan figures like
Zongmi Guifeng Zongmi () (780–1 February 841) was a Tang dynasty Buddhist scholar and bhikkhu, installed as fifth patriarch of the Huayan school as well as a patriarch of the Heze school of Southern Chan Buddhism. He wrote a number of works on the ...
. An important element of this practice is the formal and ceremonial taking of refuge in the three jewels,
bodhisattva vow The Bodhisattva vow is a vow (Sanskrit: ''praṇidhāna,'' lit. aspiration or resolution) taken by some Mahāyāna Buddhists to achieve full buddhahood for the sake of all sentient beings. One who has taken the vow is nominally known as a bodhi ...
s and
precepts A precept (from the la, præcipere, to teach) is a commandment, instruction, or order intended as an authoritative rule of action. Religious law In religion, precepts are usually commands respecting moral conduct. Christianity The term is enco ...
. Various sets of precepts are taken in Zen including the
five precepts The Five precepts ( sa, pañcaśīla, italic=yes; pi, pañcasīla, italic=yes) or five rules of training ( sa, pañcaśikṣapada, italic=yes; pi, pañcasikkhapada, italic=yes) is the most important system of morality for Buddhist lay peo ...
, "ten essential precepts", and the sixteen bodhisattva precepts. This is commonly done in an initiation ritual ( Ch. ''shòu jiè'', Jp. ''Jukai'', Ko. ''sugye,'' "receiving the precepts"'')'', which is also undertaken by lay followers and marks a layperson as a formal Buddhist. The Chinese Buddhist practice of fasting (''zhai''), especially during the
uposatha The Uposatha ( sa, Upavasatha) is a Buddhist day of observance, in existence from the Buddha's time (600 BCE), and still being kept today by Buddhist practitioners. The Buddha taught that the Uposatha day is for "the cleansing of the defiled mind ...
days (Ch. ''zhairi,'' "days of fasting") can also be an element of Chan training. Chan masters may go on extended absolute fasts, as exemplified by master Hsuan Hua's 35 day fast, which he undertook during the Cuban missile crisis for the generation of merit.


Physical cultivation

Traditional martial arts, like Japanese archery, other forms of Japanese ''
budō is a Japanese term describing modern Japanese martial arts. Literally translated it means the "Martial Way", and may be thought of as the "Way of War" or the "Way of Martial Arts". Etymology Budō is a compound of the root ''bu'' ( 武:ぶ), ...
'' and
Chinese martial arts Chinese martial arts, often called by the umbrella terms kung fu (; ), kuoshu () or wushu (), are multiple fighting styles that have developed over the centuries in Greater China. These fighting styles are often classified according to common ...
(''gōngfu'') have also been seen as forms of zen praxis. This tradition goes back to the influential
Shaolin Monastery Shaolin Monastery (少林寺 ''Shàolínsì''), also known as Shaolin Temple, is a renowned monastic institution recognized as the birthplace of Chan Buddhism and the cradle of Shaolin Kung Fu. It is located at the foot of Wuru Peak of the So ...
in
Henan Henan (; or ; ; alternatively Honan) is a landlocked province of China, in the central part of the country. Henan is often referred to as Zhongyuan or Zhongzhou (), which literally means "central plain" or "midland", although the name is al ...
, which developed the first institutionalized form of ''gōngfu.'' By the late Ming, Shaolin ''gōngfu'' was very popular and widespread, as evidenced by mentions in various forms of Ming literature (featuring staff wielding fighting monks like Sun Wukong) and historical sources, which also speak of Shaolin's impressive monastic army that rendered military service to the state in return for patronage. These Shaolin practices, which began to develop around the 12th century, were also traditionally seen as a form of Chan Buddhist inner cultivation (today called ''wuchan'', "martial chan"). The Shaolin arts also made use of Taoist physical exercises ( ''taoyin'') breathing and
energy In physics, energy (from Ancient Greek: ἐνέργεια, ''enérgeia'', “activity”) is the quantitative property that is transferred to a body or to a physical system, recognizable in the performance of work and in the form of hea ...
cultivation ('' qìgōng'') practices. They were seen as therapeutic practices, which improved "internal strength" (''neili''), health and longevity (lit. "nourishing life" ''yangsheng''), as well as means to spiritual liberation. The influence of these Taoist practices can be seen in the work of Wang Zuyuan (ca. 1820–after 1882), a scholar and minor bureaucrat who studied at Shaolin. Wang's ''Illustrated Exposition of Internal Techniques'' (''Neigong tushuo'') shows how Shaolin exercises were drawn from Taoist methods like those of the ''Yi jin jing'' and Eight pieces of brocade, possibly influenced by the Ming dynasty's spirit of religious syncretism. According to the modern Chan master Sheng Yen,
Chinese Buddhism Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism ( zh, s=汉传佛教, t=漢傳佛教, p=Hànchuán Fójiào) is a Chinese form of Mahayana Buddhism which has shaped Chinese culture in a wide variety of areas including art, politics, literature, philosophy, ...
has adopted internal cultivation exercises from the Shaolin tradition as ways to "harmonize the body and develop concentration in the midst of activity." This is because, "techniques for harmonizing the
vital energy Vitalism is a belief that starts from the premise that "living organisms are fundamentally different from non-living entities because they contain some non-physical element or are governed by different principles than are inanimate things." Wher ...
are powerful assistants to the cultivation of ''
samadhi ''Samadhi'' (Pali and sa, समाधि), in Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and yogic schools, is a state of meditative consciousness. In Buddhism, it is the last of the eight elements of the Noble Eightfold Path. In the Ashtanga Yoga ...
'' and spiritual insight."
Korean Seon Seon or Sŏn Buddhism ( Korean: 선, 禪; IPA: ʌn is the Korean name for Chan Buddhism, a branch of Mahāyāna Buddhism commonly known in English as Zen Buddhism. Seon is the Sino-Korean pronunciation of Chan () an abbreviation of 禪那 ( ...
also has developed a similar form of active physical training, termed ''
Sunmudo Sunmudo (/, literally ''the way of war of the Seon'') is a Korean Buddhist martial art based on Seon (also spelled Sun or Zen), which was revived during the 1970s and 1980s. The formal name of Sunmudo is ''Bulgyo Geumgang Yeong Gwan'' (Hangul: ...
.'' In Japan, the classic combat arts (''
budō is a Japanese term describing modern Japanese martial arts. Literally translated it means the "Martial Way", and may be thought of as the "Way of War" or the "Way of Martial Arts". Etymology Budō is a compound of the root ''bu'' ( 武:ぶ), ...
'') and zen practice have been in contact since the embrace of
Rinzai The Rinzai school ( ja, , Rinzai-shū, zh, t=臨濟宗, s=临济宗, p=Línjì zōng) is one of three sects of Zen in Japanese Buddhism (along with Sōtō and Ōbaku). The Chinese Linji school of Chan was first transmitted to Japan by Myōan ...
Zen by the Hōjō clan in the 13th century, who applied zen discipline to their martial practice. One influential figure in this relationship was the Rinzai priest
Takuan Sōhō was a Japanese Buddhist prelate during the Sengoku and early Edo Periods of Japanese history. He was a major figure in the Rinzai school of Zen Buddhism. Noted for his calligraphy, poetry, tea ceremony, he is also popularly credited with the ...
who was well known for his writings on zen and ''
budō is a Japanese term describing modern Japanese martial arts. Literally translated it means the "Martial Way", and may be thought of as the "Way of War" or the "Way of Martial Arts". Etymology Budō is a compound of the root ''bu'' ( 武:ぶ), ...
'' addressed to the
samurai were the hereditary military nobility and officer caste of medieval and early-modern Japan from the late 12th century until their abolition in 1876. They were the well-paid retainers of the '' daimyo'' (the great feudal landholders). They h ...
class (especially his ''
The Unfettered Mind is a three-part treatise on Buddhist philosophy and martial arts written in the 17th century by Takuan Sōhō, a Japanese monk of the Rinzai sect. The title translates roughly to "The Mysterious Records of Immovable Wisdom". The book is a series ...
'') . The
Rinzai The Rinzai school ( ja, , Rinzai-shū, zh, t=臨濟宗, s=临济宗, p=Línjì zōng) is one of three sects of Zen in Japanese Buddhism (along with Sōtō and Ōbaku). The Chinese Linji school of Chan was first transmitted to Japan by Myōan ...
school also adopted certain Taoist energy practices. They were introduced by
Hakuin was one of the most influential figures in Japanese Zen Buddhism. He is regarded as the reviver of the Rinzai school from a moribund period of stagnation, focusing on rigorous training methods integrating meditation and koan practice. Biograp ...
(1686–1769) who learned various techniques from a hermit named Hakuyu who helped Hakuin cure his "Zen sickness" (a condition of physical and mental exhaustion). These energetic practices, known as ''Naikan'', are based on focusing the mind and one's vital energy (''ki'') on the '' tanden'' (a spot slightly below the navel).


The arts

Certain
arts The arts are a very wide range of human practices of creative expression, storytelling and cultural participation. They encompass multiple diverse and plural modes of thinking, doing and being, in an extremely broad range of media. Both ...
such as
painting Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface (called the "matrix" or "support"). The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, and ai ...
, calligraphy,
poetry Poetry (derived from the Greek ''poiesis'', "making"), also called verse, is a form of literature that uses aesthetic and often rhythmic qualities of language − such as phonaesthetics, sound symbolism, and metre − to evoke meanings i ...
, gardening,
flower arrangement Floral design or flower arrangement is the art of using plant materials and flowers to create an eye-catching and balanced composition or display. Evidence of refined floristry is found as far back as the culture of ancient Egypt. Professionally ...
,
tea ceremony An East Asian tea ceremony, or ''Chádào'' (), or ''Dado'' ( ko, 다도 (茶道)), is a ceremonially ritualized form of making tea (茶 ''cha'') practiced in East Asia by the Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans. The tea ceremony (), literally transl ...
and others have also been used as part of zen training and practice. Classical Chinese arts like
brush painting Ink wash painting ( zh, t=水墨畫, s=水墨画, p=shuǐmòhuà; ja, 水墨画, translit=suiboku-ga or ja, 墨絵, translit=sumi-e; ko, 수묵화, translit=sumukhwa) is a type of Chinese ink brush painting which uses black ink, such as tha ...
and calligraphy were used by Chan monk painters such as
Guanxiu Guanxiu () was a celebrated Buddhist monk, painter, poet, and calligrapher. His greatest works date from the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. The collapse of the central Tang government in 907, meant artists and craftsmen lost their most p ...
and
Muqi Fachang Muqi or Muxi (; Japanese: Mokkei; 1210?–1269?), also known as Fachang (), was a Chinese Chan Buddhist monk and painter who lived in the 13th century, around the end of the Southern Song dynasty (1127–1279). Today, he is considered to be one o ...
to communicate their spiritual understanding in unique ways to their students. Zen paintings are sometimes termed ''zenga'' in Japanese.
Hakuin was one of the most influential figures in Japanese Zen Buddhism. He is regarded as the reviver of the Rinzai school from a moribund period of stagnation, focusing on rigorous training methods integrating meditation and koan practice. Biograp ...
is one Japanese Zen master who was known to create a large corpus of unique ''sumi-e'' (ink and wash paintings) and Japanese calligraphy to communicate zen in a visual way. His work and that of his disciples were widely influential in Japanese Zen. Another example of Zen arts can be seen in the short lived
Fuke sect The term "Fuke" is Japanese and may refer to: * Fuke, known as Puhua, in Chinese, the legendary precursor to the eponymous Fuke Zen school of Buddhism in Japan * Fuke Zen The term "Fuke" is Japanese and may refer to: * Fuke, known as Puhua, in ...
of Japanese Zen, which practiced a unique form of "blowing zen" (''
suizen ''Suizen'' (吹禅) (“blowing Zen”) is a Zen practice consisting of playing the traditional Japanese shakuhachi bamboo flute as a means of attaining self-realization.''The Annals of the International Shakuhachi Society'', Volume 1. Ed. Dan E ...
'') by playing the '' shakuhachi'' bamboo flute.


Intensive group practice

Intensive group meditation may be practiced by serious Zen practitioners. In the Japanese language, this practice is called ''
sesshin A ''sesshin'' (接心, or also 摂心/攝心 literally "touching the heart-mind") is a period of intensive meditation (zazen) in a Zen monastery. While the daily routine in the monastery requires the monks to meditate several hours a day, d ...
''. While the daily routine may require monks to meditate for several hours each day, during the intensive period they devote themselves almost exclusively to zen practice. The numerous 30–50 minute long sitting meditation (''zazen'') periods are interwoven with rest breaks, ritualized formal meals (Jp. '' oryoki''), and short periods of work (Jp. '' samu'') that are to be performed with the same state of mindfulness. In modern Buddhist practice in Japan,
Taiwan Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the nort ...
, and the West, lay students often attend these intensive practice sessions or retreats. These are held at many Zen centers or temples.


Chanting and rituals

Most Zen monasteries, temples and centers perform various
ritual A ritual is a sequence of activities involving gestures, words, actions, or objects, performed according to a set sequence. Rituals may be prescribed by the traditions of a community, including a religious community. Rituals are characterized ...
s, services and
ceremonies A ceremony (, ) is a unified ritualistic event with a purpose, usually consisting of a number of artistic components, performed on a special occasion. The word may be of Etruscan origin, via the Latin '' caerimonia''. Church and civil (secular ...
(such as initiation ceremonies and
funerals A funeral is a ceremony connected with the final disposition of a corpse, such as a burial or cremation, with the attendant observances. Funerary customs comprise the complex of beliefs and practices used by a culture to remember and respect th ...
), which are always accompanied by the chanting of verses, poems or
sutras ''Sutra'' ( sa, सूत्र, translit=sūtra, translit-std=IAST, translation=string, thread)Monier Williams, ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press, Entry fo''sutra'' page 1241 in Indian literary traditions refers to an aph ...
. There are also ceremonies that are specifically for the purpose of sutra recitation (Ch. ''niansong'', Jp. ''nenju'') itself. Zen schools may have an official sutra book that collects these writings (in Japanese, these are called ''kyohon''). Practitioners may chant major
Mahayana sutras The Mahāyāna sūtras are a broad genre of Buddhist scriptures (''sūtra'') that are accepted as canonical and as ''buddhavacana'' ("Buddha word") in Mahāyāna Buddhism. They are largely preserved in the Chinese Buddhist canon, the Tibet ...
such as the '' Heart Sutra'' and chapter 25 of the ''
Lotus Sutra The ''Lotus Sūtra'' ( zh, 妙法蓮華經; sa, सद्धर्मपुण्डरीकसूत्रम्, translit=Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtram, lit=Sūtra on the White Lotus of the True Dharma, italic=) is one of the most influ ...
'' (often called the "
Avalokiteśvara In Buddhism, Avalokiteśvara (Sanskrit: अवलोकितेश्वर, IPA: ) is a bodhisattva who embodies the compassion of all Buddhas. He has 108 avatars, one notable avatar being Padmapāṇi (lotus bearer). He is variably depicted, ...
Sutra"). Dhāraṇīs and Zen poems may also be part of a Zen temple liturgy, including texts like the ''
Song of the Precious Mirror Samadhi The ''Song of the Precious Mirror Samadhi'' (; ; also translated as ''Song of the Jeweled Mirror Samadhi'' and ''Sacred Mirror Samadhi'') is a Zen poem in Classical Chinese that appeared during the Song Dynasty. The work is often attributed to Do ...
'', the ''
Sandokai The Sandōkai () is a poem by the eighth Chinese Zen ancestor Shitou Xiqian (Sekito Kisen, 700–790) and a fundamental text of the Sōtō school of Zen, chanted daily in temples throughout the world. Title The poem's title, "參同契", is pro ...
'', the ''
Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī The , also known as the , or Great Compassion Dhāraṇī / Mantra (Chinese: 大悲咒, ''Dàbēi zhòu''; Japanese: 大悲心陀羅尼, ''Daihishin darani'' or 大悲呪, ''Daihi shu''; Vietnamese: ''Chú đại bi'' or ''Đại bi tâm đà l ...
'', and the ''
Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra The Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra (Sanskrit: उष्णीष विजय धारणी सूत्र; IAST: uṣṇīṣa vijaya dhāraṇī sūtra, Chinese: 佛頂尊勝陀羅尼經; Pinyin: Fódǐng Zūnshèng Tuóluón ...
.'' The ''
butsudan A , sometimes spelled Butudan, is a shrine commonly found in temples and homes in Japanese Buddhist cultures. A ''butsudan'' is either a defined, often ornate platform or simply a wooden cabinet sometimes crafted with doors that enclose and p ...
'' is the
altar An altar is a table or platform for the presentation of religious offerings, for sacrifices, or for other ritualistic purposes. Altars are found at shrines, temples, churches, and other places of worship. They are used particularly in paga ...
in a monastery, temple or a lay person's home, where offerings are made to the images of the Buddha,
bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood. In the Early Buddhist schools ...
s and deceased family members and ancestors. Rituals usually center on major Buddhas or bodhisattvas like
Avalokiteśvara In Buddhism, Avalokiteśvara (Sanskrit: अवलोकितेश्वर, IPA: ) is a bodhisattva who embodies the compassion of all Buddhas. He has 108 avatars, one notable avatar being Padmapāṇi (lotus bearer). He is variably depicted, ...
(see Guanyin), Kṣitigarbha and Manjushri. An important element in Zen ritual practice is the performance of ritual Prostration (Buddhism), prostrations (Jp. ''raihai'') or bows. One popular form of ritual in Japanese Zen is ''Mizuko kuyō'' (Water child) ceremonies, which are performed for those who have had a miscarriage, stillbirth, or abortion. These ceremonies are also performed in American Zen Buddhism. A widely practiced ritual in
Chinese Chan Chan (; of ), from Sanskrit '' dhyāna'' (meaning "meditation" or "meditative state"), is a Chinese school of Mahāyāna Buddhism. It developed in China from the 6th century CE onwards, becoming especially popular during the Tang and So ...
is variously called the "Rite for releasing the hungry ghosts" or the "Releasing flaming mouth". The ritual might date back to the
Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdom ...
, and was very popular during the Ming and Qing dynasties, when Chinese Esoteric Buddhism, Chinese Esoteric Buddhist practices became diffused throughout
Chinese Buddhism Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism ( zh, s=汉传佛教, t=漢傳佛教, p=Hànchuán Fójiào) is a Chinese form of Mahayana Buddhism which has shaped Chinese culture in a wide variety of areas including art, politics, literature, philosophy, ...
. The Chinese holiday of the Ghost Festival might also be celebrated with similar rituals for the dead. These ghost rituals are a source of contention in modern Chinese Chan, and masters such as
Sheng Yen Sheng Yen (), born Zhang Baokang (), (January 22, 1931 – February 3, 2009) was a Taiwanese Buddhist monk, religious scholar, and writer. He was one of the mainstream teachers of Chan Buddhism. He was a 57th generational dharma heir of Lin ...
criticize the practice for not having "any basis in Buddhist teachings". Another important type of ritual practiced in Zen are various repentance or confession rituals (Jp. ''zange'') that were widely practiced in all forms of Chinese Mahayana Buddhism. One popular Chan text on this is known as the Emperor Liang Repentance Ritual, composed by Chan master Baozhi. Dōgen, Dogen also wrote a treatise on repentance, the ''Shushogi.'' Other rituals could include rites dealing with Chinese deities, local deities (''kami'' in Japan), and ceremonies on Buddhist holidays such as Buddha's Birthday. Buddhist funeral, Funerals are also an important ritual and are a common point of contact between Zen monastics and the laity. Statistics published by the Sōtō school state that 80 percent of Sōtō laymen visit their temple only for reasons having to do with funerals and death. Seventeen percent visit for spiritual reasons and 3 percent visit a Zen priest at a time of personal trouble or crisis.


Esoteric practices

Depending on the tradition, Vajrayana, esoteric methods such as Mantras, mantra and Dharani, dhāraṇī are also used for different purposes including meditation practice, protection from evil, invoking great compassion, invoking the power of certain bodhisattvas, and are chanted during ceremonies and rituals. In the Kwan Um School of Zen, Kwan Um school of Zen for example, a mantra of Guanyin ("''Kwanseum Bosal''") is used during sitting meditation. The Heart Sutra#Mantra, Heart Sutra Mantra is also another mantra that is used in Zen during various rituals. Another example is the Mantra of Light (''kōmyō shingon''), which is common in Japanese Sōtō, Soto Zen and was derived from the Shingon Buddhism, Shingon sect. In
Chinese Chan Chan (; of ), from Sanskrit '' dhyāna'' (meaning "meditation" or "meditative state"), is a Chinese school of Mahāyāna Buddhism. It developed in China from the 6th century CE onwards, becoming especially popular during the Tang and So ...
, the usage of esoteric mantras in Zen goes back to the
Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdom ...
. There is evidence that Chan Buddhism, Chan Buddhists adopted practices from Chinese Esoteric Buddhism in Dunhuang manuscripts, findings from Dunhuang. According to Henrik Sørensen, several successors of Yuquan Shenxiu, Shenxiu (such as Jingxian and Yixing) were also students of the Chinese Esoteric Buddhism, Zhenyan (Mantra) school. Influential esoteric Dharani, dhāraṇī, such as the ''
Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra The Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra (Sanskrit: उष्णीष विजय धारणी सूत्र; IAST: uṣṇīṣa vijaya dhāraṇī sūtra, Chinese: 佛頂尊勝陀羅尼經; Pinyin: Fódǐng Zūnshèng Tuóluón ...
'' and the ''
Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī The , also known as the , or Great Compassion Dhāraṇī / Mantra (Chinese: 大悲咒, ''Dàbēi zhòu''; Japanese: 大悲心陀羅尼, ''Daihishin darani'' or 大悲呪, ''Daihi shu''; Vietnamese: ''Chú đại bi'' or ''Đại bi tâm đà l ...
'', also begin to be cited in the literature of the Baotang school during the Tang dynasty. Many mantras have been preserved since the Tang period and continue to be practiced in modern Chan monasteries. One common example is the Shurangama Mantra, Śūraṅgama Mantra,which has been heavily propagated by various prominent Chan monks, such as Venerable Hsuan Hua who founded the City of Ten Thousand Buddhas. Another example of esoteric rituals practiced by the Chan school is the Mengshan Rite for Feeding Hungry ghost, Hungry Ghosts, which is practiced by both monks and laypeople during the Ghost Festival, Hungry Ghost Festival. Chan repentance rituals, such as the Liberation Rite of Water and Land, also involve various esoteric aspects, including the invocation of esoteric deities such as the Five Wisdom Buddhas and the Wisdom King#The Ten Wisdom Kings, Ten Wisdom Kings. There is documentation that monks living at Shaolin Monastery, Shaolin temple during the eighth century performed esoteric practices there such as mantra and dharani, and that these also influenced Korean Seon Buddhism. During the Joseon, Joseon dynasty, the Seon school was not only the dominant tradition in Korea, but it was also highly inclusive and ecumenical in its doctrine and practices, and this included Esoteric Buddhist lore and rituals (that appear in Seon literature from the 15th century onwards). According to Sørensen, the writings of several Seon masters (such as Hyujeong) reveal they were esoteric adepts. In Japanese Zen, the use of esoteric practices within Zen is sometimes termed "mixed Zen" (''kenshū zen'' 兼修禪), and the figure of Keizan, Keizan Jōkin (1264–1325) is seen as introducing this into the Sōtō, Soto school. The Japanese founder of the Rinzai school, Eisai, Myōan Eisai (1141–1215) was also a well known practitioner of esoteric Buddhism and wrote various works on the subject. According to William Bodiford, a very common Dharani, dhāraṇī in Japanese Zen is the Śūraṅgama Sūtra#White Parasol Crown Dhāraṇī, Śūraṅgama spell (''Ryōgon shu'' 楞嚴呪; T. 944A), which is repeatedly chanted during summer training retreats as well as at "every important monastic ceremony throughout the year" in Zen monasteries. Some Zen temples also perform esoteric rituals, such as the Homa (ritual)#Buddhism, homa ritual, which is performed at the Soto temple of Eigen-ji (in Saitama Prefecture, Saitama prefecture). As Bodiford writes, "perhaps the most notable examples of this phenomenon is the ambrosia gate (''kanro mon'' 甘露門) ritual performed at every Sōtō Zen temple", which is associated feeding hungry ghosts, Sorei, ancestor memorial rites and the Ghost Festival, ghost festival. Bodiford also notes that formal Zen rituals of Dharma transmission often involve esoteric initiations.


Doctrine

Zen teachings can be likened to "the finger pointing at the moon". Zen teachings point to the moon, Enlightenment in Buddhism, awakening, "a realization of the unimpeded interpenetration of the dharmadhatu". But the Zen-tradition also warns against taking its teachings, the pointing finger, to be this insight itself.


Buddhist Mahayana influences

Though Zen-narrative states that it is a "special transmission outside scriptures", which "did not stand upon words", Zen does have a rich doctrinal background that is firmly grounded in the Buddhist philosophy, Buddhist tradition. It was thoroughly influenced by
Mahayana ''Mahāyāna'' (; "Great Vehicle") is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India (c. 1st century BCE onwards) and is considered one of the three main existing br ...
teachings on the
bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva ( ; sa, 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), translit=bodhisattva, label=Sanskrit) or bodhisatva is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood. In the Early Buddhist schools ...
path, Chinese
Madhyamaka Mādhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; ; Tibetan: དབུ་མ་པ ; ''dbu ma pa''), otherwise known as Śūnyavāda ("the emptiness doctrine") and Niḥsvabhāvavāda ("the no ''svabhāva'' doctrine"), refers to a tradition of Buddhi ...
(''East Asian Mādhyamaka, Sānlùn''), Yogachara, Yogacara (''East Asian Yogācāra, Wéishí''), ''Prajnaparamita, Prajñaparamita,'' the ''
Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra The ''Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra'' (Sanskrit, "Discourse of the Descent into Laṅka" bo, ལང་ཀར་བཤེགས་པའི་མདོ་, Chinese:入楞伽經) is a prominent Mahayana Buddhist sūtra. This sūtra recounts a teachi ...
'', and other Buddha-nature, Buddha nature texts. The influence of
Madhyamaka Mādhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; ; Tibetan: དབུ་མ་པ ; ''dbu ma pa''), otherwise known as Śūnyavāda ("the emptiness doctrine") and Niḥsvabhāvavāda ("the no ''svabhāva'' doctrine"), refers to a tradition of Buddhi ...
and ''Prajnaparamita, Prajñaparamita'' can be discerned in the stress on non-conceptual wisdom (''Prajna in Buddhism (Insight), prajña'') and the apophatic language of Zen literature. The philosophy of the Huayan school also had an influence on
Chinese Chan Chan (; of ), from Sanskrit '' dhyāna'' (meaning "meditation" or "meditative state"), is a Chinese school of Mahāyāna Buddhism. It developed in China from the 6th century CE onwards, becoming especially popular during the Tang and So ...
. One example is the Huayan doctrine of the Huayan#Interpenetration, interpenetration of phenomena, which also makes use of native Chinese philosophical concepts such as principle (''li'') and phenomena (''shi''). The Huayan Huayan#Fourfold Dharmadhatu and meditation, theory of the Fourfold Dharmadhatu also influenced the Five Ranks of Dongshan Liangjie (806–869), the founder of the Caodong Chan lineage.


Buddha-nature and subitism

Central in the doctrinal development of Chan Buddhism was the notion of Buddha-nature, the idea that the awakened mind of a Buddha is already present in each sentient being (''pen chueh'' in Chinese Buddhism, ''hongaku'' in Japanese Zen). This Buddha-nature was initially equated with the
nature of mind Nature, in the broadest sense, is the physical world or universe. "Nature" can refer to the phenomena of the physical world, and also to life in general. The study of nature is a large, if not the only, part of science. Although humans are p ...
, while later Chan-teachings evaded any reification by rejecting any positivist terminology. The idea of the immanent character of the Buddha-nature took shape in a characteristic emphasis on direct insight into, and expression of this Buddha-nature. It led to a reinterpretation and Sinification of Indian meditation terminology, and an emphasis on subitism, the idea that the Buddhist teachings and practices are comprehended and expressed "sudden," c.q. "in one glance," "uncovered all together," or "together, completely, simultaneously," in contrast to gradualism, "successively or being uncovered one after the other." The emphasis on subitism led to the idea that "enlightenment occurs in a single transformation that is both total and instantaneous" (Ch. ''shih-chueh''). While the attribution of gradualism, attributed by Shenhui to a concurring faction, was a rhetoric device, it led to a conceptual dominance in the Chan-tradition of subitism, in which any charge of gradualism was to be avoided. This "rhetorical purity" was hard to reconcile conceptually with the actual practice of meditation, and left little place in Zen texts for the description of actual meditation practices, apparently rejecting any form of practice. Instead, those texts directly pointed to and expressed this awakened nature, giving way to the paradoxically nature of encounter dialogue and koans.


Caodong/Sōtō/Tào Động

Sōtō is the Japanese line of the Chinese Caodong school, which was founded during the Tang Dynasty by Dongshan Liangjie. The Sōtō-school has de-emphasized kōans since Gentō Sokuchū (circa 1800), and instead emphasized shikantaza. Dogen, the founder of Soto in Japan, emphasized that practice and awakening cannot be separated. By practicing shikantaza, attainment and Buddhahood are already being expressed. For Dogen, zazen, or shikantaza, is the essence of Buddhist practice. Gradual cultivation was also recognized by Dongshan Liangjie. A lineage also exists in Vietnam, founded by 17th-century Chan master Thông Giác Đạo Nam. In Vietnamese, the school is known as "Tào Động."


Linji/Rinzai

The Rinzai school is the Japanese lineage of the Chinese Linji school, which was founded during the
Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdom ...
by Linji Yixuan. The Rinzai school emphasizes kensho, insight into one's true nature. This is followed by so-called Kenshō#Training after kenshō, post-satori practice, further practice to attain Buddhahood. Other Zen-teachers have also expressed sudden insight followed by gradual cultivation. Jinul, a 12th-century
Korean Seon Seon or Sŏn Buddhism ( Korean: 선, 禪; IPA: ʌn is the Korean name for Chan Buddhism, a branch of Mahāyāna Buddhism commonly known in English as Zen Buddhism. Seon is the Sino-Korean pronunciation of Chan () an abbreviation of 禪那 ( ...
master, followed Zongmi, and also emphasized that insight into our true nature is sudden, but is to be followed by practice to ripen the insight and attain full buddhahood. This is also the standpoint of the contemporary Sanbo Kyodan, according to whom kenshō is at the start of the path to full enlightenment. To attain this primary insight and to deepen it, zazen and kōan-study is deemed essential. This trajectory of initial insight followed by a gradual deepening and ripening is expressed by Linji in his Linji Yixuan#Expressing the inexpressible, Three Mysterious Gates and Hakuin Ekaku#Four ways of knowing, Hakuin Ekaku's ''Four Ways of Knowing''. Another example of depiction of stages on the path are the Ten Bulls, which detail the steps on the path.


Scripture


The role of the scripture

Zen is deeply rooted in the teachings and doctrines of Mahayana, Mahāyāna Buddhism. Classic Zen texts, such as the Platform Sutra, Platform sutra, contain numerous references to Buddhist canonical sutras. According to Sharf, Zen monastics "are expected to become familiar with the classics of the Zen canon". A review of the early historical documents and literature of early Zen masters clearly reveals that they were well versed in numerous Mahayana sutras, Mahāyāna sūtras, as well as Buddhist philosophy#Indian Mahāyāna philosophy, Mahayana Buddhist philosophy such as
Madhyamaka Mādhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; ; Tibetan: དབུ་མ་པ ; ''dbu ma pa''), otherwise known as Śūnyavāda ("the emptiness doctrine") and Niḥsvabhāvavāda ("the no ''svabhāva'' doctrine"), refers to a tradition of Buddhi ...
. Nevertheless, Zen is often pictured as Anti-intellectualism, anti-intellectual. This #Zen narratives, picture of Zen emerged during the Song Dynasty (960–1297), when Chán became the dominant form of Buddhism in China, and gained great popularity among the educated and literary classes of Chinese society. The use of Kōan, koans, which are highly stylized literary texts, reflects this popularity among the higher classes. The famous saying "do not establish words and letters", attributed in this period to Bodhidharma, What the Zen tradition emphasizes is that the Enlightenment in Buddhism, enlightenment of the Buddha came not through conceptualization but rather through direct insight. But direct insight has to be supported by study and understanding (''hori'') of the Buddhist teachings and texts. Intellectual understanding without practice is called ''yako-zen'', Wild fox koan, "wild fox Zen", but "one who has only experience without intellectual understanding is a ''zen temma'', 'Zen devil.


Grounding Chán in scripture

The early Buddhist schools in China were each based on a specific sutra. At the beginning of the Tang Dynasty, by the time of the Fifth Patriarch Daman Hongren, Hongren (601–674), the Zen school became established as a separate school of Buddhism. It had to develop a doctrinal tradition of its own to ascertain its position and to ground its teachings in a specific sutra. Various sutras were used for this even before the time of Hongren: the Śrīmālādevī Sūtra, ''Śrīmālādevī Sūtra'' (Huike), ''Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana, Awakening of Faith (''Daoxin), the Lankavatara Sutra, ''Lankavatara Sutra'' (East Mountain School), the Diamond Sutra, ''Diamond Sutra'' (Shenhui), and the Platform Sutra, ''Platform Sutra''. The Chan tradition drew inspiration from a variety of sources and thus did not follow any single scripture over the others. Subsequently, the Zen tradition produced a rich corpus of written literature, which has become a part of its practice and teaching. Other influential sutras are the Vimalakirti Sutra, ''Vimalakirti Sutra'', Avatamsaka Sutra, ''Avatamsaka Sutra'', the Shurangama Sutra, ''Shurangama Sutra'', and the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra, ''Mahaparinirvana Sutra''. In his analysis of the works of the influential Hongzhou school of Chan, Mario Poceski notes that they cite the following Mahayana sutras: the
Lotus Sutra The ''Lotus Sūtra'' ( zh, 妙法蓮華經; sa, सद्धर्मपुण्डरीकसूत्रम्, translit=Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtram, lit=Sūtra on the White Lotus of the True Dharma, italic=) is one of the most influ ...
法華經, the Avatamsaka Sutra, Huayan 華嚴經, the Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra, Nirvana 涅盤經, the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, Laṅkāvatāra 楞伽經, the Prajnaparamita, Prajñāpāramitās 般若經, the Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra, Mahāratnakūta 大寶積經, the Mahasamnipata Sutra, Mahāsamnipāta 大集經, and the Vimalakirti Sutra, Vimalakīrti 維摩經.


Literature

The Zen-tradition developed a rich textual tradition, based on the interpretation of the Buddhist teachings and the recorded sayings of Zen-masters. Important texts are the Platform Sutra (8th century), attributed to Huineng ; the Chán transmission records, teng-lu, such as ''The Records of the Transmission of the Lamp'' (Ching-te ch'uan-teng lu), compiled by Tao-yün and published in 1004; the "yü-lü" genre consisting of the recorded sayings of the masters, and the encounter dialogues; the koan-collections, such as the "Gateless Gate" and the "Blue Cliff Record".


Organization and institutions

Religion is not only an individual matter, but "also a collective endeavour". Though individual experience and the iconoclastic picture of Zen are emphasised in the Western world, the Zen-tradition is maintained and transferred by a high degree of institutionalisation and hierarchy. In Japan, modernity has led to criticism of the formal system and the commencement of lay-oriented Zen-schools such as the Sanbo Kyodan and the Ryomo Kyokai, Ningen Zen Kyodan. How to organize the continuity of the Zen-tradition in the West, constraining charismatic authority and the derailment it may bring on the one hand, and maintaining the legitimacy and authority by limiting the number of authorized teachers on the other hand, is a challenge for the developing Zen-communities in the West.


Narratives

The Chán of the Tang Dynasty, especially that of Mazu Daoyi, Mazu and Linji Yixuan, Linji with its emphasis on "shock techniques", in retrospect was seen as a golden age of Chán. It became dominant during the Song Dynasty, when Chán was the dominant form of Buddhism in China, due to support from the Imperial Court. This picture has gained great popularity in the West in the 20th century, especially due to the influence of D.T. Suzuki, and further popularized by Hakuun Yasutani and the Sanbo Kyodan. This picture has been challenged, and complemented, since the 1970s by modern scientific research on Zen. Modern scientific research on the history of Zen discerns three main narratives concerning Zen, its history and its teachings: Traditional Zen Narrative (TZN), Buddhist Modernism (BM), Historical and Cultural Criticism (HCC). An external narrative is Nondualism, which claims Zen to be a token of a universal nondualist essence of religions.


History


Chinese Chán

Zen (
Chinese Chinese can refer to: * Something related to China * Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity **''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation ** List of ethnic groups in China, people of ...
: ''Chán'' 禪) Buddhism, as we know it today, is the result of a long history, with many changes and contingent factors. Each period had different types of Zen, some of which remained influential, while others vanished. The Chan Buddhism#History, history of Chán in China is divided into various periods by different scholars, who generally distinguish a classical phase and a post-classical period. Ferguson distinguishes three periods from the 5th century into the 13th century: # The Legendary period, from Bodhidharma in the late 5th century to the An Lushan Rebellion around 765 CE, in the middle of the Tang Dynasty. Little written information is left from this period. It is the time of the Six Patriarchs, including Bodhidharma and Huineng, and the legendary "split" between the Northern and the Southern School of Chán. # The Classical period, from the end of the An Lushan Rebellion around 765 CE to the beginning of the Song Dynasty around 950 CE. This is the time of the great masters of Chán, such as Mazu Daoyi and Linji Yixuan, and the creation of the ''yü-lü'' genre, the recordings of the sayings and teachings of these great masters. # The Literary period, from around 950 to 1250, which spans the era of the Song Dynasty (960–1279). In this time the Koan, gongan-collections were compiled, collections of sayings and deeds by the famous masters, appended with poetry and commentary. This genre reflects the influence of ''literati'' on the development of Chán. This period idealized the previous period as the "golden age" of Chán, producing the literature in which the spontaneity of the celebrated masters was portrayed. Although McRae has reservations about the division of Chán-history in phases or periods, he nevertheless distinguishes four phases in the history of Chán: # Proto-Chán (c. 500–600) (Southern and Northern Dynasties (420 to 589) and Sui Dynasty (589–618 CE)). In this phase, Chán developed in multiple locations in northern China. It was based on the practice of ''dhyana'' and is connected to the figures of Bodhidharma and Huike. Its principal text is the Long Scroll of the Treatise on the Two Entrances and Four Practices, Two Entrances and Four Practices, attributed to Bodhidharma. #Early Chán (c. 600–900) (Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE)). In this phase Chán took its first clear contours. Prime figures are the fifth patriarch Daman Hongren (601–674), his dharma-heir Yuquan Shenxiu (606?–706), the sixth patriarch Huineng (638–713), protagonist of the quintessential Platform Sutra, and Shenhui (670–762), whose propaganda elevated Huineng to the status of sixth patriarch. Prime factions are the East Mountain Teaching, Northern School, Southern School and Oxhead school. # Middle Chán (c. 750–1000) (from An Lushan Rebellion (755–763) till Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907–960/979)). In this phase developed the well-known Chán of the iconoclastic zen-masters. Prime figures are Mazu Daoyi (709–788), Shitou Xiqian (710–790), Linji Yixuan (died 867), and Xuefeng Yicun (822–908). Prime factions are the Hongzhou school and the Hubei faction An important text is the Bodhidharma#, Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall (952), which gives a great amount of "encounter-stories", and the well-known genealogy of the Chán-school. # Song Dynasty Chán (c. 950–1300). In this phase Chán took its definitive shape including the picture of the "golden age" of the Chán of the Tang-Dynasty, and the use of koans for individual study and meditation. Prime figures are Dahui Zonggao (1089–1163) who introduced the Hua Tou practice and
Hongzhi Zhengjue Hongzhi Zhengjue (, ), also sometimes called Tiantong Zhengjue (; ) (1091–1157), was an influential Chinese Chan Buddhist monk who authored or compiled several influential texts. Hongzhi's conception of ''silent illumination'' is of particular ...
(1091–1157) who emphasized Shikantaza. Prime factions are the Rinzai school, Linji school and the Caodong school. The classic koan-collections, such as the Blue Cliff Record were assembled in this period, which reflect the influence of the "literati" on the development of Chán. In this phase Chán is transported to Japan, and exerts a great influence on Korean Seon via Jinul. Neither Ferguson nor McRae give a periodisation for Chinese Chán following the Song-dynasty, though McRae mentions "at least a post-classical phase or perhaps multiple phases". According to David McMahan:
During the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) and the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912) Chán was part of a larger, syncretic Buddhist culture. A final phase can be distinguished from the 19th century onward, when western imperialism had a growing influence in South-East Asia, including China. A side effect of this imperial influence was the modernisation of Asian religions, adapting them to western ideas and rhetorical strategies.


Origins

Before the arrival of the "founder" of Chan, Bodhidharma, various Buddhist masters of meditation or ''
dhyana Dhyana may refer to: Meditative practices in Indian religions * Dhyana in Buddhism (Pāli: ''jhāna'') * Dhyana in Hinduism * Jain Dhyāna, see Jain meditation Other *''Dhyana'', a work by British composer John Tavener (1944-2013) * ''Dhyana'' ...
'' (i.e. Chan) had taught in China. These figures also brought with them various meditation texts, called the Dhyāna sutras (
Chinese Chinese can refer to: * Something related to China * Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity **''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation ** List of ethnic groups in China, people of ...
: 禪經 ''chan jing''). These early meditation works mainly drew from the teachings of the
Sarvāstivāda The ''Sarvāstivāda'' (Sanskrit and Pali: 𑀲𑀩𑁆𑀩𑀢𑁆𑀣𑀺𑀯𑀸𑀤, ) was one of the early Buddhist schools established around the reign of Ashoka (3rd century BCE).Westerhoff, The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy ...
school of Kashmir. These texts include the translations of the Parthian Empire, Parthian
An Shigao An Shigao (, Korean: An Sego, Japanese: An Seikō, Vietnamese: An Thế Cao) (fl. c. 148-180 CE) was an early Buddhist missionary to China, and the earliest known translator of Indian Buddhist texts into Chinese. According to legend, he was a pri ...
(147–168 CE) like the ''Anban shouyi jing'' (Sanskrit: ''Anapanasati, Ānāpānasmṛti-sūtra''), the numerous translations of
Kumārajīva Kumārajīva (Sanskrit: कुमारजीव; , 344–413 CE) was a Buddhist monk, scholar, missionary and translator from the Kingdom of Kucha (present-day Aksu Prefecture, Xinjiang, China). Kumārajīva is seen as one of the greatest ...
(334–413 CE, such as the ''Zuochan sanmei jing'' (Sutra of Sitting Dhyāna samādhi) and those of Buddhabhadra (translator), Buddhabhadra (like the ''Damoduoluo chan jing,'' Dharmatrāta Dhyāna sūtra). These early meditation texts laid the groundwork for the practices of Chan Buddhism (Zen) and the works of the
Tiantai Tiantai or T'ien-t'ai () is an East Asian Buddhist school of Mahāyāna Buddhism that developed in 6th-century China. The school emphasizes the ''Lotus Sutra's'' doctrine of the "One Vehicle" (''Ekayāna'') as well as Mādhyamaka philosophy ...
meditation master
Zhiyi Zhiyi (; 538–597 CE) also Chen De'an (陳德安), is the fourth patriarch of the Tiantai tradition of Buddhism in China. His standard title was Śramaṇa Zhiyi (沙門智顗), linking him to the broad tradition of Indian asceticism. Zhiyi i ...
. The translation work of Kumārajīva (especially his '' Prajñāpāramitā'' translations and his ''Vimalakirti Sutra''), Buddhabhadra (''Avatamsaka Sutra'') and Guṇabhadra, Gunabhadra (''Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, Lankāvatāra sūtra'') were also key formative influences on the origins of Chan. These Buddhist texts are some of the key sources for later Chan masters. Indeed, in some early Chan texts (like the ''Lengqie shizi ji, Masters of the Lankāvatāra''), it is Gunabhadra, not Bodhidharma, which is seen as the first patriarch who transmits the Chan lineage (here seen as synonymous with the ''Lankāvatāra'' tradition) from India. The meditation works of the fourth Tiantai patriarch
Zhiyi Zhiyi (; 538–597 CE) also Chen De'an (陳德安), is the fourth patriarch of the Tiantai tradition of Buddhism in China. His standard title was Śramaṇa Zhiyi (沙門智顗), linking him to the broad tradition of Indian asceticism. Zhiyi i ...
, such as his monumental ''Mohe Zhiguan, Mohezhiguan'', were also important sources on later Chan meditation manuals, like the ''
Tso-chan-i The ''Zuòchán Yí'' or ''Principles of Zazen'' (), is a short Chan Buddhist meditation manual attributed to a monk named Changlu Zongze (c. 11th century) during the Northern Song dynasty (CE 960 - 1126) which exemplifies the practice of seated m ...
''. A further possible influence on the origin of Chan Buddhism is Taoism. Some of the earliest Chinese Buddhists were influenced by Daoist thought and terminology and this has led some scholars to see a Taoist influence on Chan. In his history of Zen, Heinrich Dumoulin argued that Chan Buddhist developed out of the confluence of Indian Mahayana and Chinese Taoism. Two Chinese disciples of Kumārajīva, Sengzhao and Tao Sheng were influenced by Taoist works like the Laozi and Zhuang Zhou, Zhuangzi. These East Asian Mādhyamaka, Sanlun figures in turn had an influence on some early Chan masters.


Proto-Chán

Proto-Chán (c. 500–600) encompasses the Southern and Northern Dynasties period (420 to 589) and Sui Dynasty (589–618 CE). In this phase, Chán developed in multiple locations in northern China. It was based on the practice of ''
dhyana Dhyana may refer to: Meditative practices in Indian religions * Dhyana in Buddhism (Pāli: ''jhāna'') * Dhyana in Hinduism * Jain Dhyāna, see Jain meditation Other *''Dhyana'', a work by British composer John Tavener (1944-2013) * ''Dhyana'' ...
'' and is connected to the figures of Bodhidharma, Seng-fu and Dazu Huike, Huike, though there is little actual historical information about these early figures and most legendary stories about their life come from later, mostly Tang dynasty, Tang sources. What is known is that they were considered Mahayana meditation masters. An important text from this period is the ''Long Scroll of the Treatise on the Two Entrances and Four Practices, Two Entrances and Four Practices,'' found in Dunhuang, and attributed to Bodhidharma. Later sources mention that these figures taught using the ''Lankavatara Sutra, Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra'' though there is no direct evidence of this from the earliest sources. According to John McRae, the earliest Chan sources on these masters show considerable influence from
Madhyamaka Mādhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; ; Tibetan: དབུ་མ་པ ; ''dbu ma pa''), otherwise known as Śūnyavāda ("the emptiness doctrine") and Niḥsvabhāvavāda ("the no ''svabhāva'' doctrine"), refers to a tradition of Buddhi ...
thought, while the influence from the ''Lankavatara Sutra, Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra'' is actually much less pronounced and it is questionable if it was there at all with regards to the earliest figures like Bodhidharma and Huike.


Early Chán

Early Chán refers to early Tang Dynasty (618–750) Chán. The fifth patriarch Daman Hongren (601–674), and his dharma-heir Yuquan Shenxiu (606?–706) were influential in founding the first Chan institution in Chinese history, known as the East Mountain Teaching, "East Mountain school" (''Dongshan famen''). Hongren taught the practice of ''shou-hsin'', "maintaining (guarding) the mind," in which "an awareness of True Mind or Buddha-nature within" is maintained, "[exhorting] the practitioners to unremittingly apply themselves to the practice of meditation." Shenxiu was the most influential and charismatic student of Hongren, he was even invited to the Imperial Court by Wu Zetian, Empress Wu. Shenxiu also became the target of much criticism by Shenhui (670–762), for his "gradualist" teachings. Shenhui instead promoted the "sudden" teachings of his teacher Huineng (638–713) as well as what later became a very influential Chán classic called the ''Platform Sutra.'' Shenhui's propaganda campaign eventually succeeded in elevating Huineng to the status of sixth patriarch of Chinese Chán. The Subitism#Chan, sudden vs. gradual debate that developed in this era came to define later forms of Chan Buddhism.


Middle Chán

The Middle Chán (c. 750–1000) period runs from the An Lushan Rebellion (755–763) to the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907–960/979). This phase saw the development new schools of Chan. The most important of these schools is the Hongzhou school of Mazu Daoyi (709–788), to which also belong Shitou Xiqian, Shitou, Baizhang, and Huangbo Xiyun, Huangbo. This school is sometimes seen as the archetypal expression of Chán, with its emphasis on the personal expression of insight, and its rejection of positive statements, as well as the importance it placed on spontaneous and unconventional "questions and answers during an encounter" (''linji wenda'') between master and disciple. However, modern scholars have seen much of the literature that presents these "iconoclastic" encounters as being later revisions during the Song dynasty, Song era, and instead see the Hongzhou masters as not being very radical, instead promoting pretty conservative ideas, such as keeping precepts, accumulating good Karma in Buddhism, karma and practicing meditation. The school did produce innovative teachings and perspectives such as Mazu's views that Hongzhou school#"This Mind is Buddha" and "Ordinary Mind is the Way", "this mind is Buddha" and that "ordinary mind is the way", which were also critiqued by later figures, such as the influential Guifeng Zongmi (780–841), for failing to differentiate between ignorance and enlightenment. By the end of the Later Tang, late Tang, the Hongzhou school was gradually superseded by various regional traditions, which became known as the Five Houses of Chán. Shitou Xiqian (710–790) is regarded as the Patriarch of Caodong, Cáodòng (Jp.
Sōtō Sōtō Zen or is the largest of the three traditional sects of Zen in Japanese Buddhism (the others being Rinzai and Ōbaku). It is the Japanese line of the Chinese Cáodòng school, which was founded during the Tang dynasty by Dòngsh ...
) school, while Linji Yixuan (died 867) is regarded as the founder of Rinzai school, Línjì (Jp.
Rinzai The Rinzai school ( ja, , Rinzai-shū, zh, t=臨濟宗, s=临济宗, p=Línjì zōng) is one of three sects of Zen in Japanese Buddhism (along with Sōtō and Ōbaku). The Chinese Linji school of Chan was first transmitted to Japan by Myōan ...
) school. Both of these traditions were quite influential both in and outside of China. Another influential Chán master of the late Tang was Xuefeng Yicun. During the later Tang, the practice of the "encounter dialogue" reached its full maturity. These formal dialogues between master and disciple may have used absurd, illogical and iconoclastic language as well as non-verbal forms of communication such as the drawing of Ensō, circles and physical gestures like shouting and hitting. It was also common to write fictional encounter dialogues and attribute them to previous Chán figures. An important text from this period is the ''Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall'' (952), which gives many "encounter-stories", as well as establishing a genealogy of the Chán school. The Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution in 845 was devastating for metropolitan Chan, but the Chan school of Mazu survived, and took a leading role in the Chan of the later Tang.


Song Dynasty Chán

During Song Dynasty Chán (c. 950–1300), Chán Buddhism took its definitive shape, through the development of the use of Kōan, koans for individual study and meditation. It was also during the Song that Chan literati developed their own idealized history of Chan, particularly promoting the idea of a Tang "golden age" of Chan. During the Song, Chán became the largest sect of
Chinese Buddhism Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism ( zh, s=汉传佛教, t=漢傳佛教, p=Hànchuán Fójiào) is a Chinese form of Mahayana Buddhism which has shaped Chinese culture in a wide variety of areas including art, politics, literature, philosophy, ...
and had strong ties to the imperial government, which led to the development of a highly organized system of temple rank and administration. The dominant form of Song Chán was the Linji school due to support from the scholar-official class and the Imperial court of China, imperial court. This school developed the study of ''Kōan, gong'an'' ("public case") literature, which depicted stories of master-student encounters that were seen as demonstrations of the awakened mind. Most of these stories depicted the idealized encounters of past Chan masters, particularly from the Tang era, and show the influence of the Scholar-official, Chinese literati class.' The most influential of these works are the ''Blue Cliff Record,'' the ''Book of Equanimity'' and ''The Gateless Gate''.' During the 12th century, a rivalry emerged between the Linji and the
Caodong Caodong school () is a Chinese Chan Buddhist sect and one of the Five Houses of Chán. Etymology The key figure in the Caodong school was founder Dongshan Liangjie (807-869, 洞山良价 or Jpn. Tozan Ryokai). Some attribute the name "Cáodòng" ...
schools for the support of the scholar-official class.
Hongzhi Zhengjue Hongzhi Zhengjue (, ), also sometimes called Tiantong Zhengjue (; ) (1091–1157), was an influential Chinese Chan Buddhist monk who authored or compiled several influential texts. Hongzhi's conception of ''silent illumination'' is of particular ...
(1091–1157) of the Caodong school emphasized Shikantaza#Silent illumination, silent illumination or serene reflection (''mòzhào'') as a means for solitary practice, which could be undertaken by lay-followers. The Linji school's Dahui Zonggao (1089–1163) meanwhile, introduced Koan, ''k'an-hua'' ''chan'' ("observing the word-head" chan), which involved meditation on the crucial phrase or "punch line" (''Hua Tou, hua-tou'') of a gong'an. The Song also saw the syncretism of Chán and Pure Land Buddhism by
Yongming Yanshou Yongming Yanshou (; ) (904–976) was a prominent Buddhist monk during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period and early Song Dynasty in China. Biography Yongming Yanshou is first mentioned in biographical form by Zanning (贊寧) in a work ca ...
(904–975), which would later become extremely influential. Yongming also echoed Guifeng Zongmi, Zongmi's work in indicating that the values of Taoism and Confucianism could also be embraced and integrated into Buddhism. Chán also influenced Neo-Confucianism as well as certain forms of Taoism, such as the Quanzhen School, Quanzhen school. During the Song, Chán was also transported to Japan by figures like Eisai and exerted a great influence on
Korean Seon Seon or Sŏn Buddhism ( Korean: 선, 禪; IPA: ʌn is the Korean name for Chan Buddhism, a branch of Mahāyāna Buddhism commonly known in English as Zen Buddhism. Seon is the Sino-Korean pronunciation of Chan () an abbreviation of 禪那 ( ...
via Jinul.


Post-Classical Chán

During the Ming Dynasty, the Chán school was so dominant that all Chinese monks were affiliated with either the Linji school or the Sōtō, Caodong school. Some scholars see the post-classical phase as being an "age of syncretism." The post-classical period saw the increasing popularity of the dual practice of Chán and Pure Land Buddhism (known as ''nianfo Chan''), as seen in the teachings of Zhongfeng Mingben (1263–1323) and the great reformer
Hanshan Deqing Hānshān Déqīng () (1546–1623), formerly transliterated Han-Shan Te-Ch’ing, was a leading Buddhist monk and poet of Ming dynasty China who widely propagated the teachings of Chán and Pure Land Buddhism. Life According to his autob ...
(1546–1623). This became a widespread phenomenon and in time much of the distinction between them was lost, with many monasteries teaching both Chán meditation and the Pure Land practice of ''nianfo''. The Ming dynasty also saw the efforts of figures such as Yunqi Zhuhong (1535–1615) and Daguan Zhenke (1543–1603) to revive and reconcile Chan Buddhism with the practice of Buddhist scriptural study and writing. In the beginning of the Qing dynasty, Qing Dynasty, Chán was "reinvented", by the "revival of beating and shouting practices" by Miyun Yuanwu (1566–1642), and the publication of the ''Wudeng yantong'' ("The strict transmission of the five Chan schools") by Feiyin Tongrong's (1593–1662), a dharma heir of Miyun Yuanwu. The book placed self-proclaimed Chan monks without proper Dharma transmission in the category of "lineage unknown" (''sifa weixiang''), thereby excluding several prominent
Caodong Caodong school () is a Chinese Chan Buddhist sect and one of the Five Houses of Chán. Etymology The key figure in the Caodong school was founder Dongshan Liangjie (807-869, 洞山良价 or Jpn. Tozan Ryokai). Some attribute the name "Cáodòng" ...
monks.


Modern era

After further centuries of decline during the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912), Chán activity was revived again in the 19th and 20th centuries by a flurry of modernist activity. This period saw the rise of worldly Chan activism, what is sometimes called Humanistic Buddhism (or more literally "Buddhism for human life", ''rensheng fojiao''), promoted by figures like Jing'an (1851–1912), Yuanying (1878–1953), Taixu (1890–1947),
Xuyun Xuyun or Hsu Yun (; 5 September 1840? – 13 October 1959) was a renowned Chinese Chan Buddhist master and an influential Buddhist teacher of the 19th and 20th centuries. Early life Xuyun was purportedly born on 5 September 1840 in Fujian, Q ...
(1840–1959) and Yin Shun, Yinshun (1906–2005). These figures promoted social activism to address issues such as poverty and social injustice, as well as participation in political movements. They also promoted modern science and scholarship, including the use of the methods of modern critical scholarship to study the history of Chan. Many Chán teachers today trace their lineage back to Xuyun, including Sheng-yen and Hsuan Hua, who have propagated Chán in the West where it has grown steadily through the 20th and 21st centuries. Chán Buddhism was repressed in China during the 1960s in the Cultural Revolution, but in the subsequent reform and opening up period in the 1970s, a Chinese Buddhism#Reform and opening up – Second Buddhist Revival, revival of Chinese Buddhism has been taking place on the mainland, while Buddhism has a significant Buddhism in Taiwan, following in Taiwan and Buddhism in Hong Kong, Hong Kong as well as among Overseas Chinese.


Spread outside of China


Vietnamese Thiền

Chan was introduced to Vietnam during the early Chinese domination of Vietnam, Chinese occupation periods (111 BCE to 939 CE) as Thiền. During the Lý dynasty, Lý (1009–1225) and Trần dynasty, Trần (1225 to 1400) dynasties, Thiền rose to prominence among the elites and the royal court and a new native tradition was founded, the Trúc Lâm ("Bamboo Grove") school, which also contained Confucian and Taoist influences. In the 17th century, the Linji school, Linji school was brought to Vietnam as the Lâm Tế, which also mixed Chan and Pure land. Lâm Tế remains the largest monastic order in the country today. Modern Vietnamese Thiền is influenced by Buddhist modernism. Important figures include Thiền master Thích Thanh Từ (1924–), the activist and popularizer Thích Nhất Hạnh (1926–2022) and the philosopher Thích Thiên-Ân. Vietnamese Thiền is eclectic and inclusive, bringing in many practices such as Anapanasati, breath meditation, ''nianfo'', mantra, Theravada influences, Buddhist chant, chanting, sutra recitation and engaged Buddhism activism.


Korean Seon

Seon (선) was gradually transmitted into
Korea Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic o ...
during the late Silla period (7th through 9th centuries) as Korean monks began to travel to China to learn the newly developing Chan tradition of Mazu Daoyi and returned home to establish the Chan school. They established the initial Seon schools of Korea, which were known as the "nine mountain schools" (九山, ''gusan''). Seon received its most significant impetus and consolidation from the Goryeo monk Jinul (1158–1210), who is considered the most influential figure in the formation of the mature Seon school. He founded the Jogye Order, which remains the largest Seon tradition in Korea today. Jinul founded the Songgwangsa temple as a new center of Seon study and practice. Jinul also wrote extensive works on Seon, developing a comprehensive system of thought and practice. From Dahui Zonggao, Jinul adopted the Hua Tou, ''hwadu'' method, which remains the main meditation form taught in Seon today. Buddhism was mostly suppressed during the strictly Confucianism, Confucian Joseon, Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910), and the number of monasteries and clergy sharply declined. The period of Korea under Japanese rule, Japanese occupation also brought numerous modernist ideas and changes to Korean Seon. Some monks began to adopt the Japanese practice of marrying and having families, while others such as Yongseong, worked to March 1st Movement, resist the Japanese occupation. Today, the largest Seon school, the Jogye Order, Jogye, enforces celibacy, while the second largest, the Taego Order, allows for married priests. Important modernist figures that influenced contemporary Seon include Seongcheol and Gyeongheo. Seon has also been transmitted to West, with new traditions such as the Kwan Um School of Zen.


Japanese Zen

Zen was not introduced as a separate school until the 12th century, when Myōan Eisai traveled to China and returned to establish a Linji lineage, which eventually perished. Decades later, (1235–1308) also studied Linji teachings in China before founding the Japanese Otokan lineage, the most influential and only surviving lineage of
Rinzai The Rinzai school ( ja, , Rinzai-shū, zh, t=臨濟宗, s=临济宗, p=Línjì zōng) is one of three sects of Zen in Japanese Buddhism (along with Sōtō and Ōbaku). The Chinese Linji school of Chan was first transmitted to Japan by Myōan ...
in Japan. In 1215,
Dōgen Dōgen Zenji (道元禅師; 26 January 1200 – 22 September 1253), also known as Dōgen Kigen (道元希玄), Eihei Dōgen (永平道元), Kōso Jōyō Daishi (高祖承陽大師), or Busshō Dentō Kokushi (仏性伝東国師), was a J ...
, a younger contemporary of Eisai's, journeyed to China himself, where he became a disciple of the Caodong master Tiantong Rujing. After his return,
Dōgen Dōgen Zenji (道元禅師; 26 January 1200 – 22 September 1253), also known as Dōgen Kigen (道元希玄), Eihei Dōgen (永平道元), Kōso Jōyō Daishi (高祖承陽大師), or Busshō Dentō Kokushi (仏性伝東国師), was a J ...
established the
Sōtō Sōtō Zen or is the largest of the three traditional sects of Zen in Japanese Buddhism (the others being Rinzai and Ōbaku). It is the Japanese line of the Chinese Cáodòng school, which was founded during the Tang dynasty by Dòngsh ...
school, the Japanese branch of Caodong. The three traditional schools of Zen in contemporary Japan are the , , and . Of these, Sōtō is the largest, and Ōbaku the smallest, with Rinzai in the middle. These schools are further divided into subschools by head temple, with two head temples for Sōtō (Sōji-ji and Eihei-ji, with Sōji-ji having a much larger network), fourteen head temples for Rinzai, and one head temple (Manpuku-ji) for Ōbaku, for a total of 17 head temples. The Rinzai head temples, which are most numerous, have substantial overlap with the traditional Five Mountain System, and include Myoshin-ji, Nanzen-ji, Tenryū-ji, Daitoku-ji, and Tofuku-ji, among others. Besides these traditional organizations, there are modern Zen organizations that have especially attracted Western lay followers, namely the Sanbo Kyodan and the FAS Society.


Zen in the West

Although it is difficult to trace the precise moment when the West first became aware of Zen as a distinct form of Buddhism, the visit of Soyen Shaku, a Japanese Zen monk, to Chicago during the World Parliament of Religions in 1893 is often pointed to as an event that enhanced the profile of Zen in the Western world. It was during the late 1950s and the early 1960s that the number of Westerners other than the descendants of Asian immigrants who were pursuing a serious interest in Zen began to reach a significant level. Japanese Zen has gained the greatest popularity in the West. The various books on Zen by Reginald Horace Blyth, Alan Watts, Philip Kapleau and D. T. Suzuki published between 1950 and 1975, contributed to this growing interest in Zen in the West, as did the interest on the part of beat poets such as Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg and Gary Snyder. In 1958, the literary magazine ''Chicago Review'' played a significant role in introducing Zen to the American literary community when it published a special issue on Zen featuring the aforementioned beat poets and works in translation. Erich Fromm quotes D. T. Suzuki in his 1960 book ''Psychoanalysis and Zen Buddhism''. The publication in 1974 of ''Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance'' by American writer Robert Pirsig brought the application of Zen thinking into a way of understanding non dualism in a practical sense. Drawing on a wide range of philosophical and logical sources, the book became the biggest selling work on philosophy ever published.


See also

* List of Buddhists * Outline of Buddhism * Timeline of Buddhism * Chinese Chán * 101 Zen Stories * Chinsō, Chinso * Shussan Shaka * Katsu (Zen), Katsu


Notes


References


Sources

; Printed sources * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Braak, Andre van der. ''Reimagining Zen in a Secular age: Charles Taylor and Zen Buddhism in the West'' (Brill Rodopi, 2020
online review
* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *


Further reading

; Modern popular works * D.T. Suzuki, ''Essays in Zen Buddhism'', First Series (1927), Second Series (1933), Third Series (1934) * Reginald Horace Blyth, R. H. Blyth, ''Zen and Zen Classics,'' 5 volumes (1960–1970; reprints of works from 1942 into the 1960s) * Alan Watts, ''The Way of Zen'' (1957) * Lu K'uan Yu (Charles Luk), ''Ch'an and Zen Teachings,'' 3 vols (1960, 1971, 1974), ''The Transmission of the Mind: Outside the Teaching'' (1974) * Paul Reps & Nyogen Senzaki, ''Zen Flesh, Zen Bones'' (1957) * Philip Kapleau, ''The Three Pillars of Zen'' (1966) * Shunryu Suzuki, ''Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind'' (1970) * Katsuki Sekida, ''Zen Training: Methods & Philosophy'' (1975) ; Classic historiography * Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005), ''Zen Buddhism: A History. Volume 1: India and China''. World Wisdom Books. * Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005), ''Zen Buddhism: A History. Volume 2: Japan''. World Wisdom Books. ; Critical historiography ''Overview'' * ''Formation of Chán in Tang & Song China'' * * * ''Japan'' * ''Modern times'' * ''Orientalism and East-West interchange'' * * * McMahan, David L. (2008), ''The Making of Buddhist Modernism''. Oxford University Press. ; Contemporary practice * * *


External links


thezensite







Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: entry on Japanese Zen BuddhismWhat is Zen Buddhism?
{{Authority control Zen, Nondualism Yogacara Buddhism in the Kamakura period Buddhism in the Muromachi period