Sanskrit classical poetry

Sanskrit literature broadly comprises all literature in the Sanskrit language. This includes texts composed in the earliest attested descendant of the Proto-Indo-Aryan language known as Vedic Sanskrit, texts in Classical Sanskrit as well as some mixed and non-standard forms of Sanskrit. Literature in the older language begins with the composition of the Ṛg·veda between about 1500 and 1000 BCE, followed by other Vedic works right up to the time of the grammarian Pāṇini around 6th or 4th century BCE (after which Classical Sanskrit texts gradually became the norm).

Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the extensive liturgical works of the Vedic religion, while Classical Sanskrit is the language of many of the prominent texts associated with the major Indian religions, especially Hinduism, but also Buddhism, and Jainism. Some Sanskrit Buddhist texts are also composed in a version of Sanskrit often called Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit or Buddhistic Sanskrit, which contains many Middle Indic ( prakritic) elements not found in other forms of Sanskrit.

Early works of Sanskrit literature were transmitted through an oral tradition for centuries before they were written down in manuscript form.

While most Sanskrit texts were composed in ancient India, others were composed in Central Asia, East Asia or Southeast Asia.

Sanskrit literature is vast and includes religious scripture, various forms of poetry (such as epic and lyric), drama and narrative prose. It also includes substantial works covering secular and technical sciences and the arts. Some of these subjects include: law and custom, grammar, politics, economics, medicine, astrology-astronomy, arithmetic, geometry, music, dance, dramatics, magic and divination, and sexuality.

Overview

Literature in the Vedic and the Classical language differ in numerous respects. The Vedic literature that survives is almost entirely religious, being focused on the prayers, hymns to the gods (devas), sacrifices and other concerns of the Vedic religion. The language of this archaic literature (the earliest being the Rigveda), Vedic Sanskrit, is different in many ways (and much less regular) than the "classical" Sanskrit described by later grammarians like Pāṇini. This literature was transmitted orally during the Vedic period, only later was it written down.

Classical Sanskrit literature is more varied and includes the following genres: scripture (Hindu, Buddhist and Jain), epics, court poetry ( kavya), lyric, drama, romance, fairytale, fables, grammar, civil and religious law (dharma), the science of politics and practical life, the science of love and sexual intercourse (kama), philosophy, medicine, astronomy, astrology and mathematics, and is largely secular in subject-matter.Iyengar, p. 5. On the other hand, the Classical Sanskrit language was much more more formalized and homogeneous, partly due to the influence of Sanskrit grammarians like Pāṇini and his commentators.

Sanskrit was an important language for medieval Indian religious literature. Most pre-modern Hindu literature and philosophy was in Sanskrit and a significant portion of Buddhist literature was also written in either classical Sanskrit or Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit. Many of these Sanskrit Buddhist texts were the basis for later translation into the Chinese Buddhist Canon and Tibetan Canon. Many Jain texts were also written in Sanskrit, like the ''Tattvartha sutra''.

Classical Sanskrit also served as a common language of scholarship and elites (as opposed to local vernacular who were only understood regionally).

The invasions of northern India by Islamic powers in the 13th century severely damaged Indian Sanskrit scholarship and the dominance of Islamic power over India eventually contributed to the decline of this scholarly language, especially since Muslim rulers promoted Middle Eastern languages. However, Sanskrit remains in use throughout India, and is used in rituals, religious practice, scholarship, art, and other Indian traditions.

Vedic literature

Chronology

Five chronologically distinct strata can be identified within the literature of Vedic Sanskrit:

# Ṛg·vedic Hymns
# Mantras
# Saṃhitā prose
# Sūtras

The first three are commonly grouped together, as the Saṃhitās comprising the four Vedas: ṛk, atharvan, yajus, sāman, which together constitute the oldest texts in Sanskrit and the canonical foundation both of the Vedic religion, and the later religion known as Hinduism.J&B, pp. 1-2.

Ṛg·veda

The Ṛg·veda, the first and oldest of the four Vedas, is the foundation for the others. The Ṛg·veda is made of 1028 hymns named ''sūktas'', composed of verses in strictly regulated meters. These are collected into saṃhitās. There are about 10,000 of these verses that make up the Ṛg·veda. The Ṛg·vedic hymns are subdivided into 10 ''maṇḍala''s, most of which are attributed to members of certain families. Composition of the Ṛg·vedic hymns was entirely oral, and for much of its history, the Ṛg·veda has been transmitted only orally, written down likely no sooner than in the second half of the first millennium of the Common Era.J&B, pp. 2-3.

The later Vedas

The ''Sāmaveda'' is not an original composition: it's almost entirely (except 75) made of stanzas taken from the ''Ṛgveda'' and rearranged with reference to their place in the Soma sacrifice. This book is meant to be sung to certain fixed melodies, and may thus be called the book of chants, ''sāman''. The ''Yajurveda'' like the ''Sāman'' is also largely made of verses taken from the ''Ṛgveda'', but also contains several prose formulas. It is called the book of sacrificial prayers ''yajus''.

The last of the four, the ''Atharvaveda'', both by the internal structure of the language used and by comparison with the Ṛg·veda, is a much later work. However, the ''Atharvaveda'' represents a much earlier stage of thought of the Vedic people, being composed mainly of spells and incantations appealing to demons, and is rife with notions of witchcraft, derived from a much earlier period.

Brāhmaṇas

The ''Brāhmaṇas'' (a subdivision within the Vedas) concern themselves with the correct application of Vedic ritual, and the duties of the Vedic priest ( hotṛ: 'pourer, worshiper, reciter') the word being derived from ''bráhman'' meaning 'prayer'. They were composed at a period in time by which the Vedic hymns had achieved the status of being ancient and sacred revelations and the language had changed sufficiently so that the priests did not fully understand the Vedic texts. The ''Brāhmaṇas'' are composed in prose, unlike the previous works, forming some of the earliest examples of prose in any Indo-European language. The ''Brāhmaṇas'' intend to explain the relation between the sacred text and ritual ceremony.

The later part of the ''Brāhmaṇas'' contain material which also discuss theology and philosophy. These works were meant to be imparted or studied in the peace and calm of the forest, hence their name the ''Āraṇyaka''s ("Of the forest") The last part of these are books of Vedic doctrine and philosophy that came to be called ''Upaniṣads'' ("sitting down beside"). The doctrines in the Vedic or ''Mukhya'' ''Upaniṣads'' (the main and most ancient ''Upaniṣads)'' were later developed into the ''Vedānta'' (''"end of the Vedas"'') system.

Vedic Sūtras

The Vedic Sūtras were aphoristic treatises concerned either with Vedic ritual (Kalpa Vedanga) or customary law. They arrived during the later period of the ''Brāhmaṇas'' when a vast mass of ritual and customary details had been accumulated. To address this, the Sūtras are intended to provide a concise survey of Vedic knowledge through short aphoristic passages that could be easily memorized. The Sūtras forego the need to interpret the ceremony or custom, but simply provide a plain, methodical account with the utmost brevity. The word ''sūtra'', derived from the root ''siv-'', 'to sew', thus meaning 'sewn' or 'stitched together' eventually became a byword for any work of aphorisms of similar concision. The sutras in many cases are so terse they cannot be understood without the help of detailed commentaries.

The main types of Vedic Sūtras include the '' Śrautasūtras'' (focusing on ritual), ''Śulbasûtra'' (on altar construction), '' Gṛhyasūtras'' which focus on rites of passage and '' Dharmasūtras.''

Hindu religious literature

Most ancient and medieval Hindu texts were composed in Sanskrit, either Epic Sanskrit (the pre-classical language found in the two main Indian epics) or Classical Sanskrit (Paninian Sanskrit). In modern times, most ancient texts have been translated into other Indian languages and some in Western languages. Prior to the start of the common era, the Hindu texts were composed orally, then memorized and transmitted orally, from one generation to next, for more than a millennium before they were written down into manuscripts.Michael Witzel, "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, Blackwell Publishing Ltd., , pages 68–71William Graham (1993), Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of Scripture in the History of Religion, Cambridge University Press, , pages 67–77 This verbal tradition of preserving and transmitting Hindu texts, from one generation to next, continued into the modern era.

Classification

Hindu Sanskrit texts are often subdivided into two classes:

* ''Śruti'' ("that which is heard") are believed to be 'revealed', examples being the Vedas and the early Upaniṣads. Many scholars include the Bhagavad·Gītā and Āgamas as Hindu scriptures.Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, , page ix-xliiiKlaus Klostermaier (2007), A Survey of Hinduism: Third Edition, State University of New York Press, , pages 46–52, 76–77 Dominic Goodall also includes Bhagavata Purāṇa and Yājñavalkya Smṛti.
* The ''Smṛti'' Sanskrit texts are a specific body of Hindu texts attributed to an author,Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1988), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, Manchester University Press, , pages 2–3 as a derivative work they are considered less authoritative than ''Śruti'' in Hinduism.James Lochtefeld (2002), "Smrti", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 2: N–Z, Rosen Publishing, , page 656–657 The ''Smṛti'' literature is a vast corpus of diverse texts, and includes but is not limited to Vedāṅgas, the Hindu epics, the Sūtras and Śāstras, the texts of Hindu philosophies, and the Purāṇas, while some traditions also include Kāvya (courtly poetry), '' Bhāṣyas'', and numerous ''Nibandhas'' (digests) covering politics, ethics, culture, arts and society.Purushottama Bilimoria (2011), The idea of Hindu law, Journal of Oriental Society of Australia, Vol. 43, pages 103–130Roy Perrett (1998), Hindu Ethics: A Philosophical Study, University of Hawaii Press, , pages 16–18

Indian Epics

The first traces of Indian epic poetry are seen in the Vedic literature, among the certain hymns of the Ṛgveda (which contain dialogues), as well as the Ākhyānas (ballads), Itihāsas ('traditional accounts of past events') and the Purāṇas found in the Vedic Brāhmaṇas.Winternitz, 1972, pp. 311-12. These poems were originally songs of praise or heroic songs which developed into epic poems of increasing length over time. They were originally recited during important events such as during the Vedic horse sacrifice (the aśvamedha) or during a funeral.

Another related genre were the "songs in praise of men" (gatha narasamsi), which focus on the glorious deeds of warriors and princes, which also developed into long epic cycles. These epic poems were recited by courtly bards called ''sutas'', who may have been their own caste and were closely related to the warrior caste. There was also a related group of traveling singers called kusilavas. Indian kings and princes seem to have kept bards in their courts which sung the praises of the king, recite poems at festivals and sometimes even recite poetry in battle to embolden the warriors.

While there were certainly other epic cycles, only two have survived, the ''Mahābhārata'' and the ''Rāmāyaṇa''.

''Mahābhārata''

The ''Mahābhārata'' is in a sense not just a single 'epic poem', but can be seen as a ''whole'' body of literature in its own right, a massive collection of many different poetic works built around the heroic tales of the Bharata tribe. Most of this literature was probably compiled between the 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE by numerous authors, with the oldest preserved parts not much older than around 400 BCE.

Already in the Ṛgveda, the ''Bharatas'' find mention as a warlike tribe, and the Brāhmaṇas also speak of Bharata, the son of Duṣyanta and Śakuntalā. The core of the ''Mahābhārata'' is a family feud in the royal house of the Kauravas (the descendants of Bharata), leading to a bloody battle at Kurukshetra. Over the centuries, an enormous mass of poetry, myths, legends, secondary tales, moral stories and more was added to the original core story. The final form of the epic is thus a massive 100,000 ślokas across 18+1 books.

According to Winternitz, the ''Mahābhārata'' also shows the influence of the Brahmin class, which he argues was engaged in a project of appropriating the poetry of the bards (which was mainly a secular heroic literature) in order to infuse it with their religious theology and values.

The most influential part of the ''Mahābhārata'' is the ''Bhagavadgītā,'' which became a central scripture for the Vedanta school and remains widely read today.

Another important associated text, which acts as a kind of supplement (''khila'') to the ''Mahābhārata,'' is the '' Harivanhśa,'' which focuses on the figure of Krishna''.''

''Rāmāyaṇa''

In contrast to the ''Mahābhārata'', the ''Rāmāyaṇa'' consists of only 24,000 ślokas divided into seven books, and in form is more purely regular, ornate epic poetry, a form of style which is the basis of the later Kāvya tradition. There are two parts to the story of the ''Rāmāyaṇa'', which are narrated in the five genuine books. The first revolves around the events at the court of King Daśaratha at Ayodhya with one of his wives vying for the succession of the throne to her own son Bharata in place of the one chosen by the king, Rāma. The second part of the epic is full of myth and marvel, with the banished Rāma combating giants in the forest, and slaying thousands of demons. The second part also deals with the abduction of Rāmā's wife, Sītā by king Rāvaṇa of Lankā, leading Rāma to carry out to expedition to the island to defeat the king in battle and recover his wife.

Purāṇa

The ''Purāṇa'' are a large class of Hindu scriptures which cover numerous topics such as myth, legends of the Hindu gods, cosmogony, cosmology, stories of ancient kings and sages, folk tales, information about temples, medicine, astronomy, grammar and Hindu theology and philosophy. Perhaps the most influential of these texts is the ''Bhāgavata Purāṇa'', a central text for Vaishnava theology. Other ''Purāṇas'' center on different gods, like the '' Shiva Purāṇa'' and the '' Devī Bhāgavata Purāṇa.''

Later Upaniṣads

The principal Upaniṣads can be considered Vedic literature since they are included within the ''Brahmanas'' and ''Aranyakas''.Patrick Olivelle (2014), ''The Early Upanishads,'' Oxford University Press, , pages 12-14.Bronkhorst, Johannes (2007). ''Greater Magadha: Studies in the Culture of Early India'', pp. 258-259. BRILL. However, numerous scriptures titled "Upaniṣads" continued to be composed after the closure of the Vedas proper. Of these later "Upaniṣads" there are two categories of texts:

* 95 canonical Upaniṣads which are part of the Muktikā canon. These were composed from about the last centuries of 1st-millennium BCE through about 15th-century CE.
* Newer paracanonical Upaniṣads, which were composed through the early modern and modern eras and which deal with numerous non-Vedic topics.

Post-Vedic aphoristic literature

19th-century manuscript of Patanjali's '' Yoga-bhāṣya'', preserved at the University of Pennsylvania.
Sūtra style aphoristic literature continued to be composed on numerous topics, the most popular being on the different fields of Hindu philosophy.Gavin Flood (1996), ''An Introduction to Hinduism'', Cambridge University Press, , pages 54–55

The main ''Sūtra'' texts (sometimes also called '' kārikās)'' on Hindu philosophy include:Keith (1956), pp. 470-520.

* ''Sāṁkhyakārikā''
* '' Sāṁkhyapravacanasūtra''
* '' Mīmāṁsā Sūtra''
* ''Nyāya Sūtra''
* ''Vaiśeṣika Sūtra''
* ''Yoga Sūtras'' of Patanjali
* ''Brahma Sūtra'' (i.e. ''Vedanta sutra'')
* ''Gauḍapāda Kārikā''
* '' Pāśupata Sūtras''
* ''Shiva Sūtras''
* '' Spandakārikā''
* ''Īśvarapratyabhijñākārikā'' of Utpaladeva

Commentaries

A manuscript of the Isha Upanishad, the small text in the margins and edges are an unknown scholar's notes and comments in the typical Hindu style of a minor Bhāṣya.
The various Sanskrit literature also spawned a large tradition of commentary texts, which were called '' Bhāṣyas'', ''Vṛṭṭis, Tikas, Varttikas'' and other names. These commentaries were written on numerous genres of Sanskrit texts, including on Sūtras, on Upaniṣads and on the Sanskrit epics.Richa Vishwakarma and Pradip Kumar Goswami (2013), ''A review through Charaka Uttara-Tantra'', International Quarterly Journal of Research in Ayurveda, Volume 34, Issue 1, pages 17–20

Examples include the '' Yogabhāṣya'' on the ''Yoga Sūtras'', Shankara's ''Brahmasūtrabhāṣya,'' the ''Gitabhāṣya'' and '' Sri Bhāṣya'' of Ramanuja (1017–1137), Pakṣilasvāmin Vātsyāyana's ''Nyāya Sūtra Bhāshya'' and the ''Matharavṛṭṭi'' (on the '' Sāṁkhyakārikā'').

Furthermore, over time, secondary commentaries (i.e. a commentary to a commentary) also came to be written.

Tantric literature

There are a varied group of Hindu Tantric scriptures titled Tantras or Agamas. Gavin Flood argues that the earliest date for these Tantric texts is 600 CE, though most of them were probably composed after the 8th century onwards.Flood, Gavin D. (1996). ''An Introduction to Hinduism'', pp. 158-159. Cambridge University Press. .

Tantric literature was very popular during the "Tantric Age" (c. 8th to the 14th century), a period of time when Tantric traditions rose to prominence and flourished throughout India. According to Flood, all Hindu traditions, Shaiva, Vaishnava, Smarta and Shakta (perhaps excepting the Srautas) became influenced by Tantric works and adopted some Tantric elements into their literature.

Other

There are also numerous other types of Hindu religious works, including prose and poetry.

Among prose works there are important works like the '' Yoga-Vāsiṣṭha'' (which is important in Advaita Vedanta), the '' Yoga-Yājñavalkya'' and the ''Devi Mahatmya'' (a key Shakta work).

When it comes to poetry, there are numerous stotras (odes), suktas and stutis, as well as other poetic genres. Some important works of Hindu Sanskrit poetry include the '' Vivekacūḍāmaṇi,'' the ''Hanuman Chalisa'', the '' Aṣṭāvakragītā'', ''Bhaja Govindam,'' and the ''Shiva Tandava Stotra.''

Another group of later Sanskrit Hindu texts are those which focus on Hatha Yoga, and include the ''Dattātreyayogaśāstra'' (13th century), the '' Gorakṣaśataka'' (13th century)'','' the '' Haṭhayogapradīpikā'' (15th century) and the ''Gheraṇḍasaṁhitā'' (17th or 18th-century).

Scientific & Secular literature

Over time, Sanskrit works on the secular sciences ( ''śāstra'' or '' vidyā'') were composed on a wide variety of topics. These include: grammar, poetry, lexicography, geometry, astronomy, medicine, worldly life and pleasure, philosophy, law, politics, etc.

The learning of these secular sciences took place by way of a guru expounding the subject orally, using works of aphorisms, the sūtra texts, which on account of their terseness would be meaningful only to those who knew how to interpret them. The '' bhāṣyas'', the commentaries that followed the sūtras were structured in the style of student-teacher dialogue wherein a question is posed, a partial solution, the '' pūrvapakṣa'', proposed, which is then handled, corrected and the final opinion established, the '' siddhānta''. In time, the bhāṣyas evolved to become more like a lecture.

The sūtras were initially regarded as definite. This was later circumvented, in the field of grammar, by the creation of ''vārttikas'', to correct or amend sūtras. Another form often employed was the ''śloka'', which was a relatively simple metre, easy to write and remember. Sometimes a mix of prose and verse was used. Some of the later work, such as in law and poetics, developed a much clearer style which avoided a propensity towards obscurity that verse was prone to.

The study of these secular works was widespread in India. Buddhist institutions like Nalanda

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