Festivals in ancient Rome were a very important part in Roman religious life during both the

Republican Republican can refer to: Political ideology * An advocate of a republic, a type of government that is not a monarchy or dictatorship, and is usually associated with the rule of law. ** Republicanism, the ideology in support of republics or agains ...

and Imperial eras, and one of the primary features of the

Roman calendar The Roman calendar was the calendar used by the Roman Kingdom and Roman Republic. The term often includes the Julian calendar established by the reforms of the Roman dictator, dictator Julius Caesar and Roman emperor, emperor Augustus in the ...

. ''Feriae'' ("holidays" in the sense of "holy days"; singular also ''feriae'' or ''dies ferialis'') were either public ''(publicae)'' or private ''( privatae)''. State holidays were celebrated by the Roman people and received public funding. Games ''(

ludi ''Ludi'' (Latin plural) were public games held for the benefit and entertainment of the Roman people (''populus Romanus''). ''Ludi'' were held in conjunction with, or sometimes as the major feature of, Roman religious festivals, and were also ...

)'', such as the

Ludi Apollinares The ''Ludi Apollinares'' were solemn games (''ludi'') held annually by the ancient Romans In modern historiography, ancient Rome refers to Roman civilisation from the founding of the city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of th ...

, were not technically ''feriae'', but the days on which they were celebrated were '' dies festi'', holidays in the modern sense of days off work. Although ''feriae'' were paid for by the state, ''ludi'' were often funded by wealthy individuals. ''Feriae privatae'' were holidays celebrated in honor of private individuals or by families. This article deals only with public holidays, including rites celebrated by the state priests of Rome at temples, as well as celebrations by neighborhoods, families, and friends held simultaneously throughout Rome. ''Feriae publicae'' were of three kinds: * ''Stativae'' were annual holidays that held a fixed or stable date on the calendar. * ''Conceptivae'' were annual holidays that were

moveable feast A moveable feast is an observance in a Christian liturgical calendar which occurs on different dates in different years.John Ayto ''Oxford Dictionary of English Idioms'' 2010 p123 019954378X "a movable feast an event which takes place at no reg ...

s (like

Easter Easter,Traditional names for the feast in English are "Easter Day", as in the '' Book of Common Prayer''; "Easter Sunday", used by James Ussher''The Whole Works of the Most Rev. James Ussher, Volume 4'') and Samuel Pepys''The Diary of Samuel ...

on the Christian calendar, or

Thanksgiving Thanksgiving is a national holiday celebrated on various dates in the United States, Canada, Grenada, Saint Lucia, Liberia, and unofficially in countries like Brazil and Philippines. It is also observed in the Netherlander town of Leiden and ...

in North America); the date was announced by the

magistrates The term magistrate is used in a variety of systems of governments and laws to refer to a civilian officer who administers the law. In ancient Rome, a '' magistratus'' was one of the highest ranking government officers, and possessed both judici ...

priests A priest is a religious leader authorized to perform the sacred rituals of a religion, especially as a mediatory agent between humans and one or more deity, deities. They also have the authority or power to administer religious rites; in p ...

who were responsible for them. * '' Imperativae'' were holidays held "on demand" (from the verb ''impero, imperare'', "to order, command") when special celebrations or expiations were called for. One of the most important sources for Roman holidays is

Ovid Pūblius Ovidius Nāsō (; 20 March 43 BC – 17/18 AD), known in English as Ovid ( ), was a Roman poet who lived during the reign of Augustus. He was a contemporary of the older Virgil and Horace, with whom he is often ranked as one of the th ...

's ''

Fasti In ancient Rome, the ''fasti'' (Latin plural) were chronological or calendar-based lists, or other diachronic records or plans of official and religiously sanctioned events. After Rome's decline, the word ''fasti'' continued to be used for simil ...

'', an incomplete poem that describes and provides origins for festivals from January to June at the time of

Augustus Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pri ...

Keeping the ''feriae''

Varro Marcus Terentius Varro (; 116–27 BC) was a Roman polymath and a prolific author. He is regarded as ancient Rome's greatest scholar, and was described by Petrarch as "the third great light of Rome" (after Vergil and Cicero). He is sometimes calle ...

defined ''feriae'' as "days instituted for the sake of the gods." Religious rites were performed on the ''feriae'', and public business was suspended. Even

slaves Slavery and enslavement are both the state and the condition of being a slave—someone forbidden to quit one's service for an enslaver, and who is treated by the enslaver as property. Slavery typically involves slaves being made to perf ...

were supposed to be given some form of rest.

Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the estab ...

says specifically that people who were free should not engage in lawsuits and quarrels, and slaves should get a break from their labours. Agricultural writers recognized that some jobs on a farm might still need to be performed, and specified what these were. Some agricultural tasks not otherwise permitted could be carried out if an expiation were made in advance ''(

piaculum The vocabulary of ancient Roman religion was highly specialized. Its study affords important information about the religion, traditions and beliefs of the ancient Romans. This legacy is conspicuous in European cultural history in its influence on ...

)'', usually the sacrifice of a puppy. Within the city of Rome, the

flamen A (plural ''flamens'' or ''flamines'') was a priest of the ancient Roman religion who was assigned to one of eighteen deities with official cults during the Roman Republic. The most important of these were the three (or "major priests"), who ser ...

s and the priest known as the ''

Rex sacrorum In ancient Roman religion, the ''rex sacrorum'' ("king of the sacred things", also sometimes ''rex sacrificulus'') was a senatorial priesthood reserved for patricians. Although in the historical era, the '' pontifex maximus'' was the head of Rom ...

'' were not allowed even to see work done. On a practical level, those who "inadvertently" worked could pay a fine or offer up a ''piaculum'', usually a pig. Work considered vital either to the gods or preserving human life was excusable, according to some experts on religious law. Although Romans were required not to work, they were not required to take any religious action unless they were priests or had family rites ''(

sacra gentilicia The vocabulary of ancient Roman religion was highly specialized. Its study affords important information about the religion, traditions and beliefs of the ancient Romans. This legacy is conspicuous in European cultural history in its influence o ...

)'' to maintain.

List of festivals by month

Following is a month-by-month list of Roman festivals and games that had a fixed place on the calendar. For some, the date on which they were first established is recorded. A deity's festival often marked the anniversary ('' dies natalis,'' "birthday") of the founding of a temple, or a rededication after a major renovation. Festivals not named for deities are thought to be among the oldest on the calendar. Some religious observances were monthly. The first day of the month was the

Kalends The calends or kalends ( la, kalendae) is the first day of every month in the Roman calendar. The English word "calendar" is derived from this word. Use The Romans called the first day of every month the ''calends'', signifying the start of a ne ...

(or Calends, from which the English word "calendar" derives). Each Kalends was sacred to

Juno Juno commonly refers to: *Juno (mythology), the Roman goddess of marriage and queen of the gods *Juno (film), ''Juno'' (film), 2007 Juno may also refer to: Arts, entertainment and media Fictional characters *Juno, in the film ''Jenny, Juno'' *Ju ...

, and the '' Regina sacrorum'' ("Queen of the Rites," a public priestess) marked the day by presiding over a sacrifice to the goddess. Originally a pontiff and the ''

'' reported the sighting of the

new moon In astronomy, the new moon is the first lunar phase, when the Moon and Sun have the same ecliptic longitude. At this phase, the lunar disk is not visible to the naked eye, except when it is silhouetted against the Sun during a solar eclipse. ...

, and the pontiff announced whether the

Nones Nones may refer to: * ''Nones'' (Auden), a 1951 book of poems by W. H. Auden * ''Nones'' (Berio), a 1954 orchestral composition by Luciano Berio *Nones (calendar), or ''Nonae'', days of the Roman Calendar *None (liturgy) Nones (), also known as N ...

occurred on the 5th or 7th of that month. On the Nones, announcements were made regarding events to take place that month; with the exception of the

Poplifugia The Poplifugia or Populifugia (Latin: ''the people's flight''), was a festival of ancient Rome celebrated on July 5, according to Varro, in commemoration of the flight of the Romans, when the inhabitants of Ficuleae and Fidenae appeared in arms ag ...

, no major festivals were held before the Nones, though other ceremonies, such as anniversaries of temple dedications, might be carried out. The

Ides Ides or IDES may refer to: Calendar dates * Ides (calendar), a day in the Roman calendar that fell roughly in the middle of the month. In March, May, July, and October it was the 15th day of the month; in other months it was the 13th. **Ides of Mar ...

(usually the 13th, or in a few months the 15th) were sacred to

Jupiter Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the List of Solar System objects by size, largest in the Solar System. It is a gas giant with a mass more than two and a half times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined, but ...

. On each Ides, a white lamb was led along the

Via Sacra The Via Sacra (, "''Sacred Street''") was the main street of ancient Rome, leading from the top of the Capitoline Hill, through some of the most important religious sites of the Forum (where it is the widest street), to the Colosseum. The ro ...

to the

Capitolium A ''Capitolium'' (Latin) was an ancient Roman temple dedicated to the Capitoline Triad of gods Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. A capitolium was built on a prominent area in many cities in Italy and the Roman provinces, particularly during the Augus ...

for sacrifice to Jupiter. The list also includes other notable public religious events such as sacrifices and processions that were observed annually but are neither ''feriae'' nor ''dies natales.'' Unless otherwise noted, the calendar is that of H.H. Scullard, ''Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic''.

Ianuarius ''Ianuarius'', fully ''Mensis Ianuarius'' ("month of Janus"), was the first month of the ancient Roman calendar, from which the Julian and Gregorian month of January derived. It was followed by '' Februarius'' (" February"). In the calendars ...

*1 (

Calends The calends or kalends ( la, kalendae) is the first day of every month in the Roman calendar. The English word " calendar" is derived from this word. Use The Romans called the first day of every month the ''calends'', signifying the start of a ...

): From 153 BC onward,

consuls A consul is an official representative of the government of one state in the territory of another, normally acting to assist and protect the citizens of the consul's own country, as well as to facilitate trade and friendship between the people ...

entered office on this date, accompanied by '' vota publica'' (public vows for the wellbeing of the republic and later of the emperor) and the taking of

auspices Augury is the practice from ancient Roman religion of interpreting omens from the observed behavior of birds. When the individual, known as the augur, interpreted these signs, it is referred to as "taking the auspices". "Auspices" (Latin ''au ...

. Festivals were also held for the imported cult of Aesculapius and for the obscure god

Vediovis Vejovis or Vejove ( lat, Vēiovis, italic=yes or ''Vēdiovis''; rare ''Vēive'' or ''Vēdius'') was a Roman god of Etruscan origins. Representation and worship Vejovis was portrayed as a young man, holding a bunch of arrows, pilum, (or ligh ...

. * 3-5: most common dates for

Compitalia In ancient Roman religion, the Compitalia ( la, Ludi Compitalicii; ) was an annual festival in honor of the Lares Compitales, household deities of the crossroads, to whom sacrifices were offered at the places where two or more ways met. This fe ...

, a movable feast ''(

feriae conceptivae Festivals in ancient Rome were a very important part in Roman religious life during both the Republican and Imperial eras, and one of the primary features of the Roman calendar. ''Feriae'' ("holidays" in the sense of "holy days"; singula ...

)'' * 5 (Nones): ''Dies natalis'' (founding day) of the shrine of

Vica Pota In ancient Roman religion, Vica Pota was a goddess whose shrine ''(aedes)'' was located at the foot of the Velian Hill, on the site of the '' domus'' of Publius Valerius Publicola. This location would place the temple on the same side of the Velia ...

on the

Velian Hill The Velia — or Velian Hill or Velian Ridge — is a saddle or spur stretching out from the middle of the north side of the Palatine Hill towards the Oppian Hill (itself a spur of the Esquiline Hill) in Rome. In later times, the Velia was cal ...

*9:

Agonalia An Agonalia or Agonia was an obscure archaic religious observance celebrated in ancient Rome several times a year, in honor of various divinities. Its institution, like that of other religious rites and ceremonies, was attributed to Numa Pompi ...

in honor of

Janus In ancient Roman religion and myth, Janus ( ; la, Ianvs ) is the god of beginnings, gates, transitions, time, duality, doorways, passages, frames, and endings. He is usually depicted as having two faces. The month of January is named for Janu ...

, after whom the month January is named; first of at least four festivals named Agonalia throughout the year *11 and 15:

Carmentalia Carmentalia was the two feast days (11 January and 15 January) of the Roman goddess Carmenta. She had her temple atop the Capitoline Hill The Capitolium or Capitoline Hill ( ; it, Campidoglio ; la, Mons Capitolinus ), between the Forum ...

, with

Juturna In the myth and religion of ancient Rome, Juturna, or Diuturna, was a goddess of fountains, wells and springs, and the mother of Fontus by Janus. Mythology Juturna was an ancient Latin deity of fountains, who in some myths was turned by Jupi ...

celebrated also on the 11th * 13 (Ides) * 24–26: most common dates for the

Sementivae Sementivae, also known as Feriae Sementivae or Sementina dies (in the country called Paganalia), was a Roman festival of sowing. It was a type of ''feriae conceptivae'' r ''conceptae'' These free days were held every year, but not on certain or fi ...

, a ''feriae conceptivae'' of sowing, perhaps also known as the Paganalia as celebrated by the '' pagi'' * 27: ''Dies natalis'' of the

Temple of Castor and Pollux The Temple of Castor and Pollux ( it, Tempio dei Dioscuri) is an ancient temple in the Roman Forum, Rome, central Italy. It was originally built in gratitude for victory at the Battle of Lake Regillus (495 BC). Castor and Pollux (Greek Polydeuces ...

, or perhaps marking its rededication (see also July 15); ''Ludi Castores'' ("Games of the Castors") celebrated at Ostia during the Imperial period

Februarius ''Februarius'', fully ''Mensis Februarius'' ("month of Februa"), was the shortest month of the Roman calendar from which the Julian and Gregorian month of February derived. It was eventually placed second in order, preceded by ''Ianuarius'' (" ...

In the archaic Roman calendar, February was the last month of the year. The name derives from ''februa'', "the means of purification, expiatory offerings." It marked a turn of season, with February 5 the official first day of spring bringing the renewal of agricultural activities after winter. * 1 (Kalends): ''Dies natalis'' for the Temple of Juno Sospita, Mother and Queen; ''sacra'' at the Grove of Alernus, near the

Tiber The Tiber ( ; it, Tevere ; la, Tiberis) is the third-longest river in Italy and the longest in Central Italy, rising in the Apennine Mountains in Emilia-Romagna and flowing through Tuscany, Umbria, and Lazio, where it is joined by the Riv ...

at the foot of the

Palatine Hill The Palatine Hill (; la, Collis Palatium or Mons Palatinus; it, Palatino ), which relative to the seven hills of Rome is the centremost, is one of the most ancient parts of the city and has been called "the first nucleus of the Roman Empire." ...

* 5: ''Dies natalis'' for the

Temple of Concordia The Temple of Concordia ( it, Tempio della Concordia) is an ancient Greek temple in the Valle dei Templi (Valley of the Temples) in Agrigento (Greek: Akragas) on the south coast of Sicily, Italy. It is the largest and best-preserved Doric temple ...

on the

Capitoline Hill The Capitolium or Capitoline Hill ( ; it, Campidoglio ; la, Mons Capitolinus ), between the Forum and the Campus Martius, is one of the Seven Hills of Rome. The hill was earlier known as ''Mons Saturnius'', dedicated to the god Saturn. Th ...

* 13 (Ides): minor festival of

Faunus In ancient Roman religion and myth, Faunus was the rustic god of the forest, plains and fields; when he made cattle fertile he was called Inuus. He came to be equated in literature with the Greek god Pan, after which Romans depicted him as a ...

on the

Tiber Island The Tiber Island ( it, Isola Tiberina, Latin: ''Insula Tiberina'') is the only river island in the part of the Tiber which runs through Rome. Tiber Island is located in the southern bend of the Tiber. The island is boat-shaped, approximately ...

* 13–22:

Parentalia In ancient Rome, the Parentalia () or ''dies parentales'' (, "ancestral days") was a nine-day festival held in honor of family ancestors, beginning on 13 February. Although the Parentalia was a holiday on the Roman religious calendar, its observa ...

, a commemoration of ancestors and the dead among families ** 13: Parentatio, with appeasement of the

Manes In ancient Roman religion, the ''Manes'' (, , ) or ''Di Manes'' are chthonic deities sometimes thought to represent souls of deceased loved ones. They were associated with the ''Lares'', ''Lemures,'' '' Genii'', and ''Di Penates'' as deities ('' ...

beginning at the 6th hour and ceremonies performed by the chief Vestal; temples were closed, no fires burned on altars, marriages were forbidden, magistrates took off their insignia, until the 21st * 15:

Lupercalia Lupercalia was a pastoral festival of Ancient Rome observed annually on February 15 to purify the city, promoting health and fertility. Lupercalia was also known as ''dies Februatus'', after the purification instruments called ''februa'', the b ...

* 17: last day of the ''feriae conceptivae'' Fornacalia, the Oven Festival; Quirinalia, in honour of

Quirinus In Roman mythology and religion, Quirinus ( , ) is an early god of the Roman state. In Augustan Rome, ''Quirinus'' was also an epithet of Janus, as ''Janus Quirinus''. Name Attestations The name of god Quirinus is recorded across Roman sourc ...

*21:

Feralia Ferālia was an ancient Roman public festival Dumézil, Georges. ''Archaic Roman Religion''. pg 366. celebrating the Manes (Roman spirits of the dead, particularly the souls of deceased individuals) which fell on 21 February as recorded by Ovi ...

, the only public observation of the Parentalia, marked F ''(dies festus)'' in some calendars and FP (a designation of uncertain meaning) in others, with dark rites aimed at the gods below ''(

di inferi The ''di inferi'' or ''dii inferi'' (Latin, "the gods below") were a shadowy collective of ancient Roman deities associated with death and the underworld. The epithet ''inferi'' is also given to the mysterious Manes, a collective of ancestral sp ...

)'' * 22:

Caristia In ancient Rome, the Caristia, also known as the Cara Cognatio, was an official but privately observed holiday on February 22, that celebrated love of family with banqueting and gifts. Families gathered to dine together and offer food and incense ...

(or Cara Cognatio, "Dear Kindred"), a potluck meal provided by all the family, and shared in a spirit of love and forgiveness * 23:

Terminalia Terminalia may refer to: * Terminalia (festival), a Roman festival to the god of boundaries Terminus * ''Terminalia'' (plant), a tree genus * Terminalia (insect anatomy), the terminal region of the abdomen in insects * ''Polyscias terminalia'', a ...

, in honour of

Terminus Terminus may refer to: * Bus terminus, a bus station serving as an end destination * Terminal train station or terminus, a railway station serving as an end destination Geography *Terminus, the unofficial original name of Atlanta, Georgia, United ...

* 24:

Regifugium The Regifugium ("Flight of the King") or Fugalia ("Festival of the Flight") was an annual religious festival that took place in ancient Rome every February 24 ( la, a.d. VI Kal. Mart.). History Varro and Ovid traced the observance to the flight o ...

*27:

Equirria The Equirria (also as ''Ecurria'', from ''*equicurria'', "horse races") were two ancient Roman festivals of chariot racing, or perhaps horseback racing, held in honor of the god Mars, one 27 February and the other 14 March. Site The Equirria to ...

, first of two horse-racing festivals to

Mars Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System, only being larger than Mercury (planet), Mercury. In the English language, Mars is named for the Mars (mythology), Roman god of war. Mars is a terr ...

Martius

In the old Roman calendar (until perhaps as late as 153 BC), the ''mensis Martius'' ("Mars' Month") was the first month of the year. It is one of the few months to be named for a god,

, whose festivals dominate the month. *1 (Kalends): the original New Year's Day when the sacred fire of Rome was renewed; the dancing armed priesthood of the

Salii In Religion in ancient Rome, ancient Roman religion, the Salii ( , ) were the "leaping priests" (from the verb ''saliō'' "leap, jump") of Mars (mythology), Mars supposed to have been introduced by King Numa Pompilius. They were twelve Patrician ...

celebrated the ''Feriae Marti'' (holiday for Mars), which was also the ''dies natalis'' ("birthday") of Mars; also the

Matronalia In ancient Roman religion, the Matronalia (or Matronales Feriae) was a festival celebrating Juno Lucina, the goddess of childbirth ("Juno who brings children into the light"), and of motherhood (''mater'' is "mother" in Latin) and women in genera ...

, in honor of Juno Lucina, Mars' mother * 7: a second festival for Vediovis * 9: a ''

dies religiosus The vocabulary of ancient Roman religion was highly specialized. Its study affords important information about the religion, traditions and beliefs of the ancient Romans. This legacy is conspicuous in European cultural history in its influence o ...

'' when the Salii carried the sacred shields ''(

ancilia In ancient Rome, the ''ancilia'' (Latin, singular ''ancile'') were twelve sacred shields kept in the Temple of Mars. According to legend, one divine shield fell from heaven during the reign of Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome. He ordered ...

)'' around the city again *14: the second

, a ''Feriae Marti'' also called the

Mamuralia In ancient Roman religion, the Mamuralia or ''Sacrum Mamurio'' ("Rite for Mamurius") was a festival held on March 14 or 15, named only in sources from late antiquity. According to Joannes Lydus, an old man wearing animal skins was beaten ritually ...

or ''sacrum Mamurio'' * 15 (Ides): ''Feriae Iovi'', sacred to

Jove Jupiter ( la, Iūpiter or , from Proto-Italic "day, sky" + "father", thus " sky father" Greek: Δίας or Ζεύς), also known as Jove ( gen. ''Iovis'' ), is the god of the sky and thunder, and king of the gods in ancient Roman religio ...

, and also the feast of the year goddess Anna Perenna * 16–17: the procession of the

Argei The rituals of the Argei were archaic religious observances in ancient Rome that took place on March 16 and March 17, and again on May 14 or May 15. By the time of Augustus, the meaning of these rituals had become obscure even to those who practi ...

* 17:

Liberalia In ancient Roman religion, the Liberalia (March 17) was the festival of Liber Pater and his consort Libera.T.P. Wiseman, ''Remus: a Roman myth'', Cambridge University Press, 1995, p.133. The Romans celebrated Liberalia with sacrifices, processio ...

, in honour of

Liber In ancient Roman religion and mythology, Liber ( , ; "the free one"), also known as Liber Pater ("the free Father"), was a god of viticulture and wine, male fertility and freedom. He was a patron deity of Rome's plebeians and was part of the ...

; also an

for Mars * 19:

Quinquatrus In ancient Roman religion, the Quinquatria or Quinquatrus was a festival sacred to the Goddess Minerva, celebrated from the 19–23 of March. The older festivals were of Etruscan origin and were to celebrate the Spring equinox, the spring rebirth ...

, later expanded into a five-day holiday as Quinquatria, a ''Feriae Marti'', but also a feast day for

Minerva Minerva (; ett, Menrva) is the Roman goddess of wisdom, justice, law, victory, and the sponsor of arts, trade, and strategy. Minerva is not a patron of violence such as Mars, but of strategic war. From the second century BC onward, the Roma ...

, possibly because her temple on the

Aventine Hill The Aventine Hill (; la, Collis Aventinus; it, Aventino ) is one of the Seven Hills on which ancient Rome was built. It belongs to Ripa, the modern twelfth ''rione'', or ward, of Rome. Location and boundaries The Aventine Hill is the sou ...

was dedicated on this day * 23:

Tubilustrium In Ancient Rome the month of March was the traditional start of the campaign season, and the Tubilustrium was a ceremony to make the army fit for war. The ceremony involved sacred trumpets called ''tubae''. Johannes Quasten, however, argues ...

, purification of the trumpets. * 24: a day marked QRFC, when the

Comitia Calata The vocabulary of ancient Roman religion was highly specialized. Its study affords important information about the religion, traditions and beliefs of the ancient Romans. This legacy is conspicuous in European cultural history in its influence o ...

met to sanction wills *31: anniversary of the

Temple of Luna The Temple of Luna (Latin: ''templum'' or ''aedes Lunae'') was a temple on the Aventine Hill in Rome, dedicated to Luna, the moon goddess. Its dedication was celebrated on 31 March. According to Tacitus, Annals, XV, 41.1 it was built by king Ser ...

on the Aventine

Aprilis ''Aprilis'' or ''mensis Aprilis'' (April) was the second month of the ancient Roman calendar, following '' Martius'' (March) and preceding '' Maius'' (May). On the oldest Roman calendar that had begun with March, ''Aprilis'' was the second of ten ...

A major ''feriae conceptivae'' in April was the

Latin Festival The ''Feriae Latinae'' or Latin Festival was an ancient Roman religious festival held in April on the Alban Mount. The date varied, and was determined and announced by the consuls each year when they took office. It was one of the most ancient fe ...

. * 1 (Kalends):

Veneralia The Veneralia was an ancient Roman festival celebrated April 1 (the Kalends of ''Aprilis'') in honor of Venus Verticordia ("Venus the changer of hearts") and Fortuna Virilis ("Manly" or "Virile Fortune"). The cult of Venus Verticordia was establ ...

in honour of

Venus Venus is the second planet from the Sun. It is sometimes called Earth's "sister" or "twin" planet as it is almost as large and has a similar composition. As an interior planet to Earth, Venus (like Mercury) appears in Earth's sky never fa ...

*4–10:

Ludi Megalenses The Megalesia, Megalensia, or Megalenses Ludi, was a festival celebrated in Ancient Rome from April 4 to April 10, in honour of Cybele, known to Romans as ''Magna Mater'' (Great Mother). The name of the festival derives from Greek ''Megale'' (μϵ� ...

or Megalesia, in honor of the

Magna Mater Cybele ( ; Phrygian: ''Matar Kubileya/Kubeleya'' "Kubileya/Kubeleya Mother", perhaps "Mountain Mother"; Lydian ''Kuvava''; el, Κυβέλη ''Kybele'', ''Kybebe'', ''Kybelis'') is an Anatolian mother goddess; she may have a possible foreru ...

Cybele Cybele ( ; Phrygian: ''Matar Kubileya/Kubeleya'' "Kubileya/Kubeleya Mother", perhaps "Mountain Mother"; Lydian ''Kuvava''; el, Κυβέλη ''Kybele'', ''Kybebe'', ''Kybelis'') is an Anatolian mother goddess; she may have a possible forer ...

, whose temple was dedicated April 10, 191 BC * 5: anniversary of the Temple of Fortuna Publica *12–19:

Cerialia In ancient Roman religion, the Cerealia was the major festival celebrated for the grain goddess Ceres. It was held for seven days from mid- to late April. Various agricultural festivals were held in the "last half of April". The Cerealia celebra ...

or Ludi Cereri, festival and games for

Ceres Ceres most commonly refers to: * Ceres (dwarf planet), the largest asteroid * Ceres (mythology), the Roman goddess of agriculture Ceres may also refer to: Places Brazil * Ceres, Goiás, Brazil * Ceres Microregion, in north-central Goiás ...

, established by 202 BC * 13 (Ides): anniversary of the Temple of Jupiter Victor *15:

Fordicidia In ancient Roman religion, the Fordicidia was a festival of fertility, held on the Ides of April (April 15), that pertained to farming and animal husbandry. It involved the sacrifice of a pregnant cow to Tellus, the ancient Roman goddess of the E ...

, offering of a pregnant cow to

Tellus Tellus is a Latin word meaning "Earth" and may refer to: * An alternative name for the planet Earth * Tellus of Athens, a citizen of ancient Athens who was thought to be the happiest of men * Tellus Mater or Terra Mater, the ancient Roman earth mo ...

("Earth") *21:

Parilia upright=1.5, ''Festa di Pales, o L'estate'' (1783), a reimagining of the Festival of Pales by Joseph-Benoît Suvée The Parilia is an ancient Roman festival of rural character performed annually on 21 April, aimed at cleansing both sheep and sh ...

, rustic festival in honour of

Pales In ancient Roman religion, Pales was a deity of shepherds, flocks and livestock. Regarded as male by some sources and female by others, ''Pales'' can be either singular or plural in Latin, and refers at least once to a pair of deities. Pales' fes ...

, and the ''dies natalis'' of Rome *23: the first of two wine festivals (

Vinalia The Vinalia were Roman festivals of the wine harvest, wine vintage and gardens, held in honour of Jupiter and Venus. The ''Vinalia prima'' ("first Vinalia"), also known as the ''Vinalia urbana'' ("Urban Vinalia") was held on 23 April to bless and ...

), the ''Vinalia Priora'' for the previous year's wine, held originally for Jupiter and later Venus *25: Robigalia, an agricultural festival involving dog sacrifice *27 (28 in the

Julian calendar The Julian calendar, proposed by Roman consul Julius Caesar in 46 BC, was a reform of the Roman calendar. It took effect on , by edict. It was designed with the aid of Greek mathematicians and astronomers such as Sosigenes of Alexandr ...

) to May 1: Ludi Florales in honour of

Flora Flora is all the plant life present in a particular region or time, generally the naturally occurring (indigenous) native plants. Sometimes bacteria and fungi are also referred to as flora, as in the terms '' gut flora'' or '' skin flora''. E ...

, extended to May 3 under the Empire

Maius ''Maius'' or ''mensis Maius'' (May) was the third month of the ancient Roman calendar, following ''Aprilis'' (April) and preceding ''Iunius'' (June). On the oldest Roman calendar that had begun with March, it was the third of ten months in the year ...

The ''feriae conceptivae'' of this month was the

Ambarvalia Ambarvalia was a Roman agricultural fertility rite held on 29 May in honor of Ceres and Dea Dia. At these festivals they sacrificed a bull, a sow, and a sheep, which, before the sacrifice, were led in procession thrice around the fields; whence t ...

. *1 (Kalends): Games of Flora continue; sacrifice to

Maia Maia (; Ancient Greek: Μαῖα; also spelled Maie, ; la, Maia), in ancient Greek religion and mythology, is one of the Pleiades and the mother of Hermes, one of the major Greek gods, by Zeus, the king of Olympus. Family Maia is the daugh ...

; anniversary of the Temple of Bona Dea on the Aventine; rites for the Lares Praestites, tutelaries of the city of Rome * 3: in the Imperial period, a last celebration for Flora, or the anniversary of one of her temples *9, 11, 13:

Lemuria Lemuria (), or Limuria, was a continent proposed in 1864 by zoologist Philip Sclater, theorized to have sunk beneath the Indian Ocean, later appropriated by occultists in supposed accounts of human origins. The theory was discredited with the di ...

, a festival of the dead with both public and household rites, possibly with a sacrifice to

Mania Mania, also known as manic syndrome, is a mental and behavioral disorder defined as a state of abnormally elevated arousal, affect, and energy level, or "a state of heightened overall activation with enhanced affective expression together wit ...

on the 11th * 14: anniversary of the Temple of Mars Invictus (Mars the Unconquered); a second procession of the

*15 (Ides):

Mercuralia Mercuralia is a Roman celebration known also as the "Festival of Mercury". Mercury (Greek counterpart: Hermes) was the god of merchants and commerce. On May 15 merchants would sprinkle their heads, their ships and merchandise, and their businesse ...

, in honor of

Mercury Mercury commonly refers to: * Mercury (planet), the nearest planet to the Sun * Mercury (element), a metallic chemical element with the symbol Hg * Mercury (mythology), a Roman god Mercury or The Mercury may also refer to: Companies * Merc ...

; ''Feriae'' of Jove *21: one of four

, probably a third festival for Vediovis *23: a second

; ''Feriae'' for Volcanus (Vulcan) * 24: QRCF, following Tubilustrium as in March * 25: anniversary of the Temple of Fortuna Primigenia

Iunius The gens Junia was one of the most celebrated families of ancient Rome. The gens may originally have been patrician, and was already prominent in the last days of the Roman monarchy. Lucius Junius Brutus was the nephew of Lucius Tarquinius ...

Scullard places the

Taurian Games The Taurian Games (Latin ''Ludi Taurii'' or ''Ludi Taurei'', rarely Taurilia) were games ''(ludi)'' held in ancient Rome in honor of the ''di inferi'', the gods of the underworld. They were not part of a regularly scheduled religious festival on th ...

on June 25–26, but other scholars doubt these ''ludi'' had a fixed date or recurred on a regular basis. * 1 (Kalends): anniversaries of the Temple of Juno Moneta; of the Temple of Mars on the ''clivus'' (slope, street) outside the

Porta Capena Porta Capena was a gate in the Servian Wall in Rome, Italy. The gate was located in the area of Piazza di Porta Capena, where the Caelian, Palatine and Aventine hills meet. Probably its exact position was between the entrance of Via di Valle de ...

; and possibly of the Temple of the Tempestates (storm goddesses); also a festival of the complex goddess Cardea or Carna *3: anniversary of the Temple of

Bellona Bellona may refer to: Places *Bellona, Campania, a ''comune'' in the Province of Caserta, Italy *Bellona Reef, a reef in New Caledonia *Bellona Island, an island in Rennell and Bellona Province, Solomon Islands Ships * HMS ''Bellona'' (1760), a 74 ...

* 4: anniversary of the restoration of the Temple of Hercules Custos * 5: anniversary of the Temple of

Dius Fidius In ancient Roman religion, Dius Fidius (less often as Dius Fidus) was a god of oaths associated with Jupiter. His name was thought to be related to Fides. ''Fidius'' may be an earlier form for ''filius'', "son", with the name Dius Fidius origin ...

* 7:

Ludi Piscatorii The Ludi Piscatorii was a Roman holiday celebrated on 7 June in the 3rd century BC in honor of Father Tiber. The holiday was celebrated by the fishermen of Rome; the celebration was directed by the Praetor Praetor ( , ), also pretor, was the ti ...

, "Fishermen's Games" *7–15: Vestalia, in honour of Vesta; June 9 was a ''dies religiosus'' to her * 8: anniversary of the Temple of

Mens In Roman mythology, Mens, also known as Mens Bona (Latin for "Good Mind"), was the personification of thought, consciousness and the mind, and also of "right-thinking". Her festival was celebrated on June 8. A temple on the Capitoline Hill in Rome ...

* 11:

Matralia Mater Matuta was an indigenous Latin goddess, whom the Romans eventually made equivalent to the dawn goddess Aurora, and the Greek goddess Eos. Her cult is attested several places in Latium; her most famous temple was located at Satricum. In Rom ...

in honour of

Mater Matuta Mater Matuta was an indigenous Latin goddess, whom the Romans eventually made equivalent to the dawn goddess Aurora, and the Greek goddess Eos. Her cult is attested several places in Latium; her most famous temple was located at Satricum. In Rome ...

; also the anniversary of the Temple of Fortuna in the

Forum Boarium The Forum Boarium (, it, Foro Boario) was the cattle ''forum venalium'' of ancient Rome. It was located on a level piece of land near the Tiber between the Capitoline, the Palatine and Aventine hills. As the site of the original docks of Rome ...

* 13 (Ides): ''Feriae'' of Jove * 13–15: ''Quinquatrus minusculae'', the lesser

celebrated by '' tibicines'', flute-players in their role as accompanists to religious ceremonies *19: a commemoration involving the Temple of Minerva on the Aventine, which had its anniversary March 19 *20: anniversary of the Temple of Summanus * 24: festival of Fors Fortuna, which "seems to have been a rowdy affair" * 27: poorly attested observance in honour of the

Lares Lares ( , ; archaic , singular ''Lar'') were guardian deities in ancient Roman religion. Their origin is uncertain; they may have been hero-ancestors, guardians of the hearth, fields, boundaries, or fruitfulness, or an amalgam of these. Lares ...

; anniversary of the Temple of Jupiter Stator * 29: anniversary of the Temple of Hercules Musarum, Hercules of the Muses

Quintilis (Quinctilis)

Until renamed for

Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, and ...

, this month was called Quinctilis or

Quintilis In the ancient Roman calendar, Quintilis or Quinctilis was the month following Junius (June) and preceding Sextilis (August). ''Quintilis'' is Latin for "fifth": it was the fifth month (''quintilis mensis'') in the earliest calendar attributed to ...

, originally the fifth month ''(quint-)'' when the year began in March. From this point in the calendar forward, the months had numerical designations. * 1 (Kalends): a scarcely attested anniversary of a temple to Juno Felicitas *5:

*6–13:

, games in honour of

Apollo Apollo, grc, Ἀπόλλωνος, Apóllōnos, label=genitive , ; , grc-dor, Ἀπέλλων, Apéllōn, ; grc, Ἀπείλων, Apeílōn, label=Arcadocypriot Greek, ; grc-aeo, Ἄπλουν, Áploun, la, Apollō, la, Apollinis, label= ...

, first held in 212 BC as a one-day event (July 13) and established as annual in 208 BC. * 6: anniversary of the Temple of Fortuna Muliebris * 7 (Nones): Nonae Caprotinae; ''Ancillarum Feriae'' (Festival of the Serving Women); sacrifice to

Consus In ancient Roman religion, the god Consus was the protector of grains. He was represented by a grain seed. His altar ''(ara)'' was located at the first ''meta'' of the Circus Maximus. It was either underground, or according to other sources, cove ...

by unspecified public priests ''(sacerdotes publici)''; also a minor festival to the two

* 8:

Vitulatio The ''Vitulatio'' was an annual thanksgiving celebrated in ancient Rome on July 8, the day after the '' Nonae Caprotinae'' and following the Poplifugia on July 5. The Poplifugia is a lesser-known festival that was of obscure origin even for the Roma ...

* 14–19: a series of markets or fairs ''( mercatus)'' following the Ludi Apollinares; not religious holidays * 15 (Ides): '' Transvectio equitum,'' a procession of cavalry * 17: anniversary of the Temple of Honos and Virtus; sacrifice to

Victory The term victory (from Latin ''victoria'') originally applied to warfare, and denotes success achieved in personal Duel, combat, after military operations in general or, by extension, in any competition. Success in a military campaign constitu ...

*18: a ''dies ater'' ("black day," meaning a day of ill omen) marking the defeat of the Romans by the

Gauls The Gauls ( la, Galli; grc, Γαλάται, ''Galátai'') were a group of Celtic peoples of mainland Europe in the Iron Age and the Roman period (roughly 5th century BC to 5th century AD). Their homeland was known as Gaul (''Gallia''). They s ...

at the

Battle of the Allia The Battle of the Allia was a battle fought between the Senones – a Gallic tribe led by Brennus, who had invaded Northern Italy – and the Roman Republic. The battle was fought at the confluence of the Tiber and Allia rivers, 11 Roman mile ...

in 390 BC, leading to the sack of Rome by the Gauls *19, 21:

Lucaria In ancient Roman religion, the Lucaria was a festival of the grove (Latin '' lucus'') held 19 and 21 July. The original meaning of the ritual was obscure by the time of Varro (mid-1st century BC), who omits it in his list of festivals. The deity ...

* 20–30: Ludi Victoriae Caesaris, "Games of the Victorious Caesar", held annually from 45 BC * 22: anniversary of the Temple of Concordia at the foot of the Capitol *23:

Neptunalia The Neptunalia was an obscure archaic two-day festival in honor of Neptune as god of waters, celebrated at Rome in the heat and drought of summer, probably 23 July (Varro, ''De lingua Latina'' vi.19). It was one of the ''dies comitiales'', when com ...

held in honour of

Neptune Neptune is the eighth planet from the Sun and the farthest known planet in the Solar System. It is the fourth-largest planet in the Solar System by diameter, the third-most-massive planet, and the densest giant planet. It is 17 times ...

*25:

Furrinalia In ancient Roman religion, the Furrinalia (or Furinalia) was an annual festival held on 25 July to celebrate the rites ''( sacra)'' of the goddess Furrina. Varro notes that the festival was a public holiday ''( feriae publicae dies)''. Both the fes ...

, ''feriae publicae'' in honour of

Furrina Furrina, also spelled Furina, was an ancient Roman goddess whose function had become obscure by the 1st century BC. Her cult dated to the earliest period of Roman religious history, since she was one of the fifteen deities who had their own flame ...

*30: anniversary of the Temple of the Fortune of This Day ''(Fortunae Huiusque Diei)''

Augustus (Sextilis)

Until renamed for

Augustus Caesar Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pri ...

, this month was called Sextilis, originally the sixth month (sext-) when the year began in March. * 1 (Kalends): anniversary of the Temple of

Spes In ancient Roman religion, Spes (pronounced ) was the goddess of hope. Multiple temples to Spes are known, and inscriptions indicate that she received private devotion as well as state cult. Republican Hope During the Republic, a temple to "anc ...

(Hope) in the

Forum Holitorium The Forum Holitorium ( it, Foro Olitorio; en, Vegetable-sellers' Market) is an archaeological area of Rome, Italy, on the slopes of the Capitoline Hill. It was "oddly located" outside the Porta Carmentalis in the Campus Martius, crowded between th ...

, with commemorations also for the "two Victories" on the Palatine * 3: ''

Supplicia canum The ''supplicia canum'' ("punishment of the dogs") was an annual sacrifice of ancient Roman religion in which live dogs were suspended from a ''furca'' ("fork") or cross ''(crux)'' and paraded. It appears on none of the extant Roman calendars, b ...

'' ("punishment of the dogs") an unusual dog sacrifice and procession at the temples of Iuventas ("Youth") and Summanus, connected to the Gallic siege * 5: public sacrifice ''(sacrificium publicum)'' at the Temple of

Salus Salus ( la, salus, "safety", "salvation", "welfare") was the Roman goddess of safety and well-being (welfare, health and prosperity) of both the individual and the state. She is sometimes equated with the Greek goddess Hygieia, though their fu ...

on the Quirinal * 9: public sacrifice to

Sol Indiges Sol is the personification of the Sun and a god in ancient Roman religion. It was long thought that Rome actually had two different, consecutive sun gods: The first, Sol Indiges ( la, the deified sun), was thought to have been unimportant, disap ...

* 12: sacrifice of a heifer to Hercules Invictus, with a libation from the ''

skyphos A ''skyphos'' ( grc, σκύφος; plural ''skyphoi'') is a two-handled deep wine-cup on a low flanged base or none. The handles may be horizontal ear-shaped thumbholds that project from the rim (in both Corinthian and Athenian shapes), or they ma ...

'' of Hercules * 13 (Ides): festival of Diana on the Aventine (

Nemoralia The Nemoralia (also known as the Festival of Torches or Hecatean Ides) is a three-day festival originally celebrated by the ancient Romans on the Ides of August (August 13–15) in honor of the goddess Diana. Although the Nemoralia was originally ...

), with slaves given the day off to attend; other deities honored at their temples include Vortumnus, Fortuna Equestris, Hercules Victor (or Invictus at the

Porta Trigemina The Porta Trigemina was one of the main gates in the ancient 4th century Servian Wall of Rome, Italy. The gate no longer exists, but it is frequently mentioned by ancient authors as standing between the north end of the Aventine Hill and the Tiber ...

Castor and Pollux Castor; grc, Κάστωρ, Kástōr, beaver. and Pollux. (or Polydeukes). are twin half-brothers in Greek and Roman mythology, known together as the Dioscuri.; grc, Διόσκουροι, Dióskouroi, sons of Zeus, links=no, from ''Dîos'' ('Z ...

, the Camenae, and Flora *17:

Portunalia __NOTOC__ Portunus was the ancient Roman god of keys, doors, livestock and ports. He may have originally protected the warehouses where grain was stored, but later became associated with ports, perhaps because of folk associations between ''por ...

in honour of Portunus; anniversary of the Temple of Janus *19:

Vinalia Rustica The Vinalia were Roman festivals of the wine harvest, wine vintage and gardens, held in honour of Jupiter and Venus. The ''Vinalia prima'' ("first Vinalia"), also known as the ''Vinalia urbana'' ("Urban Vinalia") was held on 23 April to bless and ...

, originally in honour of Jupiter, but later

*21:

Consualia The Consualia or ''Consuales Ludi'' was the name of two ancient Roman festivals in honor of Consus, a tutelary deity of the harvest and stored grain. ''Consuales Ludi'' harvest festivals were held on August 21,Plutarch. "Life if Romulus", in ''P ...

, with a sacrifice on the Aventine *23:

Vulcanalia Vulcan ( la, Vulcanus, in archaically retained spelling also ''Volcanus'', both pronounced ) is the god of fire including the fire of volcanoes, deserts, metalworking and the forge in ancient Roman religion and myth. He is often depicted ...

or ''Feriae Volcano'' in honour of

Vulcan Vulcan may refer to: Mythology * Vulcan (mythology), the god of fire, volcanoes, metalworking, and the forge in Roman mythology Arts, entertainment and media Film and television * Vulcan (''Star Trek''), name of a fictional race and their home p ...

, along with sacrifices to Maia, the

Nymph A nymph ( grc, νύμφη, nýmphē, el, script=Latn, nímfi, label=Modern Greek; , ) in ancient Greek folklore is a minor female nature deity. Different from Greek goddesses, nymphs are generally regarded as personifications of nature, are ty ...

s ''in campo'' ("in the field", perhaps the

Campus Martius The Campus Martius (Latin for the "Field of Mars", Italian ''Campo Marzio'') was a publicly owned area of ancient Rome about in extent. In the Middle Ages, it was the most populous area of Rome. The IV rione of Rome, Campo Marzio, which covers ...

), Ops Opifera, and a Hora *24: sacrifices to Luna on the

Graecostasis The Graecostasis was a platform in the Comitium near the Roman Forum, located to the west of the Rostra. The name refers to the Greek ambassadors for whom the platform was originally built after the Roman Republic conquered Greece. Placed at the s ...

; and the first of three days when the mysterious ritual pit called the '' mundus'' was opened *25:

Opiconsivia The Opiconsivia (or Opeconsiva or Opalia) was an ancient Roman religious festival held August 25 in honor of Ops ("Plenty"), also known as Opis, a goddess of agricultural resources and wealth. The festival marked the end of harvest, with a mirro ...

or ''Feriae Opi'' in honour of Ops Consivae at the

Regia The Regia ("Royal house") was a two-part structure in Ancient Rome lying along the Via Sacra at the edge of the Roman Forum that originally served as the residence or one of the main headquarters of kings of Rome and later as the office of the ...

*27: Volturnalia, when the Flamen Volturnalis made a sacrifice to

Volturnus The VolturnUS is a floating concrete structure that supports a wind turbine, designed by University of Maine Advanced Structures and Composites Center and deployed by DeepCwind Consortium in 2013. The VolturnUS can support wind turbines in water ...

*28: Games at the

Circus Maximus The Circus Maximus (Latin for "largest circus"; Italian: ''Circo Massimo'') is an ancient Roman chariot-racing stadium and mass entertainment venue in Rome, Italy. In the valley between the Aventine and Palatine hills, it was the first and lar ...

''( circenses)'' for Sol and Luna

September September is the ninth month of the year in both the Julian and Gregorian calendars, the third of four months to have a length of 30 days, and the fourth of five months to have a length of fewer than 31 days. September in the Northern H ...

*1 (Kalends): ceremonies for Jupiter Tonans ("the Thunderer") on the Capitolium, and Juno Regina on the Aventine * 5: anniversary of one of the temples to Jupiter Stator * 5–19,

Ludi Romani The ''Ludi Romani'' ("Roman Games"; see ''ludi'') was a religious festival in ancient Rome. Usually including multiple ceremonies called ''ludi''. They were held annually starting in 366 BC from September 12 to September 14, later extended to S ...

or Ludi Magni, "the oldest and most famous" of the ''ludi'' * 13 (Ides): anniversary of the Temple to Jupiter Optimus Maximus; an Epulum Iovis; an ''epulum'' to the

Capitoline Triad The Capitoline Triad was a group of three deities who were worshipped in Religion in ancient Rome, ancient Roman religion in an elaborate temple on Rome's Capitoline Hill (Latin ''Capitolium''). It comprised Jupiter (mythology), Jupiter, Juno (my ...

* 14: ''Equorum probatio'' ("Approval of the Horses"), a cavalry parade of the Imperial period * 20–23: days set aside for markets and fairs ''( mercatus)'' immediately following the Ludi Romani * 23: anniversary of the rededication of the Temple of Apollo in the Campus Martius;

Latona In ancient Greek mythology and religion, Leto (; grc-gre, Λητώ , ''Lētṓ'', or , ''Lātṓ'' in Doric Greek) is a goddess and the mother of Apollo, the god of music, and Artemis, the goddess of the hunt.Hesiod, ''Theogony'404–409/ref ...

was also honored *26: anniversary of the Temple of Venus Genetrix vowed by Julius Caesar

October October is the tenth month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars and the sixth of seven months to have a length of 31 days. The eighth month in the old calendar of Romulus , October retained its name (from Latin and Greek ''ôct ...

* 1 (Kalends): ceremonies for Fides and the

Tigillum Sororium The ''Sororium Tigillum'', which translates as the "sister's beam", was a wooden beam said to have been erected on the slope of the Oppian Hill in Ancient Rome by the father of Publius Horatius, one of the three brothers Horatii. Publius Horatiu ...

* 3–12: Ludi Augustales, established 14 AD after the death of

, based on the

Augustalia The Augustalia, also known as the ''Ludi Augustales'' ("Augustan Games"), was a festival celebrated October 12 in honor of Augustus, the first Roman emperor. It was established in conjunction with an altar to Fortuna Redux to mark the return of A ...

*4: '' Ieiunium Cereris'', a day of

fasting Fasting is the abstention from eating and sometimes drinking. From a purely physiological context, "fasting" may refer to the metabolic status of a person who has not eaten overnight (see " Breakfast"), or to the metabolic state achieved after ...

in honour of

, instituted in 191 BC as a

quinquennial An anniversary is the date on which an event took place or an institution was founded in a previous year, and may also refer to the commemoration or celebration of that event. The word was first used for Catholic feasts to commemorate saints. ...

observance, made annual by

* 5: second of the three days when the '' mundus'' was opened * 6: ''dies ater'' ("black day") to mark the anniversary of the

battle of Arausio The Battle of Arausio took place on 6 October 105 BC, at a site between the town of Arausio (now Orange, Vaucluse), and the Rhône River. Ranged against the migratory tribes of the Cimbri under Boiorix and the Teutoni under Teutobod were two ...

(105 BC) * 7 (Nones): rites for Jupiter Fulgur (Jupiter of daytime lightning) and Juno Curitis * 9: rites at shrines for the Genius Publicus, Fausta Felicitas, and Venus Victrix on the Capitolium * 10: ceremonies to mark a rededication of the Temple of Juno Moneta * 11:

Meditrinalia The Meditrinalia was a festival in the traditional Roman religion, celebrated on October 11 in honor of the new vintage, which was offered as libations to the gods for the first time each year. Though now obscure, the festival may have been so call ...

* 12:

, celebrated from 14 AD in honour of the divinized

, established in 19 BC with a new altar and sacrifice to Fortuna Redux * 13: Fontinalia in honour of Fons * 14: ceremonies to mark a restoration of the Temple of the Penates Dei on the

*15 (Ides):

October Horse In Religion in ancient Rome, ancient Roman religion, the October Horse (Latin ''Equus October'') was an animal sacrifice to Mars (mythology), Mars carried out on October 15, coinciding with the end of the Roman agriculture, agricultural and mili ...

sacrifice to

in the

; also ''Feriae'' of Jupiter *19:

Armilustrium In ancient Roman religion, the Armilustrium was a festival in honor of Mars, the god of war, celebrated on October 19.H.H. Scullard, ''Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic'' (Cornell University Press, 1981), p. 195. On this day the weapo ...

, a ''dies religiosus'' in honour of Mars * 26 to November 1: Ludi Victoriae Sullanae, "Victory Games of Sulla", established as an annual event in 81 BC

November November is the eleventh and penultimate month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian Calendars, the fourth and last of four months to have a length of 30 days and the fifth and last of five months to have a length of fewer than 31 days. No ...

*1 (Kalends): ''

Ludi circenses ''Ludi'' (Latin plural) were public games held for the benefit and entertainment of the Roman people (''populus Romanus''). ''Ludi'' were held in conjunction with, or sometimes as the major feature of, Roman religious festivals, and were also ...

'' to close the Sullan Victory Games *4–17: ''Ludi Plebeii'' (Plebeian Games) * 8: third of the three days when the ''mundus'' ritual pit was opened *13 (Ides):

Epulum Jovis In ancient Roman religion, the Epulum Jovis (also Epulum Iovis) was a sumptuous ritual feast offered to Jove on the Ides of September (September 13) and a smaller feast on the Ides of November (November 13). It was celebrated during the ''Ludi Ro ...

; also ceremonies for

Feronia Feronia may mean: * Feronia (mythology), a goddess of fertility in Roman and Etruscan mythology * ''Feronia'' (plant), a genus of plants * Feronia Inc., a plantations company operating in the Democratic Republic of the Congo * Feronia (Sardinia) ...

and Fortuna Primigeniae * 14: a second ''Equorum probatio'' (cavalry parade), as on July 15 * 18–20: markets and fairs ''( mercatus)''

December December is the twelfth and final month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars and is also the last of seven months to have a length of 31 days. December got its name from the Latin word ''decem'' (meaning ten) because it was or ...

* 3:

Bona Dea Bona Dea (; 'Good Goddess') was a List of Roman deities, goddess in Religion in ancient Rome, ancient Roman religion. She was associated with chastity and fertility in Women in ancient Rome, Roman women, healing, and the protection of the SPQR, st ...

rites for women only *5 (Nones): a country festival for

held by the '' pagi'' * 8: festival for Tiberinus Pater and Gaia *11:

for

Indiges {{short description, Hero from Roman mythology According to the Roman historian Livy, Jupiter Indiges is the name given to the deified hero Aeneas. In some versions of his story, he is raised up to become a god after his death by Numicius, a local ...

; also the (probably unrelated)

Septimontium The Septimontium was a proto-urban festival celebrated in ancient Rome by ''montani'', residents of the seven ''(sept-)'' communities associated with the hills or peaks of Rome ''(montes)'': Oppius, Palatium, Velia, Fagutal, Cermalus, Caelius, an ...

* 12: ceremonies at the Temple of Consus on the Aventine * 13 (Ides): ''dies natalis'' of the Temple of Tellus, and associated

lectisternium The lectisternium was an ancient Roman propitiatory ceremony, consisting of a meal offered to gods and goddesses. The word derives from ''lectum sternere'', "to spread (or "drape") a couch." The deities were represented by their busts or statues ...

for Ceres *15:

or ''Feriae'' for Consus, the second of the year *17–23:

Saturnalia Saturnalia is an ancient Roman festival and holiday in honour of the god Saturn, held on 17 December of the Julian calendar and later expanded with festivities through to 23 December. The holiday was celebrated with a sacrifice at the Temple ...

in honour of

Saturn Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second-largest in the Solar System, after Jupiter. It is a gas giant with an average radius of about nine and a half times that of Earth. It has only one-eighth the average density of Earth; h ...

, with the public ritual on the 17th *18 Eponalia in honor of Epona *19:

Opalia The Opiconsivia (or Opeconsiva or Opalia) was an ancient Roman religious festival held August 25 in honor of Ops ("Plenty"), also known as Opis, a goddess of agricultural resources and wealth. The festival marked the end of harvest, with a mirr ...

in honor of

Ops In ancient Roman religion, Ops or ''Opis'' (Latin: "Plenty") was a fertility deity and earth goddess of Sabine origin. Her equivalent in Greek mythology was Rhea. Iconography In Ops' statues and coins, she is figured sitting down, as Chthon ...

*21:

Divalia The Divalia was a Roman festival held on December 21, in honour of the goddess Angerona In Roman religion, Angerona or Angeronia was an old Roman goddess, whose name and functions are variously explained. She is sometimes identified with the god ...

in honor of

Angerona In Roman religion, Angerona or Angeronia was an old Roman goddess, whose name and functions are variously explained. She is sometimes identified with the goddess Feronia. Description According to ancient authorities, she was a goddess who reliev ...

; Hercules and Ceres also received a sacrifice * 22: anniversary of the Temple of the Lares Permarini in the Porticus Minucia *23:

Larentalia The Roman festival of Larentalia was held on 23 December but was ordered to be observed twice a year by Augustus; by some supposed to be in honour of the Lares, a kind of domestic ''genii'', or divinities, worshipped in houses, and esteemed the gua ...

; commemorations for the temples of Diana and Juno Regina in the

Circus Flaminius The Circus Flaminius was a large, circular area in ancient Rome, located in the southern end of the Campus Martius near the Tiber River. It contained a small race-track used for obscure games, and various other buildings and monuments. It was "bui ...

, and for the Tempestates;

Sigillaria ''Sigillaria'' is a genus of extinct, spore-bearing, arborescent (tree-like) plants. It was a lycopodiophyte, and is related to the lycopsids, or club-mosses, but even more closely to quillworts, as was its associate ''Lepidodendron''. Fossil ...

, the last day of the Saturnalia, devoted to gift-giving *25:

Dies Natalis Solis Invicti Sol Invictus (, "Unconquered Sun"), sometimes simply known as Helios, was long considered to be the official sun god of the later Roman Empire. In recent years, however, the scholarly community has become divided on Sol between traditionalists a ...

("Birthday of the Unconquered Sun");

Brumalia The Brumalia ( la, Brumalia ) were a winter solstice festival celebrated in the eastern part of the Roman Empire. In Rome there had been the minor holiday of Bruma on November 24, which turned into large scale end of the year festivities in Const ...

(both Imperial)

''Feriae conceptivae''

The following "moveable feasts" are listed roughly in chronological order. *

, held sometime between December 17 (the Saturnalia) and January 5; in the later Empire, they were regularly held January 3–5, but Macrobius (5th century AD) still categorized them as ''conceptivae''. *

, a festival of sowing honoring Tellus and Ceres, placed on January 24–26 by Ovid, who regards these ''feriae'' as the same as Paganalia; Varro may indicate that the two were separate festivals. * Fornacalia, a mid-February baking festival celebrated by the ''curiae'', the 30 archaic divisions of the Roman people; the date was announced by the ''

curio maximus The ''curio maximus'' was an obscure priesthood in ancient Rome that had oversight of the ''curiae'', groups of citizens loosely affiliated within what was originally a tribe. Each curia was led by a ''curio'', who was admitted only after the age ...

'' and set for each ''curia'' individually, with a general Fornacalia on February 17 for those who had missed their own or who were uncertain to which ''curia'' they belonged. *

Amburbium The Amburbium ("City Circuit", from ''ambire'', "to go around" + ''urb-'', "city"; plural ''amburbia'') was an ancient Roman festival for purifying the city; that is, a lustration ''(lustratio urbis)''. It took the form of a procession, perhaps ...

, a ceremony to purify the city ''(urbs)'' as a whole, perhaps held sometime in February. *

Feriae Latinae The ''Feriae Latinae'' or Latin Festival was an ancient Roman religious festival held in April on the Alban Mount. The date varied, and was determined and announced by the consuls each year when they took office. It was one of the most ancient fe ...

(Latin Festival), a major and very old ''conceptivae'' in April. *

, purification of the fields in May. The

Rosalia Rosalia or Rosalía (with diacritic) may refer to: Persons * Saint Rosalia (1130–1166), the patron saint of Palermo in Italy * Rosalia (given name) * Rosalía (born 1992), Spanish singer Places * 314 Rosalia, an asteroid * Rosalia, Pisidia ...

or "Festival of Roses" also had no fixed date, but was technically not one of the ''feriae conceptivae'' with a date announced by public priests based on archaic practice.

''Feriae imperativae''

Festivals were also held in ancient Rome in response to particular events, or for a particular purpose such as to propitiate or show gratitude toward the gods. For example,

Livy Titus Livius (; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( ), was a Ancient Rome, Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled , covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditiona ...

reports that following the Roman destruction of

Alba Longa Alba Longa (occasionally written Albalonga in Italian sources) was an ancient Latin city in Central Italy, 12 miles (19 km) southeast of Rome, in the vicinity of Lake Albano in the Alban Hills. Founder and head of the Latin League, it was d ...

in the 7th century BC, and the removal of the Alban populace to Rome, it was reported to have rained stones on the Mons Albanus. A Roman deputation was sent to investigate the report, and a further shower of stones was witnessed. The Romans took this to be a sign of the displeasure of the Alban gods, the worship of whom had been abandoned with the evacuation of Alba Longa. Livy goes on to say that the Romans instituted a public festival of nine days, at the instigation either of a 'heavenly voice' heard on the Mons Albanus, or of the

haruspices In the religion of ancient Rome, a haruspex (plural haruspices; also called aruspex) was a person trained to practise a form of divination called haruspicy (''haruspicina''), the inspection of the entrails ('' exta''—hence also extispicy ...

. Livy also says that it became the longstanding practice in Rome that whenever a shower of stones was reported, a festival of nine days would be ordered in response. Another irregular festival of note is the

Secular Games The Saecular Games ( la, Ludi saeculares, originally ) was a Roman religious celebration involving sacrifices and theatrical performances, held in ancient Rome for three days and nights to mark the end of a and the beginning of the next. A , sup ...

. Over the course of several days there were sacrifices, entertainers, and games hosted by the state, attempting to be the greatest display anyone living had ever seen. These games were intended to be held every 100 years with the purpose of it occurring only once in any individuals lifetime. At one point two cycles of the Secular Games were being held simultaneously, leading there to be people who would in fact witness it twice in their life.

''Mercatus''

The noun (plural ) means "commerce" or "the market" generally, but it also refers to fairs or markets held immediately after certain .

said that

Numa Pompilius Numa Pompilius (; 753–672 BC; reigned 715–672 BC) was the legendary second king of Rome, succeeding Romulus after a one-year interregnum. He was of Sabine origin, and many of Rome's most important religious and political institutions are a ...

, the semi-legendary second

king of Rome The king of Rome ( la, rex Romae) was the ruler of the Roman Kingdom. According to legend, the first king of Rome was Romulus, who founded the city in 753 BC upon the Palatine Hill. Seven legendary kings are said to have ruled Rome until 509 ...

, established in conjunction with religious festivals to facilitate trade, since people had already gathered in great numbers. In early times, these may have played a role in wholesale trade, but as commerce in Rome became more sophisticated, by the late Republic they seem to have become retail fairs specialized for the holiday market. The

attached to the

may have been a in this sense. Surviving record , July 14–19; , September 20–23; and , November 18–20. Others may have existed. The English word "fair" derives from Latin .

"Roman holidays" as trope

By the outset of the nineteenth century and particularly in response to the carnage of the latter years of the French revolution, the term Roman holiday had taken on sinister aspects, implying an event that occasions enjoyment or profit at the expense, or derived from the suffering, of others, as in this passage from ''Childe Harold's Pilgrimage'' (1812–18) by George Gordon, Lord Byron:

There were his young barbarians all at play,
There was their Dacian mother—he their sire,
Butchered to make a Roman holiday.""Cruelty". The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase, Saying, and Quotation, 2nd edition. Susan Ratcliffe, ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002,109-110.

More benignly, the phrase was used as the title of a romantic movie set in Rome, ''

Roman Holiday ''Roman Holiday'' is a 1953 American romantic comedy film directed and produced by William Wyler. It stars Audrey Hepburn as a princess out to see Rome on her own and Gregory Peck as a reporter. Hepburn won an Academy Award for Best Actress f ...

.''

Keeping the ''feriae''

List of festivals by month

Ianuarius ''Ianuarius'', fully ''Mensis Ianuarius'' ("month of Janus"), was the first month of the ancient Roman calendar, from which the Julian and Gregorian month of January derived. It was followed by '' Februarius'' (" February"). In the calendars ...

Februarius ''Februarius'', fully ''Mensis Februarius'' ("month of Februa"), was the shortest month of the Roman calendar from which the Julian and Gregorian month of February derived. It was eventually placed second in order, preceded by ''Ianuarius'' (" ...

Martius

Aprilis ''Aprilis'' or ''mensis Aprilis'' (April) was the second month of the ancient Roman calendar, following '' Martius'' (March) and preceding '' Maius'' (May). On the oldest Roman calendar that had begun with March, ''Aprilis'' was the second of ten ...

Maius ''Maius'' or ''mensis Maius'' (May) was the third month of the ancient Roman calendar, following ''Aprilis'' (April) and preceding ''Iunius'' (June). On the oldest Roman calendar that had begun with March, it was the third of ten months in the year ...

Iunius The gens Junia was one of the most celebrated families of ancient Rome. The gens may originally have been patrician, and was already prominent in the last days of the Roman monarchy. Lucius Junius Brutus was the nephew of Lucius Tarquinius ...

Quintilis (Quinctilis)

Augustus (Sextilis)

September September is the ninth month of the year in both the Julian and Gregorian calendars, the third of four months to have a length of 30 days, and the fourth of five months to have a length of fewer than 31 days. September in the Northern H ...

October October is the tenth month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars and the sixth of seven months to have a length of 31 days. The eighth month in the old calendar of Romulus , October retained its name (from Latin and Greek ''ôct ...

November November is the eleventh and penultimate month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian Calendars, the fourth and last of four months to have a length of 30 days and the fifth and last of five months to have a length of fewer than 31 days. No ...

December December is the twelfth and final month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars and is also the last of seven months to have a length of 31 days. December got its name from the Latin word ''decem'' (meaning ten) because it was or ...

''Feriae conceptivae''

''Feriae imperativae''

''Mercatus''

"Roman holidays" as trope

See also

References

Further reading