Malayalam
Malayalam (; , ) is a Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry (Mahé district) by the Malayali people. It is one of 22 scheduled languages of India. Malayalam was des ...
, the
lingua franca
A lingua franca (; ; for plurals see ), also known as a bridge language, common language, trade language, auxiliary language, vehicular language, or link language, is a language systematically used to make communication possible between groups ...
of the
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
n state of
Kerala
Kerala ( ; ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin, Malabar, South ...
and the union territories of
Lakshadweep
Lakshadweep (), also known as Laccadives (), is a union territory of India. It is an archipelago of 36 islands in the Arabian sea, located off the Malabar Coast.
The name ''Lakshadweep'' means "one lakh islands" in Sanskrit, though the Lac ...
and
Puduchery Puducherry or Pondicherry may refer to:
* Puducherry (union territory), a union territory of India
** Pondicherry, capital of the union territory of Puducherry
** Puducherry district, a district of the union territory of Puducherry
** Puducherry ta ...
, is one of the six
Classical languages of India
Languages spoken in India belong to several language families, the major ones being the Indo-European languages spoken by 78.05% of Indians and the Dravidian languages spoken by 19.64% of Indians, both families together are sometimes known ...
. Malayalam literature comprises those literary texts written in
Malayalam
Malayalam (; , ) is a Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry (Mahé district) by the Malayali people. It is one of 22 scheduled languages of India. Malayalam was des ...
, a
South-Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of
Kerala
Kerala ( ; ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin, Malabar, South ...
. The first travelogue in any Indian language is the Malayalam ''
Varthamanappusthakam
''Varthamanappusthakam'' is a Malayalam travelogue written by Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar, a Saint Thomas Christians, Nasrani Mappila kathanar of the modern-day Syro-Malabar Church. It is the first ever travelogue written in an Languages of India, ...
'', written by
Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar
Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar (1736–1799) is the author of ''Varthamanappusthakam'' (1790), the first ever travelogue in an Indian language. Also known as ''Roma Yatraa Varthamanapusthakam'', it postulates that the foundation of Indian nationali ...
in 1785. Malayalam literature has been presented with 6
Jnanapith awards, the second-most for any Dravidian language and the third-highest for any Indian language.
The
Sangam literature
The Sangam literature (Tamil: சங்க இலக்கியம், ''caṅka ilakkiyam'';) historically known as 'the poetry of the noble ones' (Tamil: சான்றோர் செய்யுள், ''Cāṉṟōr ceyyuḷ'') connotes ...
can be considered as the ancient predecessor of Malayalam.
The origin of
Malayalam calendar
The Malayalam Calendar is a sidereal solar calendar used in Kerala. The origin of the calendar has been dated to 825 CE, the beginning of the Kollam Era.
There are many theories regarding the origin of the era, but according to recent schola ...
dates back to year 825 CE.
It is generally agreed that the
Quilon Syrian copper plates
Kollam/Quilon Syrian copper plates, also known as Kollam Tarisappalli copper plates, or Kottayam inscription of Sthanu Ravi, or Tabula Quilonensis record a royal grant issued by the chieftain of Kollam (Ayyan Adikal) to a Syrian Christian mer ...
of 849/850 CE is the available oldest inscription written in
Old Malayalam
Old Malayalam, inscriptional language found in Kerala from ''c.'' 9th to ''c.'' 13th century AD, is the earliest attested form of Malayalam. The language was employed in several official records and transactions (at the level of the Chera Peruma ...
. The earliest known literary works in Malayalam are ''
Ramacharitam
The ''Ramacharitam'' is a Sanskrit epic poem written in ''Arya metre'' by Sandhyakar Nandi (c. 1084 - 1155 CE) during Pala Empire. This work simultaneously narrates the story of the Ramayana and the Pala king Ramapala.
Manuscripts
A palm-leaf ma ...
'' and ''
Thirunizhalmala
Thirunizhalmala ("Garland of the Sacred Shade" or "Grace") is a c. 13th century " pattu" genre poem in Malayalam language. Along with "Ramacharitham", it is one of the earliest extant poems in Malayalam. It is generally considered as a work associ ...
'', two
epic poem
An epic poem, or simply an epic, is a lengthy narrative poem typically about the extraordinary deeds of extraordinary characters who, in dealings with gods or other superhuman forces, gave shape to the mortal universe for their descendants.
...
s written in
Old Malayalam
Old Malayalam, inscriptional language found in Kerala from ''c.'' 9th to ''c.'' 13th century AD, is the earliest attested form of Malayalam. The language was employed in several official records and transactions (at the level of the Chera Peruma ...
. In the subsequent centuries, besides a popular ''Pattu'' ("song") literature, the ''
manipravalam
Manipravalam (Malayalam: മണിപ്രവാളം, Tamil: மணிப்பிரவாளம்) is a macaronic language found in some manuscripts of South India. It is a hybrid language, typically written in the Grantha script, which combi ...
'' poetry also flourished. ''Manipravalam'' (translates "ruby coral") style consisted of poetry in an admixture of Malayalam and
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
. Then came works such as ''champus'' and ''sandeshakavyas'' in which prose and poetry were interspersed. Later, poets like
Cherusseri introduced poems on devotional themes.
Designated a "
Classical Language in India
Languages spoken in India belong to several language families, the major ones being the Indo-European languages spoken by 78.05% of Indians and the Dravidian languages spoken by 19.64% of Indians, both families together are sometimes known ...
" in 2013, Malayalam literature developed into the current form mainly by the influence of the poets
Cherusseri Namboothiri
Cherusseri Namboothiri (Malayalam:ചെറുശ്ശേരി നമ്പൂതിരി) is a 15th-century Malayalam poet who belonged to Kolathunadu, in present-day North Malabar region of Kerala. He was a court poet of Udaya Varma (1446 ...
,
Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan
Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan (, ) (Malayalam: തുഞ്ചത്ത് രാമാനുജൻ
എഴുത്തച്ഛൻ) ( ''fl.'' 16th century) was a Malayalam devotional poet, translator and linguist from Kerala, south India. ...
,
and
Poonthanam Nambudiri
Poonthanam Nambudiri (1547–1640AD) was a famous poet and a devotee of Guruvayurappan, who lived in Keezhattoor in what is now Malappuram district, Kerala, India. He is remembered for his masterpiece, ''Jnanappana'' which means "the song o ...
,
in the 15th and the 16th centuries of
Common Era
Common Era (CE) and Before the Common Era (BCE) are year notations for the Gregorian calendar (and its predecessor, the Julian calendar), the world's most widely used calendar era. Common Era and Before the Common Era are alternatives to the or ...
.
Thunchathu Ezhuthachchan is also known as ''The father of modern Malayalam literature''.
Kunchan Nambiar
Kunchan Nambiar was a prominent Malayalam poet of the 18th century (1705-1770). Apart from being a prolific poet, Nambiar is also famous as the originator of the dance art form of Thullal, most of his works were written for use in Thullal perfo ...
, a poet of 18th century CE, also has contributed much to Malayalam literature in its early form.
The
Bharathappuzha
Bharathappuzha ("River of Bhārata"), also known as the Nila or Ponnani River, is a river in India in the state of Kerala. With a length of 209 km, it is the second longest river that flows through Kerala after the Periyar. It flows throu ...
river, also known as
River Ponnani, and its tributaries, have played a major role in the development of modern Malayalam Literature. There were also other important works, in
Arabi Malayalam like
Muhyadheen Mala
Muhyadheen Mala is an ode of praise for the Muhyadheen Abdul Khadir Al Gilani composed by the poet Khazi Muhammad of Kozhikode four centuries ago. Kerala Muslims celebrated its fourth century completion under cultural department last year.
Al-G ...
, which was also produced in 16th-17th centuries of Common Era. The growth of
Arabi Malayalam literature eventually lead to
Mappila Songs. The words used in many of the
Arabi Malayalam works those date back to 16th-17th centuries of
Common Era
Common Era (CE) and Before the Common Era (BCE) are year notations for the Gregorian calendar (and its predecessor, the Julian calendar), the world's most widely used calendar era. Common Era and Before the Common Era are alternatives to the or ...
are also very closer to the modern Malayalam language.
Ezhuthachan
Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan (, ) (Malayalam: തുഞ്ചത്ത് രാമാനുജൻ
എഴുത്തച്ഛൻ) ( ''fl.'' 16th century) was a Malayalam devotional poet, translator and linguist from Kerala, south India. ...
, a strong proponent of
Bhakti movement
The Bhakti movement was a significant religious movement in medieval Hinduism that sought to bring religious reforms to all strata of society by adopting the method of devotion to achieve salvation. Originating in Tamilakam during 6th centur ...
, is known as the father of Malayalam. His poems are classified under the genre of ''kilippattu''.
The prose literature, criticism, and
Malayalam journalism
Malayalam journalism encompasses journalism published and broadcast in the Malayalam language. Modern Malayalam journalism can be traced to the publication of the ''Raajyasamaachaaram'' and the ''Pashchimodhayam'' under the direction of Hermann Gu ...
began after the latter half of the 18th century CE. Contemporary Malayalam literature deals with social, political, and economic life context. Modern literary movements in Malayalam literature began in the late 19th century with the rise of the famous Modern Triumvirate consisting of
Kumaran Asan
Mahakavi Kumaran Asan (Malayalam: എൻ. കുമാരൻ ആശാൻ) (12 April 1873 – 16 January 1924) was a poet of Malayalam literature, Indian social reformer and a philosopher. He is known to have initiated a revolution in Malayalam ...
,
Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer
Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer (Malayalam: ഉള്ളൂർ എസ്. പരമേശ്വര അയ്യർ; 6 June 1877 – 15 June 1949), born Sambasivan but popularly known as Ulloor, was an Indian poet of Malayalam literature and a histo ...
and
Vallathol Narayana Menon
Vallathol Narayana Menon (Malayalam: വള്ളത്തോൾ നാരായണ മേനോൻ) (16 October 1878 – 13 March 1958) was a Malayalam poet and one of the triumvirate of modern Malayalam poetry, along with Asan and Ulloor ...
.
Kumaran Asan was temperamentally a
pessimist—a
disposition reinforced by his
metaphysics
Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that studies the fundamental nature of reality, the first principles of being, identity and change, space and time, causality, necessity, and possibility. It includes questions about the nature of conscio ...
—yet all his life was active in promoting his downtrodden
Hindu
Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism.Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...
-
Ezhava
The Ezhavas () are a community with origins in the region of India presently known as Kerala, where in the 2010s they constituted about 23% of the population and were reported to be the largest Hindu community. They are also known as ''Ilhava'' ...
community. Ullor wrote in the
classical tradition
The Western classical tradition is the reception of classical Greco-Roman antiquity by later cultures, especially the post-classical West, involving texts, imagery, objects, ideas, institutions, monuments, architecture, cultural artifacts, ritua ...
, appealing for
universal love, while Vallathol responded to the human significance of
social progress
Progress is the movement towards a refined, improved, or otherwise desired state. In the context of progressivism, it refers to the proposition that advancements in technology, science, and social organization have resulted, and by extension wi ...
. Contemporary Malayalam poetry deals with social, political, and economic life context. The tendency of the modern poetry is often towards
political radicalism
Radical politics denotes the intent to transform or replace the principles of a society or political system, often through social change, structural change, revolution or radical reform. The process of adopting radical views is termed radica ...
.
In the second half of the 20th century,
Jnanpith
The Jnanpith Award is the oldest and the highest Indian literary award presented annually by the Bharatiya Jnanpith to an author for their "outstanding contribution towards literature". Instituted in 1961, the award is bestowed only on Indian w ...
winning poets and writers like
G. Sankara Kurup
G. Sankara Kurup, (3 June 1901 – 2 February 1978) also referred to as Mahakavi G (The Great Poet G), was an Indian poet, essayist and literary critic of Malayalam literature. Known as one of the greats of Malayalam poetry, he was the first r ...
,
S. K. Pottekkatt
Sankarankutty Kunjiraman Pottekkatt (14 March 1913 – 6 August 1982) was an Indian writer of Malayalam literature and a politician from Kerala, India. He was also a great traveller among the Keralites, who wrote many travelogues for the peopl ...
,
Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai
Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai (17 April 1912 – 10 April 1999), popularly known as Thakazhi after his place of birth, was an Indian novelist and short story writer of Malayalam literature. He wrote over 30 novels and novellas and over 7 shor ...
,
Edasseri Govindan Nair
Edasseri Govindan Nair ( ml, ഇടശ്ശേരി ഗോവിന്ദൻ നായർ; 23 December 1906 – 16 October 1974) was an Indian poet and playwright of Malayalam literature. Known as one of the major poets of Malayalam, Edasseri ...
,
M. T. Vasudevan Nair
Madath Thekkepaattu Vasudevan Nair (born 1933 July 15 ), popularly known as MT, is an Indian author, screenplay writer and film director. He is a prolific and versatile writer in modern Malayalam literature, and is one of the masters of post-I ...
,
O. N. V. Kurup
Ottaplakkal Neelakandan Velu Kurup (known as O. N. V. Kurup; 27 May 1931 – 13 February 2016) was a Malayalam poet and lyricist from Kerala, India, who won the Jnanpith Award, the highest literary award in India for the year 2007. He receive ...
, and
Akkitham Achuthan Namboothiri
Akkitham Achuthan Namboothiri (18 March 1926 – 15 October 2020), popularly known as Akkitham, was an Indian poet and essayist who wrote in Malayalam. He was known for a simple and lucid style of writing, exploring themes of profound love and ...
, had made valuable contributions to the modern Malayalam literature.
Later, writers like
O. V. Vijayan,
Kamaladas,
M. Mukundan,
Arundhati Roy
Suzanna Arundhati Roy (born 24 November 1961) is an Indian author best known for her novel ''The God of Small Things'' (1997), which won the Booker Prize for Fiction in 1997 and became the best-selling book by a non-expatriate Indian author. S ...
, and
Vaikom Muhammed Basheer
Vaikom Muhammad Basheer (21 January 1908 – 5 July 1994), popularly referred to as Beypore Sulthan, was a writer of Malayalam literature. He was a writer, humanist, freedom fighter, novelist and short story writer, noted for his path-breaking, ...
, have gained international recognition.
The modern Malayalam grammar is based on the book ''
Kerala Panineeyam'' written by
A. R. Raja Raja Varma in the late 19th century CE.
Evolution of Malayalam
![Quilon Syrian copper plates (849 AD)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Quilon_Syrian_copper_plates_%28849_AD%29.jpg)
The western dialect of
Old Tamil
Old Tamil is the period of the Tamil language spanning from 300 BCE to 700 CE. Prior to Old Tamil, the period of Tamil linguistic development is termed as Pre Tamil. After the Old Tamil period, Tamil becomes Middle Tamil. The earliest records i ...
spoken in the southwestern
Malabar Coast
The Malabar Coast is the southwestern coast of the Indian subcontinent. Geographically, it comprises the wettest regions of southern India, as the Western Ghats intercept the moisture-laden monsoon rains, especially on their westward-facing m ...
of
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
was known as ''Malanaattu Tamil''/''Malabar Tamil'' (Meaning the ''Tamil of the hilly region''/the ''Tamil of Malabar'') since the ancient
Sangam period
The Sangam period or age (, ), particularly referring to the third Sangam period, is the period of the history of ancient Tamil Nadu, Kerala and parts of Sri Lanka (then known as Tamilakam) spanning from c. 6th century BCE to c. 3rd century CE. ...
(300 BCE - 300 CE).
Due to the geographical separation of the
Malabar Coast
The Malabar Coast is the southwestern coast of the Indian subcontinent. Geographically, it comprises the wettest regions of southern India, as the Western Ghats intercept the moisture-laden monsoon rains, especially on their westward-facing m ...
from
Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu (; , TN) is a States and union territories of India, state in southern India. It is the List of states and union territories of India by area, tenth largest Indian state by area and the List of states and union territories of India ...
, and the presence of
Western Ghats mountain ranges in between these two geographical regions, the dialect of
Tamil
Tamil may refer to:
* Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia
**Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils
**Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia
* Tamil language, nativ ...
spoken in the territory of the western
Malabar Coast
The Malabar Coast is the southwestern coast of the Indian subcontinent. Geographically, it comprises the wettest regions of southern India, as the Western Ghats intercept the moisture-laden monsoon rains, especially on their westward-facing m ...
of the ancient
Chera kingdom was different from that spoken in the
Tamil
Tamil may refer to:
* Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia
**Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils
**Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia
* Tamil language, nativ ...
-mainland.
The generally held view is that Malayalam was the western coastal dialect
Karintamil
Karintamil is thought to be the earliest predecessor of the modern Malayalam language. The Sangam literature can be considered as the ancient predecessor of Malayalam.
The earliest records in Karintamil are the ''pattu literature'' (songs). Prom ...
and started separation from Proto-Tamil-Malayalam sometime in the 8th century CE. The renowned poets of
Classical Tamil
Tamil may refer to:
* Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia
** Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils
**Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia
* Tamil language, nati ...
such as
Paranar
Paranar (Tamil: பரணர்) (c. 1st century CE) was a poet of the Sangam period, to whom 84 verses of the Sangam literature have been attributed, besides verse 6 of the Tiruvalluva Maalai.
Biography
Paranar belonged to the Paanar caste. He ...
(1st century CE),
Ilango Adigal
Ilango Adigal ()() was a Jain monk and a poet, sometimes identified as a Chera prince. He is traditionally credited as the author of '' Cilappatikaram'', one of the Five Great Epics of Ancient Tamil literature. He is one of the greatest poets ...
(2nd-3rd century CE), and
Kulasekhara Alvar
Kulasekhara (Tamil: ''குலசேகரர்'') (''fl.'' 9th century CE), one of the twelve Vaishnavite alvars, was a bhakti theologian and devotional poet from medieval south India (Kerala). He was the author of Perumal Tirumoli in Tamil a ...
(9th century CE) were
Keralites
The Malayali people () (also spelt Malayalee and also known by the demonym Keralite) are a Dravidian ethnolinguistic group originating from the present-day state of Kerala in India, occupying its southwestern Malabar coast. They are predomin ...
.
The
Sangam literature
The Sangam literature (Tamil: சங்க இலக்கியம், ''caṅka ilakkiyam'';) historically known as 'the poetry of the noble ones' (Tamil: சான்றோர் செய்யுள், ''Cāṉṟōr ceyyuḷ'') connotes ...
can be considered as the ancient predecessor of Malayalam.
Some scholars however believe that both
Tamil
Tamil may refer to:
* Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia
**Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils
**Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia
* Tamil language, nativ ...
and Malayalam developed during the prehistoric period from a common ancestor, 'Proto-Tamil-Malayalam', and that the notion of Malayalam being a 'daughter' of
Tamil
Tamil may refer to:
* Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia
**Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils
**Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia
* Tamil language, nativ ...
is misplaced. This is based on the fact that Malayalam and several
Dravidian languages
The Dravidian languages (or sometimes Dravidic) are a family of languages spoken by 250 million people, mainly in southern India, north-east Sri Lanka, and south-west Pakistan. Since the colonial era, there have been small but significant ...
on the western coast have common archaic features which are not found even in the oldest historical forms of literary Tamil.
Old Malayalam
Old Malayalam, inscriptional language found in Kerala from ''c.'' 9th to ''c.'' 13th century AD, is the earliest attested form of Malayalam. The language was employed in several official records and transactions (at the level of the Chera Peruma ...
(''Pazhaya Malayalam''), an inscriptional language found in
Kerala
Kerala ( ; ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin, Malabar, South ...
from ''c.'' 9th to ''c.'' 13th century CE,
[M. G. S. Narayanan. "Kozhikkodinte Katha". Malayalam/Essays. Mathrubhumi Books. Second Edition (2017) ] is the earliest attested form of
Malayalam
Malayalam (; , ) is a Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry (Mahé district) by the Malayali people. It is one of 22 scheduled languages of India. Malayalam was des ...
.
The start of the development of
Old Malayalam
Old Malayalam, inscriptional language found in Kerala from ''c.'' 9th to ''c.'' 13th century AD, is the earliest attested form of Malayalam. The language was employed in several official records and transactions (at the level of the Chera Peruma ...
from a western coastal dialect of
contemporary Tamil (
Karintamil
Karintamil is thought to be the earliest predecessor of the modern Malayalam language. The Sangam literature can be considered as the ancient predecessor of Malayalam.
The earliest records in Karintamil are the ''pattu literature'' (songs). Prom ...
) can be dated to c. 7th - 8th century CE.
It remained a west coast dialect until c. 9th century CE or a little later.
The origin of
Malayalam calendar
The Malayalam Calendar is a sidereal solar calendar used in Kerala. The origin of the calendar has been dated to 825 CE, the beginning of the Kollam Era.
There are many theories regarding the origin of the era, but according to recent schola ...
dates back to year 825 CE.
The formation of the language is mainly attributed to geographical separation of Kerala from the Tamil country
and the influence of immigrant
Tulu-
Canarese
Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...
Brahmin
Brahmin (; sa, ब्राह्मण, brāhmaṇa) is a varna as well as a caste within Hindu society. The Brahmins are designated as the priestly class as they serve as priests (purohit, pandit, or pujari) and religious teachers (guru ...
s in Kerala (who also knew
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
and
Prakrit
The Prakrits (; sa, prākṛta; psu, 𑀧𑀸𑀉𑀤, ; pka, ) are a group of vernacular Middle Indo-Aryan languages that were used in the Indian subcontinent from around the 3rd century BCE to the 8th century CE. The term Prakrit is usu ...
).
It is generally agreed that the western coastal dialect of Tamil began to separate, diverge, and grow as a distinct language, mainly due to the heavy influence of
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
and
Prakrit
The Prakrits (; sa, prākṛta; psu, 𑀧𑀸𑀉𑀤, ; pka, ) are a group of vernacular Middle Indo-Aryan languages that were used in the Indian subcontinent from around the 3rd century BCE to the 8th century CE. The term Prakrit is usu ...
, those became common prominent languages on
Malabar Coast
The Malabar Coast is the southwestern coast of the Indian subcontinent. Geographically, it comprises the wettest regions of southern India, as the Western Ghats intercept the moisture-laden monsoon rains, especially on their westward-facing m ...
, when the caste system became strong in Kerala under
Nambudiri
The Nambudiri (), also transliterated as Nampoothiri, Nambūdiri, Namboodiri, Nampoothiri, and Nampūtiri, are a Malayali Brahmin caste, native to what is now the state of Kerala, India, where they constituted part of the traditional feudal el ...
Brahmin
Brahmin (; sa, ब्राह्मण, brāhmaṇa) is a varna as well as a caste within Hindu society. The Brahmins are designated as the priestly class as they serve as priests (purohit, pandit, or pujari) and religious teachers (guru ...
s.
[കേരള ചരിത്രം, എ. ശ്രീധരമേനോൻ]
The
Old Malayalam
Old Malayalam, inscriptional language found in Kerala from ''c.'' 9th to ''c.'' 13th century AD, is the earliest attested form of Malayalam. The language was employed in several official records and transactions (at the level of the Chera Peruma ...
language was employed in several official records and transactions (at the level of the
Chera Perumal
Chera Perumals of Makotai, also known as the Perumal dynasty of KeralaThapar, Romila'', The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300.'' Penguin Books, 2002. 331-32., or Cheraman Perumal dynasty of MahodayapuramNoburu Karashmia ...
kings as well as the
upper-caste (
Nambudiri
The Nambudiri (), also transliterated as Nampoothiri, Nambūdiri, Namboodiri, Nampoothiri, and Nampūtiri, are a Malayali Brahmin caste, native to what is now the state of Kerala, India, where they constituted part of the traditional feudal el ...
) village temples).
Most of the inscriptions in
Old Malayalam
Old Malayalam, inscriptional language found in Kerala from ''c.'' 9th to ''c.'' 13th century AD, is the earliest attested form of Malayalam. The language was employed in several official records and transactions (at the level of the Chera Peruma ...
were found from the
northern districts of Kerala, those lie adjacent to
Tulu Nadu
Tulunad or Tulu Nadu, also called Bermere sristi or Parashurama Srishti, is a region and a proposed state on the southwestern coast of India. The Tulu people, known as 'Tuluva' (plural 'Tuluver'), speakers of Tulu, a Dravidian language, ar ...
.
Old Malayalam
Old Malayalam, inscriptional language found in Kerala from ''c.'' 9th to ''c.'' 13th century AD, is the earliest attested form of Malayalam. The language was employed in several official records and transactions (at the level of the Chera Peruma ...
was mostly written in
Vatteluttu script
''Vatteluttu,'' popularly romanised as ''Vattezhuthu'' ( ta, வட்டெழுத்து, ' and ml, വട്ടെഴുത്ത്, ', ), was a syllabic alphabet of south India (Tamil Nadu and Kerala) and Sri Lanka used for writing ...
(with
Pallava/Southern Grantha characters).
Old Malayalam
Old Malayalam, inscriptional language found in Kerala from ''c.'' 9th to ''c.'' 13th century AD, is the earliest attested form of Malayalam. The language was employed in several official records and transactions (at the level of the Chera Peruma ...
had several features distinct from the contemporary Tamil, which include the Nasalisation of adjoining sounds, Substitution of palatal sounds for dental sounds, Contraction of vowels, and the Rejection of gender verbs.
The
Old Malayalam
Old Malayalam, inscriptional language found in Kerala from ''c.'' 9th to ''c.'' 13th century AD, is the earliest attested form of Malayalam. The language was employed in several official records and transactions (at the level of the Chera Peruma ...
got gradually developed into
Middle Malayalam
Middle Malayalam is the period of the Malayalam language spanning from 13th century to 15th century AD.
The works including ''Unniyachi Charitham'', ''Unnichiruthevi Charitham'', and ''Unniyadi Charitham'', are written in Middle Malayalam, those ...
(''Madhyakaala Malayalam'') by the 13th century CE.
The Malayalam literature also completely got diverged from
Tamil literature
Tamil literature has a rich and long literary tradition spanning more than two thousand years. The oldest extant works show signs of maturity indicating an even longer period of evolution. Contributors to the Tamil literature are mainly from T ...
by this period. ''Kannassa Ramayanam'' and ''Kannassa Bharatham'' by ''Rama Panikkar'' of the
Niranam poets
The Niranam poets, also known as the Kannassan poets, were three poets from the same family by the names of Madhava Panikkar, Sankara Panikkar, and Rama Panikkar. They hailed from Niranam, a small village in southern Kerala, India, near the town ...
who lived between 1350 and 1450, are representative of this language. The ''
Champu
Champu or Chapu-Kavya ( Devanagari: चम्पू-काव्य) is a genre of literary composition in Indian literature. The word 'Champu' means a combination of poetry and prose. A ''champu-kavya'' consists of a mixture of prose (Gadya ...
Kavyas'' written by Punam Nambudiri, one among the ''Pathinettara Kavikal'' (Eighteen and a half poets) in the court of the
Zamorin of Calicut
The Samoothiri (Anglicised as Zamorin; Malayalam: , Arabic: ''Sāmuri'', Portuguese: ''Samorim'', Dutch: ''Samorijn'', Chinese: ''Shamitihsi''Ma Huan's Ying-yai Sheng-lan: 'The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores' 433 Translated and Edited by ...
, also belong to Middle Malayalam.
The literary works of this period were heavily influenced by
Manipravalam
Manipravalam (Malayalam: മണിപ്രവാളം, Tamil: மணிப்பிரவாளம்) is a macaronic language found in some manuscripts of South India. It is a hybrid language, typically written in the Grantha script, which combi ...
, which was a combination of contemporary Malayalam and
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
.
The scripts of ''
Kolezhuthu'' and ''
Malayanma
Malayanma script was a writing system used in Thiruvananthapuram district of Kerala. It was used to write the Malayalam language. Malayanma belongs to the same script family like Kolezhuthu and Vattezhuthu
''Vatteluttu,'' popularly romanise ...
'' were also used to write
Middle Malayalam
Middle Malayalam is the period of the Malayalam language spanning from 13th century to 15th century AD.
The works including ''Unniyachi Charitham'', ''Unnichiruthevi Charitham'', and ''Unniyadi Charitham'', are written in Middle Malayalam, those ...
, in addition to ''Vatteluthu'' and
Grantha script
The Grantha script ( ta, கிரந்த எழுத்து, Granta eḻuttu; ml, ഗ്രന്ഥലിപി, granthalipi) is a South Indian script, found particularly in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Originating from the Pallava script, th ...
those were used to write
Old Malayalam
Old Malayalam, inscriptional language found in Kerala from ''c.'' 9th to ''c.'' 13th century AD, is the earliest attested form of Malayalam. The language was employed in several official records and transactions (at the level of the Chera Peruma ...
.
The
Middle Malayalam
Middle Malayalam is the period of the Malayalam language spanning from 13th century to 15th century AD.
The works including ''Unniyachi Charitham'', ''Unnichiruthevi Charitham'', and ''Unniyadi Charitham'', are written in Middle Malayalam, those ...
was succeeded by Modern Malayalam (''Aadhunika Malayalam'') by the 15th century CE.
The poem ''
Krishnagatha
''Krishnagatha'' (Malayalam: കൃഷ്ണഗാഥ) is a 15th-century poem written in Malayalam language; It is also known as Krishnapattu. it belongs to the poetic form ''Gatha''. The author of the poem is believed to be Cherusseri Namboothir ...
'' written by
Cherusseri Namboothiri
Cherusseri Namboothiri (Malayalam:ചെറുശ്ശേരി നമ്പൂതിരി) is a 15th-century Malayalam poet who belonged to Kolathunadu, in present-day North Malabar region of Kerala. He was a court poet of Udaya Varma (1446 ...
, who was the court poet of the king Udaya Varman Kolathiri (1446 – 1475) of
Kolathunadu
Kolattunādu (Kola Swarupam, as Kingdom of Cannanore in foreign accounts, Chirakkal (Chericul) in later times) was one of the four most powerful kingdoms on the Malabar Coast during the arrival of the Portuguese Armadas in India, along with ...
, is written in modern Malayalam.
The language used in ''Krishnagatha'' is the modern spoken form of Malayalam.
During the 16th century CE,
Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan
Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan (, ) (Malayalam: തുഞ്ചത്ത് രാമാനുജൻ
എഴുത്തച്ഛൻ) ( ''fl.'' 16th century) was a Malayalam devotional poet, translator and linguist from Kerala, south India. ...
from the
Kingdom of Tanur
Kingdom of Tanur (Vettathunadu, Vettom, Tanur Swaroopam, Prakashabhu, Kingdom of Light) was one of the numerous feudal principalities on Malabar Coast during the Middle Ages. It was ruled by a Hindu dynasty, claiming Kshatriya status, known as ...
and
Poonthanam Nambudiri
Poonthanam Nambudiri (1547–1640AD) was a famous poet and a devotee of Guruvayurappan, who lived in Keezhattoor in what is now Malappuram district, Kerala, India. He is remembered for his masterpiece, ''Jnanappana'' which means "the song o ...
from the
Kingdom of Valluvanad followed the new trend initiated by Cherussery in their poems. The ''
Adhyathmaramayanam Kilippattu'' and ''Mahabharatham
Kilippattu
Kilippattu or ''parrot song'' is a genre of Malayalam poems in which the narrator is a parrot, a bee, a swan, and so on. Kiḷippaṭṭu was popularized by the 16th-century poet Ezhuthachan (The Father Of The Malayalam language).
In Adhyathm ...
'' written by Ezhuthachan and ''
Jnanappana
Jnanappana is a devotional poem written by the 16th century Malayalam poet Poonthanam. This poem written as a devotional prayer to Guruvayoorappan is considered as an important work in Malayalam literature. Written in simple Malayalam, the Jnana ...
'' written by Poonthanam are also included in the earliest form of Modern Malayalam.
It is
Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan
Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan (, ) (Malayalam: തുഞ്ചത്ത് രാമാനുജൻ
എഴുത്തച്ഛൻ) ( ''fl.'' 16th century) was a Malayalam devotional poet, translator and linguist from Kerala, south India. ...
who is also credited with the development of
Malayalam script into the current form through the intermixing and modification of the erstwhile scripts of ''
Vatteluttu
''Vatteluttu,'' popularly romanised as ''Vattezhuthu'' ( ta, வட்டெழுத்து, ' and ml, വട്ടെഴുത്ത്, ', ), was a syllabic alphabet of south India (Tamil Nadu and Kerala) and Sri Lanka used for writing t ...
'', ''
Kolezhuthu'', and
Grantha script
The Grantha script ( ta, கிரந்த எழுத்து, Granta eḻuttu; ml, ഗ്രന്ഥലിപി, granthalipi) is a South Indian script, found particularly in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Originating from the Pallava script, th ...
, which were used to write the inscriptions and literary works of Old and Middle Malayalam.
He further eliminated excess and unnecessary letters from the modified script.
Hence, Ezhuthachan is also known as ''The Father of modern Malayalam''.
The development of modern
Malayalam script was also heavily influenced by the
Tigalari script
Tigalari (''Tigaḷāri lipi'', ''tulu lipi''),The script is also referred to as Arya Ezhuttu, Grantha Malayalam, Tulu Grantha, Tulu-Malayalam and Western Grantha. also known as Tulu script, is a Southern Brahmic script which was used to writ ...
, which was used to write the
Tulu language
Tulu () in Kannada script, ml, തുളു ഭാഷെ in Malayalam script. ''bhāṣe'', , ''bhāśe'', and ''bāśe'' are alternative spellings for the Tulu word ''bāse'' in the Kannada script. The correct spelling for the word ...
, due to the influence of
Tuluva Brahmin
Tulu Brahmins or Tuluva Brahmins are the inhabitants of Tulu Nadu, also considered a part of Parashurama Kshetra which extends to Kerala.
They consist of following:
Sthanika Brahmins, also called "Sthanika Tulu Brahmins" or "Tulu Brahmins" ar ...
s in Kerala.
The currently adopted
Malayalam script is the only script in India that can be used to write any other
language of India
Languages spoken in India belong to several language families, the major ones being the Indo-European languages spoken by 78.05% of Indians and the Dravidian languages spoken by 19.64% of Indians, both families together are sometimes known ...
as it contain letters to denote both of the
Voiced retroflex approximant
The voiced retroflex approximant is a type of consonant used in some languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is r\`. The IPA symbol is a turned lowercase lett ...
(/ɻ/) (which is unique to Tamil and Malayalam in India) and the letters unique to
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
(those are not there in the
Tamil script
The Tamil script ( , ) is an abugida script that is used by Tamils and Tamil language, Tamil speakers in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and elsewhere to write the Tamil language. Certain minority languages such as Saurasht ...
). The language used in the
Arabi Malayalam works of 16th-17th century CE is a mixture of Modern Malayalam and
Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic languages, Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C ...
.
They follow the syntax of modern Malayalam, though written in a modified form of
Arabic script
The Arabic script is the writing system used for Arabic and several other languages of Asia and Africa. It is the second-most widely used writing system in the world by number of countries using it or a script directly derived from it, and the ...
, which is known as
Arabi Malayalam script.
Kunchan Nambiar
Kunchan Nambiar was a prominent Malayalam poet of the 18th century (1705-1770). Apart from being a prolific poet, Nambiar is also famous as the originator of the dance art form of Thullal, most of his works were written for use in Thullal perfo ...
introduced a new literary form called ''Thullal'', and
Unnayi Variyar
Unnayi Warrier was a poet, writer, scholar, and dramatist who lived in Kerala, India during the 17th/18th century. He is best known for his chef-d'oeuvre ''Nalacharitham'' aattakatha and is known to have made significant contributions to the ar ...
introduced reforms in ''
Attakkatha literature''.
Modern literary movements in Malayalam literature began in the late 19th century with the rise of the famous Modern Triumvirate consisting of
Kumaran Asan
Mahakavi Kumaran Asan (Malayalam: എൻ. കുമാരൻ ആശാൻ) (12 April 1873 – 16 January 1924) was a poet of Malayalam literature, Indian social reformer and a philosopher. He is known to have initiated a revolution in Malayalam ...
,
Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer
Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer (Malayalam: ഉള്ളൂർ എസ്. പരമേശ്വര അയ്യർ; 6 June 1877 – 15 June 1949), born Sambasivan but popularly known as Ulloor, was an Indian poet of Malayalam literature and a histo ...
and
Vallathol Narayana Menon
Vallathol Narayana Menon (Malayalam: വള്ളത്തോൾ നാരായണ മേനോൻ) (16 October 1878 – 13 March 1958) was a Malayalam poet and one of the triumvirate of modern Malayalam poetry, along with Asan and Ulloor ...
.
The printing, prose literature, and
Malayalam journalism
Malayalam journalism encompasses journalism published and broadcast in the Malayalam language. Modern Malayalam journalism can be traced to the publication of the ''Raajyasamaachaaram'' and the ''Pashchimodhayam'' under the direction of Hermann Gu ...
, developed after the latter-half of the 18th century CE.
In the second half of the 20th century,
Jnanpith
The Jnanpith Award is the oldest and the highest Indian literary award presented annually by the Bharatiya Jnanpith to an author for their "outstanding contribution towards literature". Instituted in 1961, the award is bestowed only on Indian w ...
winning poets and writers like
G. Sankara Kurup
G. Sankara Kurup, (3 June 1901 – 2 February 1978) also referred to as Mahakavi G (The Great Poet G), was an Indian poet, essayist and literary critic of Malayalam literature. Known as one of the greats of Malayalam poetry, he was the first r ...
,
S. K. Pottekkatt
Sankarankutty Kunjiraman Pottekkatt (14 March 1913 – 6 August 1982) was an Indian writer of Malayalam literature and a politician from Kerala, India. He was also a great traveller among the Keralites, who wrote many travelogues for the peopl ...
,
Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai
Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai (17 April 1912 – 10 April 1999), popularly known as Thakazhi after his place of birth, was an Indian novelist and short story writer of Malayalam literature. He wrote over 30 novels and novellas and over 7 shor ...
,
Edasseri Govindan Nair
Edasseri Govindan Nair ( ml, ഇടശ്ശേരി ഗോവിന്ദൻ നായർ; 23 December 1906 – 16 October 1974) was an Indian poet and playwright of Malayalam literature. Known as one of the major poets of Malayalam, Edasseri ...
,
M. T. Vasudevan Nair
Madath Thekkepaattu Vasudevan Nair (born 1933 July 15 ), popularly known as MT, is an Indian author, screenplay writer and film director. He is a prolific and versatile writer in modern Malayalam literature, and is one of the masters of post-I ...
,
O. N. V. Kurup
Ottaplakkal Neelakandan Velu Kurup (known as O. N. V. Kurup; 27 May 1931 – 13 February 2016) was a Malayalam poet and lyricist from Kerala, India, who won the Jnanpith Award, the highest literary award in India for the year 2007. He receive ...
, and
Akkitham Achuthan Namboothiri
Akkitham Achuthan Namboothiri (18 March 1926 – 15 October 2020), popularly known as Akkitham, was an Indian poet and essayist who wrote in Malayalam. He was known for a simple and lucid style of writing, exploring themes of profound love and ...
, had made valuable contributions to the modern Malayalam literature.
Later, writers like
O. V. Vijayan,
Kamaladas,
M. Mukundan,
Arundhati Roy
Suzanna Arundhati Roy (born 24 November 1961) is an Indian author best known for her novel ''The God of Small Things'' (1997), which won the Booker Prize for Fiction in 1997 and became the best-selling book by a non-expatriate Indian author. S ...
,
Vaikom Muhammed Basheer
Vaikom Muhammad Basheer (21 January 1908 – 5 July 1994), popularly referred to as Beypore Sulthan, was a writer of Malayalam literature. He was a writer, humanist, freedom fighter, novelist and short story writer, noted for his path-breaking, ...
, have gained international recognition.
Malayalam has also borrowed a lot of its words from various foreign languages, mainly from the
Semitic languages
The Semitic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family. They are spoken by more than 330 million people across much of West Asia, the Horn of Africa, and latterly North Africa, Malta, West Africa, Chad, and in large immigra ...
including
Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic languages, Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C ...
, and the
European languages
Most languages of Europe belong to the Indo-European language family. Out of a total European population of 744 million as of 2018, some 94% are native speakers of an Indo-European language. Within Indo-European, the three largest phyla are Ro ...
including
Dutch
Dutch commonly refers to:
* Something of, from, or related to the Netherlands
* Dutch people ()
* Dutch language ()
Dutch may also refer to:
Places
* Dutch, West Virginia, a community in the United States
* Pennsylvania Dutch Country
People E ...
and
Portuguese
Portuguese may refer to:
* anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Portugal
** Portuguese cuisine, traditional foods
** Portuguese language, a Romance language
*** Portuguese dialects, variants of the Portuguese language
** Portu ...
, due to the long heritage of
Indian Ocean trade
Indian Ocean trade has been a key factor in East–West exchanges throughout history. Long-distance trade in dhows and proas made it a dynamic zone of interaction between peoples, cultures, and civilizations stretching from Southeast Asia to Ea ...
and the Portuguese-Dutch colonisation in the
Malabar Coast
The Malabar Coast is the southwestern coast of the Indian subcontinent. Geographically, it comprises the wettest regions of southern India, as the Western Ghats intercept the moisture-laden monsoon rains, especially on their westward-facing m ...
.
Old Malayalam
Folk Songs
Folk songs are the oldest literary form in Malayalam.
They were just oral songs.
Many of them were related to agricultural activities, including ''Pulayar Pattu'', ''Pulluvan Pattu'', ''Njattu Pattu'', ''Koythu Pattu'', etc.
Other
Ballad
A ballad is a form of verse, often a narrative set to music. Ballads derive from the medieval French ''chanson balladée'' or ''ballade'', which were originally "dance songs". Ballads were particularly characteristic of the popular poetry and ...
s of Folk Song period include the ''
Vadakkan Pattukal
Vadakkan Pattukal (literally, ''the songs of the north'') are a collection of Malayalam ballads from the medieval period. The songs present stories of heroes such as Aromal Chekavar and Thacholi Othenan, and heroines like
Unniyarcha. The storie ...
'' (Northern songs) in
North Malabar
North Malabar refers to the geographic area of southwest India covering the state of Kerala's present day Kasaragod, Kannur, and Wayanad District, Wayanad districts, and the taluks of Vatakara, Koyilandy, and Thamarassery in the Kozhikode Distri ...
region and the ''Thekkan Pattukal'' (Southern songs) in
Southern Travancore
The Southern Division, or Padmanabhapuram Division till 1921 and Trivandrum Division from 1921 to 1949, was one of the administrative subdivisions of the princely state of Travancore. It covered the five taluks of Agastiswaram, Eraniel, Kalkula ...
.
Some of the earliest
Mappila songs (Muslim songs) were also folk songs.
For the first 600 years of the
Malayalam calendar
The Malayalam Calendar is a sidereal solar calendar used in Kerala. The origin of the calendar has been dated to 825 CE, the beginning of the Kollam Era.
There are many theories regarding the origin of the era, but according to recent schola ...
, Malayalam literature remained in a preliminary stage. During this time, Malayalam literature consisted mainly of various genres of songs (''Pattu''). Prominent were songs praising the goddesses of the land, ballads of brave warriors, songs related to the work of a particular caste and songs intended just for entertainment. ''Bhadrakali pattu, thottam pattu,Mappila pattu, mavaratham pattu, sasthanga pattu, nizhalkoothu pattu, sarpa pattu, sastham pattu, thiyyattu pattu, pulluvar pattu, mannar pattu, panar pattu, krishi pattu, thamburan pattu, pada pattu, villadichan pattu, onappattu, kummi'' and lullaby were some of the major subgenres. These names were not used historically, but are used in modern times to describe the song genres of that time.
[Dr. K. Ayyappa Paniker (1977). ''A Short History of Malayalam Literature''.]
''Ramacharitham''
''Ramacharitham'' is a collection of poems written at the end of the preliminary stage. It is the oldest Malayalam book available, with a possible exception of ''Thirunizhalmala''. The collection has 1,814 poems in it. ''Ramacharitham'' mainly consists of stories from the Yuddha Kanda of the ''Ramayana''. It was written by a poet with the pen name ''Cheeramakavi'' who, according to poet Ulloor S Parameswara Iyer, was Sree Veerarama Varman, a king of southern Kerala from AD 1195 to 1208. However the claim that it was written in Southern Kerala is expired on the basis of new discoveries.
[http://sdeuoc.ac.in/sites/default/files/sde_videos/SLM-MA-Mal-Aadyakala%20Malayala%20kavitha%20%281%29.pdf ] Other experts, like Chirakkal T Balakrishnan Nair, Dr. K.M. George, M. M. Purushothaman Nair, and P.V. Krishnan Nair, state that the origin of the book is in
Kasaragod district
Kasaragod ( and Malayalam language, Malayalam: , English language, English: ''Kassergode'', Tulu language, Tulu: ''Kasrod'', Arabic language, Arabic: ''Harkwillia'') is one of the 14 List of districts of Kerala, districts in the southern Indi ...
in
North Malabar
North Malabar refers to the geographic area of southwest India covering the state of Kerala's present day Kasaragod, Kannur, and Wayanad District, Wayanad districts, and the taluks of Vatakara, Koyilandy, and Thamarassery in the Kozhikode Distri ...
region.
They cite the use of certain words in the book and also the fact that the manuscript of the book was recovered from
Nileshwaram
Nileshwaram or Nileshwar or Neeleswaram is a municipality and a major town in Kasaragod District, state of Kerala, India. It is one of the three municipalities in Kasaragod district; the others are Kasaragod and Kanhangad. Nileshwaram is locat ...
in
North Malabar
North Malabar refers to the geographic area of southwest India covering the state of Kerala's present day Kasaragod, Kannur, and Wayanad District, Wayanad districts, and the taluks of Vatakara, Koyilandy, and Thamarassery in the Kozhikode Distri ...
. The influence of ''
Ramacharitam
The ''Ramacharitam'' is a Sanskrit epic poem written in ''Arya metre'' by Sandhyakar Nandi (c. 1084 - 1155 CE) during Pala Empire. This work simultaneously narrates the story of the Ramayana and the Pala king Ramapala.
Manuscripts
A palm-leaf ma ...
'' is mostly seen in the contemporary literary works of Northern Kerala.
The words used in ''Ramacharitam'' such as ''Nade'' (''Mumbe''), ''Innum'' (''Iniyum''), ''Ninna'' (''Ninne''), Chaaduka (''Eriyuka'') are special features of the dialect spoken in
North Malabar
North Malabar refers to the geographic area of southwest India covering the state of Kerala's present day Kasaragod, Kannur, and Wayanad District, Wayanad districts, and the taluks of Vatakara, Koyilandy, and Thamarassery in the Kozhikode Distri ...
(
Kasaragod-
Kannur
Kannur (), formerly known in English as Cannanore, is a city and a municipal corporation in the state of Kerala, India. It is the administrative headquarters of the Kannur district and situated north of the major port city and commercial hu ...
region).
Furthermore, the
Thiruvananthapuram
Thiruvananthapuram (; ), also known by its former name Trivandrum (), is the capital of the Indian state of Kerala. It is the most populous city in Kerala with a population of 957,730 as of 2011. The encompassing urban agglomeration populati ...
mentioned in ''Ramacharitham'' is not the Thiruvananthapuram in Southern Kerala.
But it is
Ananthapura Lake Temple
Ananthapadmanabhaswamy Temple or Ananthapura Lake Temple is a Hindu temple built in the middle of a lake in the little village of Ananthapura, around 6 km from the town of Kumbla in Manjeshwaram Taluk of Kasaragod District of Kerala, South ...
of
Kumbla
Kumbla is a small town in Kasaragod district of Kerala state in India. It is located 12 km north of Kasaragod town.
History
The original name "Kanvapura" was derived from the name of Maharshi Kanva. Since then the name has morphed into ...
in the northernmost
Kasaragod district
Kasaragod ( and Malayalam language, Malayalam: , English language, English: ''Kassergode'', Tulu language, Tulu: ''Kasrod'', Arabic language, Arabic: ''Harkwillia'') is one of the 14 List of districts of Kerala, districts in the southern Indi ...
of Kerala.
The word ''Thiru'' is used just by the meaning ''Honoured''.
Today it is widely accepted that ''Ramacharitham'' was written somewhere in
North Malabar
North Malabar refers to the geographic area of southwest India covering the state of Kerala's present day Kasaragod, Kannur, and Wayanad District, Wayanad districts, and the taluks of Vatakara, Koyilandy, and Thamarassery in the Kozhikode Distri ...
(most likely near
Kasaragod).
Some experts consider it a Tamil literary piece. A. R. Rajaraja Varma, is of the opinion that Malayalam originated from ancient Tamil. ''Ramacharitham'' is considered a book written during the formative years of Malayalam. According to Rev. Dr.
Hermann Gundert
Hermann Gundert (Stuttgart, 4 February 1814 – 25 April 1893 in Calw, Germany) was a German missionary, scholar, and linguist, as well as the maternal grandfather of German novelist and Nobel laureate Hermann Hesse. Gundert is chiefly know ...
, who compiled the first dictionary of the Malayalam language, ''Ramacharitham'' shows the ancient style of the Malayalam language.
Middle Malayalam
Manipravalam
While the ''Pattu'' school flourished among certain sections of the society, the literature of the elite was composed in the curious mixture of
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
and Malayalam which is referred to as ''
Manipravalam
Manipravalam (Malayalam: മണിപ്രവാളം, Tamil: மணிப்பிரவாளம்) is a macaronic language found in some manuscripts of South India. It is a hybrid language, typically written in the Grantha script, which combi ...
'', ''mani'' meaning ruby (Malayalam) and ''pravalam'' meaning coral (Sanskrit). ''
Lilathilakam
''Lilatilakam'' (IAST: ''Līlā-tilakam'', "diadem of poetry") is a 14th century Sanskrit-language treatise on the grammar and poetics of the Manipravalam language form, a precursor of the modern Malayalam language spoken in the Kerala state of Ind ...
'', a work on grammar and rhetoric, written in the last quarter of the 14th century discusses the relationship between ''Manipravalam'' and ''Pattu'' as poetic forms. It lays special emphasis on the types of words that blend harmoniously. It points out that the rules of Sanskrit prosody should be followed in ''Manipravalam'' poetry. This particular school of poetry was patronised by the upper classes, especially the
Nambudiri
The Nambudiri (), also transliterated as Nampoothiri, Nambūdiri, Namboodiri, Nampoothiri, and Nampūtiri, are a Malayali Brahmin caste, native to what is now the state of Kerala, India, where they constituted part of the traditional feudal el ...
s. Dramatic performances given in ''
Koothambalam
Koothambalam or Kuttampalam meaning temple theatre is a closed hall for staging ''Koothu'', ''Nangiar koothu'' and '' Koodiyattam'', the ancient ritualistic art forms of Kerala, India. Koothambalams are said to be constructed according to the gui ...
s'', known by the names of ''
Koothu
Koothu or Therukoothu (jwalith) ( ta, கூத்து), is an ancient art, where artists play songs with dance and music in storytelling the epics, performed in Tamil; it is a folk art originated from the early Tamil country. More precisel ...
'' and ''
Koodiyattom'', often used Sanskrit and Malayalam. In ''Koodiyattom'', the clown (''vidooshaka'') is allowed to use Malayalam while the hero recites ''slokas'' in Sanskrit.
Tholan, a legendary court poet in the period of the
Kulasekhara kings, is believed to have started this practice.
The earliest of these works in the ''Manipravalam'' school is ''Vaisika Tantram'' written in the 13th century. It contains about 200 quatrains in Sanskrit metres and is in the form of professional advice given to a prostitute or courtesan by her mother. Each quatrain is composed with care and due weight is given to the rules of rhetoric. Several quatrains of this type are quoted in ''Lilathilakam'' by way of illustration for the several rules of grammar and rhetoric.
The most representative of the early ''Manipravalam'' works are the tales of courtesans (''
Achi Charitams'') and the Message Poems (''
Sandesa Kavya
Sanskrit Kavya literature has a long history of its development. The idea of sending of a message, through a messenger, from one person to another is not to be found wanting in the Hindu epics but it was taken up as an independent theme for a poe ...
s''). ''Unniyachi Charitam, Unnichiruthevi Charitam'' and ''Unniyadi Charitam'' are examples of the former type which is known by the name ''
champu
Champu or Chapu-Kavya ( Devanagari: चम्पू-काव्य) is a genre of literary composition in Indian literature. The word 'Champu' means a combination of poetry and prose. A ''champu-kavya'' consists of a mixture of prose (Gadya ...
''. The ''Padya'' (verse) portion is in Sanskrit metres and the ''Gadya'' (prose) portion is mostly in Dravidian metres. Authorship of ''Unniyachi Charitam'' and ''Unnichiruthevi Charitam'' is not known and only a portion of the works is now available. ''Unniyadi Charitam'', which also exists in a fragmented form, is supposed to be written by Damodara Chakkiar. The ''Sandesa Kavyas'' are an important poetic genre in Sanskrit, and on the model of
Kalidasa's ''
Meghadūta }
''Meghadūta'' ( sa, मेघदूत literally ''Cloud Messenger'') is a lyric poem written by Kālidāsa (c. 4th–5th century CE), considered to be one of the greatest Sanskrit poets. It describes how a '' yakṣa'' (or nature spirit), wh ...
'' and Lakshmidasa's ''Sukasandesa'', a number of message poems came to be written first in ''Manipravalam'' and later in pure Malayalam. The best known among these ''sandesas'' is perhaps ''
Unnuneeli Sandesam
''Uli Sandam'' is among the oldest works in Malayalam language. It is a '' sandesa kavyam'' (message poem), a message written in poetry, on the lines of the famous ''Meghadūta'' of Kalidasa. In the case of this work, it is a message written by a ...
'' written in the 14th century. The poem is written under the pen-name Amruthanilakshi, and some believe that it was written in 1362 CE. The exact identity of the author remains a mystery, but it is widely believed that one of the members of the
Travancore
The Kingdom of Travancore ( /ˈtrævənkɔːr/), also known as the Kingdom of Thiruvithamkoor, was an Indian kingdom from c. 1729 until 1949. It was ruled by the Travancore Royal Family from Padmanabhapuram, and later Thiruvananthapuram. At ...
Royal Family wrote it.
The next work to be mentioned is ''Ramakathapattu'', as it is popularly known, though the author calls it ''Ramayanakavyam''. The author is Ayyappilli Asan who lived sometime about 1400 CE at Auvatutura near
Kovalam
Kovalam is a region in the city of Trivandrum, around 13 km southwest of the city center, whose beaches are a tourist destination.
Etymology
Kovalam means " coconut grove," after the coconut trees which are common there.
History
Koval ...
and whom P. K. Narayana Pillai, who discovered the full text of the book in 1965, calls "the
Homer
Homer (; grc, Ὅμηρος , ''Hómēros'') (born ) was a Greek poet who is credited as the author of the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'', two epic poems that are foundational works of ancient Greek literature. Homer is considered one of the ...
of Malayalam." ''Ramakathapattu'' contains 3163 songs in 279 ''Vrittas'' or parts.
Niranam poets
While the Manipravala poetry flourished as a diversion from the mainstream, the tradition set up by Cheeraman of ''Ramacharitam''and the more enlightened among the anonymous folk poets was resumed and replenished by three writers commonly referred to as
Niranam poets
The Niranam poets, also known as the Kannassan poets, were three poets from the same family by the names of Madhava Panikkar, Sankara Panikkar, and Rama Panikkar. They hailed from Niranam, a small village in southern Kerala, India, near the town ...
, being
Madhava Panikkar,
Sankara Panikkar and
Rama Panikkar. They were influenced by the
Bhakti movement
The Bhakti movement was a significant religious movement in medieval Hinduism that sought to bring religious reforms to all strata of society by adopting the method of devotion to achieve salvation. Originating in Tamilakam during 6th centur ...
. The ''Bhakti'' school was thus revived, and in the place of the excessive sensuality and eroticism of the ''Manipravalam'' poets, the seriousness of the poetic vocation was reasserted by them. It is believed that they all belonged to the same Kannassa family and that Madhava Panikkar and Sankara Panikkar were the uncles of Rama Panikkar, the youngest of the three. Their most important work is ''Kannasa Ramayanam'' which is an important link between ''Ramacharitam'', ''Ramakathapattu'' and
Ezhuthachan
Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan (, ) (Malayalam: തുഞ്ചത്ത് രാമാനുജൻ
എഴുത്തച്ഛൻ) ( ''fl.'' 16th century) was a Malayalam devotional poet, translator and linguist from Kerala, south India. ...
's ''
Adhyathmaramayanam''.
Ulloor
Ulloor is a city locality in the Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India. It was the home of the modern Malayalam triumvirate poet Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer. The Government Medical College, Thiruvananthapuram and Credence Hospital Thiruvananthap ...
has said that Rama Panikkar holds the same position in Malayalam literature that
Edmund Spenser
Edmund Spenser (; 1552/1553 – 13 January 1599) was an English poet best known for ''The Faerie Queene'', an epic poem and fantastical allegory celebrating the Tudor dynasty and Elizabeth I. He is recognized as one of the premier craftsmen of ...
has in English literature.
Later Champus and Krishnagatha
The 15th century CE saw two paralleled movements in Malayalam literature: one spearheaded by the ''Manipravalam'' works, especially the ''
Champus'', and the other emanating from the ''Pattu'' school and adumbrated in
Cherusseri's magnum opus, ''Krishnagatha'' (Song of Krishna). The language of the later ''Champus'' reads more like modern Malayalam than that of the earlier ''Champus'' and ''
Sandesa Kavya
Sanskrit Kavya literature has a long history of its development. The idea of sending of a message, through a messenger, from one person to another is not to be found wanting in the Hindu epics but it was taken up as an independent theme for a poe ...
s''. ''Champus'' were mostly works of satire and
hyperbole
Hyperbole (; adj. hyperbolic ) is the use of exaggeration as a rhetorical device or figure of speech. In rhetoric, it is also sometimes known as auxesis (literally 'growth'). In poetry and oratory, it emphasizes, evokes strong feelings, and ...
was a regular feature of it. The greatest ''Champus'' of the 15th century is Punam Nambudiri's ''Ramayanam'' which uses Puranic themes and episodes unlike the 14th century ''Champus'' which were tales of the courtesans. Punam was a court poet of the
Zamorin
The Samoothiri (Anglicised as Zamorin; Malayalam: , Arabic: ''Sāmuri'', Portuguese: ''Samorim'', Dutch: ''Samorijn'', Chinese: ''Shamitihsi''Ma Huan's Ying-yai Sheng-lan: 'The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores' 433 Translated and Edited by ...
of
Calicut
Kozhikode (), also known in English as Calicut, is a city along the Malabar Coast in the state of Kerala in India. It has a corporation limit population of 609,224 and a metropolitan population of more than 2 million, making it the second la ...
. Punam also wrote a ''
Bharatam Champoo''. There are also many others, the authorship of which is ascribed to him. The later ''Champus'' came to be used for dramatic oral narration by performing artists in their ''
Koothu
Koothu or Therukoothu (jwalith) ( ta, கூத்து), is an ancient art, where artists play songs with dance and music in storytelling the epics, performed in Tamil; it is a folk art originated from the early Tamil country. More precisel ...
'' and ''Patakam''. Mahishamangalam (or Mazhamangalam) Narayanan Nambudiri who lived in the 16th century is the author of some of the best ''Champus'' of all time. The most widely known of these is ''Naishadham'' followed by ''Rajaratnavaliyam'' and ''Kodia Viraham''. ''Chandrotsavam'', whose authorship is unknown, is a long narrative poem written in ''Manipravalam''.
The elitist ''Manipravala'' ''Champu'' school disappeared by the end of the 16th century. The average readers without much grounding in Sanskrit had their favourite poems and poets in the so-called ''Pattu'' school. With the writing of ''Krishnagatha'' by
Cherusseri, the validity of the use of spoken Malayalam for literary purposes received its ultimate justification. Unlike the language of ''Ramacharitam'' and the works of the
Niranam poets
The Niranam poets, also known as the Kannassan poets, were three poets from the same family by the names of Madhava Panikkar, Sankara Panikkar, and Rama Panikkar. They hailed from Niranam, a small village in southern Kerala, India, near the town ...
, the language of ''Krishnagatha'' marks the culmination of a stage of evolution. There is some dispute about the author's name and his identity. Some scholars are of opinion that he was the same as the Punam Nambudiri of the ''Champus''. It is widely believed that Cherusseri lived in the 15th century CE and was the court poet of Udayavarma of
Kolathunadu
Kolattunādu (Kola Swarupam, as Kingdom of Cannanore in foreign accounts, Chirakkal (Chericul) in later times) was one of the four most powerful kingdoms on the Malabar Coast during the arrival of the Portuguese Armadas in India, along with ...
.
Arabi Malayalam
![ArabiMalayalam_alphabet](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/ArabiMalayalam_alphabet.png)
The
Arabi Malayalam (also called Mappila Malayalam and Moplah Malayalam) was the traditional
Dravidian language
The Dravidian languages (or sometimes Dravidic) are a family of languages spoken by 250 million people, mainly in southern India, north-east Sri Lanka, and south-west Pakistan. Since the colonial era, there have been small but significant i ...
of the
Mappila Muslim community in
Malabar Coast
The Malabar Coast is the southwestern coast of the Indian subcontinent. Geographically, it comprises the wettest regions of southern India, as the Western Ghats intercept the moisture-laden monsoon rains, especially on their westward-facing m ...
. The poets like
Moyinkutty Vaidyar
Moyinkutty Vaidyar (1852–1892), often referred to as ''Mahakavi'' (great poet), is historically considered one of the most renowned poets of the Mappila pattu genre of Malayalam language.
Personal life
Moyinkutty was born to Unni Mammad ...
and
Pulikkottil Hyder Pulath Pulikkottil Hyder (born in 1879 at Wandoor) was a popular poet who composed short songs in Arabi-Malayalam on topics of common interest, often attacking social evils. His simple lyrics on ordinary life of the Mappilas defied the traditional p ...
have made notable contributions to the
Mappila songs
Mappila songs (or ''Mappila Paattu'') are a folklore Muslim song genre rendered to lyrics, within a melodic framework ( Ishal), in Arabi Malayalam by the Mappilas of the Malabar region in Kerala, India. Mappila songs have a distinct cultural ...
, which is a genre of the
Arabi Malayalam literature. The
Arabi Malayalam script, otherwise known as the
Ponnani
Ponnani () is a municipality in Ponnani Taluk, Malappuram District, in the state of Kerala, India. It serves as the administrative center of the Taluk and Block Panchayat of the same name. It is situated at the estuary of Bharatappuzha (Riv ...
script, is a writing system - a variant form of the
Arabic script
The Arabic script is the writing system used for Arabic and several other languages of Asia and Africa. It is the second-most widely used writing system in the world by number of countries using it or a script directly derived from it, and the ...
with special
orthographic features - which was developed during the early medieval period and used to write
Arabi Malayalam until the early 20th century CE.
[Miller, Roland. E., "Mappila" in "The Encyclopedia of Islam". Volume VI. E. J. Brill, Leiden. 1987. pp. 458-56.] Though the script originated and developed in
Kerala
Kerala ( ; ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin, Malabar, South ...
, today it is predominantly used in
Malaysia
Malaysia ( ; ) is a country in Southeast Asia. The federation, federal constitutional monarchy consists of States and federal territories of Malaysia, thirteen states and three federal territories, separated by the South China Sea into two r ...
and
Singapore
Singapore (), officially the Republic of Singapore, is a sovereign island country and city-state in maritime Southeast Asia. It lies about one degree of latitude () north of the equator, off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, borde ...
by the migrant
Muslim
Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abrah ...
community.
[Menon. T. Madhava. "A Handbook of Kerala, Volume 2", International School of Dravidian Linguistics, 2002. pp. 491-493.][National Virtual Translation Center - Arabic script for malayalam](_blank)
/ref>
Evolution of Modern Malayalam
The Middle Malayalam
Middle Malayalam is the period of the Malayalam language spanning from 13th century to 15th century AD.
The works including ''Unniyachi Charitham'', ''Unnichiruthevi Charitham'', and ''Unniyadi Charitham'', are written in Middle Malayalam, those ...
(''Madhyakaala Malayalam'') was succeeded by Modern Malayalam (''Aadhunika Malayalam'') by the 15th century CE. The poem ''Krishnagatha
''Krishnagatha'' (Malayalam: കൃഷ്ണഗാഥ) is a 15th-century poem written in Malayalam language; It is also known as Krishnapattu. it belongs to the poetic form ''Gatha''. The author of the poem is believed to be Cherusseri Namboothir ...
'' written by Cherusseri Namboothiri
Cherusseri Namboothiri (Malayalam:ചെറുശ്ശേരി നമ്പൂതിരി) is a 15th-century Malayalam poet who belonged to Kolathunadu, in present-day North Malabar region of Kerala. He was a court poet of Udaya Varma (1446 ...
, who was the court poet of the king Udaya Varman Kolathiri (1446 – 1475) of Kolathunadu
Kolattunādu (Kola Swarupam, as Kingdom of Cannanore in foreign accounts, Chirakkal (Chericul) in later times) was one of the four most powerful kingdoms on the Malabar Coast during the arrival of the Portuguese Armadas in India, along with ...
, is written in modern Malayalam. The language used in ''Krishnagatha'' is the modern spoken form of Malayalam. During the 16th century CE, Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan from the Kingdom of Tanur
Kingdom of Tanur (Vettathunadu, Vettom, Tanur Swaroopam, Prakashabhu, Kingdom of Light) was one of the numerous feudal principalities on Malabar Coast during the Middle Ages. It was ruled by a Hindu dynasty, claiming Kshatriya status, known as ...
and Poonthanam Nambudiri
Poonthanam Nambudiri (1547–1640AD) was a famous poet and a devotee of Guruvayurappan, who lived in Keezhattoor in what is now Malappuram district, Kerala, India. He is remembered for his masterpiece, ''Jnanappana'' which means "the song o ...
from the Kingdom of Valluvanad followed the new trend initiated by Cherussery in their poems. The '' Adhyathmaramayanam Kilippattu'' and ''Mahabharatham Kilippattu
Kilippattu or ''parrot song'' is a genre of Malayalam poems in which the narrator is a parrot, a bee, a swan, and so on. Kiḷippaṭṭu was popularized by the 16th-century poet Ezhuthachan (The Father Of The Malayalam language).
In Adhyathm ...
'' written by Ezhuthachan and ''Jnanappana
Jnanappana is a devotional poem written by the 16th century Malayalam poet Poonthanam. This poem written as a devotional prayer to Guruvayoorappan is considered as an important work in Malayalam literature. Written in simple Malayalam, the Jnana ...
'' written by Poonthanam are also included in the earliest form of Modern Malayalam.
It is Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan who is also credited with the development of Malayalam script into the current form through the intermixing and modification of the erstwhile scripts of ''Vatteluttu
''Vatteluttu,'' popularly romanised as ''Vattezhuthu'' ( ta, வட்டெழுத்து, ' and ml, വട്ടെഴുത്ത്, ', ), was a syllabic alphabet of south India (Tamil Nadu and Kerala) and Sri Lanka used for writing t ...
'', '' Kolezhuthu'', and Grantha script
The Grantha script ( ta, கிரந்த எழுத்து, Granta eḻuttu; ml, ഗ്രന്ഥലിപി, granthalipi) is a South Indian script, found particularly in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Originating from the Pallava script, th ...
, which were used to write the inscriptions and literary works of Old and Middle Malayalam. He further eliminated excess and unnecessary letters from the modified script. Hence, Ezhuthachan is also known as ''The Father of modern Malayalam''. The development of modern Malayalam script was also heavily influenced by the Tigalari script
Tigalari (''Tigaḷāri lipi'', ''tulu lipi''),The script is also referred to as Arya Ezhuttu, Grantha Malayalam, Tulu Grantha, Tulu-Malayalam and Western Grantha. also known as Tulu script, is a Southern Brahmic script which was used to writ ...
, which was used to write the Tulu language
Tulu () in Kannada script, ml, തുളു ഭാഷെ in Malayalam script. ''bhāṣe'', , ''bhāśe'', and ''bāśe'' are alternative spellings for the Tulu word ''bāse'' in the Kannada script. The correct spelling for the word ...
, due to the influence of Tuluva Brahmin
Tulu Brahmins or Tuluva Brahmins are the inhabitants of Tulu Nadu, also considered a part of Parashurama Kshetra which extends to Kerala.
They consist of following:
Sthanika Brahmins, also called "Sthanika Tulu Brahmins" or "Tulu Brahmins" ar ...
s in Kerala. The language used in the Arabi Malayalam works of 16th-17th century CE is a mixture of Modern Malayalam and Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic languages, Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C ...
. They follow the syntax of modern Malayalam, though written in a modified form of Arabic script
The Arabic script is the writing system used for Arabic and several other languages of Asia and Africa. It is the second-most widely used writing system in the world by number of countries using it or a script directly derived from it, and the ...
, which is known as Arabi Malayalam script.
P. Shangunny Menon ascribes the authorship of the medieval work ''Keralolpathi
The Keralolpathi ( ml, കേരളോല്പത്തി; IAST:''kēraḷōlpatti''; ) is a Malayalam Brahmanical literary work that deals with the origin and legends of the land of Kerala. P. Shungunny Menon ascribes the authorship of this wor ...
'', which describes the Parashurama
Parashurama (), also referred to as Rama Jamadagnya, Rama Bhargava and Veerarama, is the sixth avatar among the Dashavatara of the preserver god Vishnu in Hinduism. He is believed to be one of the ''Chiranjeevis'' (Immortals), who will appear ...
legend and the departure of the final Cheraman Perumal
Perumal (the 'Great One') is the name of a Hindu deity.
It was also a medieval Indian royal title of:
*Western Ganga dynasty Narayanan, M. G. S. ''Perumāḷs of Kerala''. Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks, 2013. 171.
**Sripurusha
**Rajamalla
**Nitim ...
king to Mecca
Mecca (; officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, commonly shortened to Makkah ()) is a city and administrative center of the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia, and the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red ...
, to Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan. The currently adopted Malayalam script, adopted by Ezhuthachan can be used to write any other language of India
Languages spoken in India belong to several language families, the major ones being the Indo-European languages spoken by 78.05% of Indians and the Dravidian languages spoken by 19.64% of Indians, both families together are sometimes known ...
as it contain letters to denote both of the Voiced retroflex approximant
The voiced retroflex approximant is a type of consonant used in some languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is r\`. The IPA symbol is a turned lowercase lett ...
(/ɻ/) (which is unique to Dravidian languages in India) and the letters unique to Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
(those are not there in the Tamil script
The Tamil script ( , ) is an abugida script that is used by Tamils and Tamil language, Tamil speakers in India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and elsewhere to write the Tamil language. Certain minority languages such as Saurasht ...
).
Modern Malayalam
Bhakti era
Malayalam literature passed through a tremendous process of development in the 15th and 16th centuries. Cherusseri's ''Krishnagatha'' bore witness to the evolution of modern Malayalam language as a proper medium for serious poetic communication. Alongside this, there flourished numerous Sanskrit poets who were very active during this period. The greatest of them was Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri (1559–1665), the author of '' Narayaniyam''. The most significant development of the time took place in the field of Malayalam poetry. Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan
Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan (, ) (Malayalam: തുഞ്ചത്ത് രാമാനുജൻ
എഴുത്തച്ഛൻ) ( ''fl.'' 16th century) was a Malayalam devotional poet, translator and linguist from Kerala, south India. ...
wrote his two great epics '' Adhyathmaramayanam'' and ''Srimahabharatam'' and two shorter pieces, ''Irupathinalu Vrittam'' and ''Harinama Kirtanam'' and thereby revolutionised Malayalam language and literature at once. Ezhuthachan refined the style of Malayalam language and it was during his period that Malayalam literature attained its individuality and Malayalam became a fully fledged independent language. Today he is known as the father of Malayalam language and its literature. The ''Kilippattu
Kilippattu or ''parrot song'' is a genre of Malayalam poems in which the narrator is a parrot, a bee, a swan, and so on. Kiḷippaṭṭu was popularized by the 16th-century poet Ezhuthachan (The Father Of The Malayalam language).
In Adhyathm ...
'' form he adopted in ''Ramayanam'' and ''Bharatam'' may be a pointer to his recognition of the importance of sound effect in poetry. Ezhuthachan is perhaps the greatest spokesman of the Bhakti movement
The Bhakti movement was a significant religious movement in medieval Hinduism that sought to bring religious reforms to all strata of society by adopting the method of devotion to achieve salvation. Originating in Tamilakam during 6th centur ...
in Malayalam but he is more than a writer of devotional hymns. K. Ayyappa Paniker has noted that "the transition from Cherrusseri to Ezhuthachan marks the triumph of modernism over medievalism." Another important poet of this period was Poonthanam Nambudiri
Poonthanam Nambudiri (1547–1640AD) was a famous poet and a devotee of Guruvayurappan, who lived in Keezhattoor in what is now Malappuram district, Kerala, India. He is remembered for his masterpiece, ''Jnanappana'' which means "the song o ...
(1547–1640). His chief poems are ''Jnanappana
Jnanappana is a devotional poem written by the 16th century Malayalam poet Poonthanam. This poem written as a devotional prayer to Guruvayoorappan is considered as an important work in Malayalam literature. Written in simple Malayalam, the Jnana ...
'' (The Song of Divine Wisdom), ''Bhasha Karnamritam'' and ''Kumaraharanam'' or ''Santanagopalam Pana''.
Performance arts
The 16th century also saw the writing of some dramatic works in ''Manipravalam'' and pure Malayalam, ''Bharatavakyam'', often described as a choral narration, is a work in ''Manipravalam'' which was used for stage performance. The main development in the cultural field in Kerala in the 17th century was the growth of a new form of visual art called Kathakali
Kathakali ( ml, കഥകളി) is a major form of classical Indian dance. It is a "story play" genre of art, but one distinguished by the elaborately colourful make-up and costumes of the traditional male actor-dancers. It is native to the M ...
, which brought into being a new genre of poetry called Attakkatha consisting of the libretto used for a Kathakali performance. The origins of ''aattakatha'' literature dates back to the 12th century and it emerged as a literary genre in the 17th century. The earliest of the ''aattakathas'' is believed to be a cycle of eight ''Ramayana
The ''Rāmāyana'' (; sa, रामायणम्, ) is a Sanskrit literature, Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epic composed over a period of nearly a millennium, with scholars' estimates for the earliest stage of the text ranging from the 8th ...
'' stories (collectively known as ''Ramanattam
Ramanattam (Malayalam: രാമനാട്ടം, IAST: Rāmanāṭṭaṃ) is a temple art in Kerala, India. The dance drama presents the story of Rama in a series of eight plays and was created under the patronage of Veera Kerala Varma (AD 16 ...
''), composed by Kottarakkara Tampuran and about whose date there is an ongoing controversy. Next in importance are the works of Kottayathu Tampuran whose period is about the middle of the seventeenth century. Since the four ''aattakatha''s he wrote ''Bakavadham, Kalyanasaugandhikam, Kirmeeravadham
Kirmeeravadham (The Slaying of Kirmeera) is a Kathakali play( Aattakatha) written by Kottayam Thampuran (also known as Kottayathu Thampuran) in Malayalam. Based on the Mahabharatha, the story concerns itself with events in the course of the fore ...
'' and ''Kalakeyavadham'' punctiliously conform to the strict rules of Kathakali, they are particularly favoured by orthodox artistes and their patrons. Another poet of this category is Irayimman Thampi
Iravivarman Thampi, better known as Irayimman Thampi (1782 October 12 - 1856 July 29), was an Indian Carnatic musician, music composer and poet from the Kingdom of Travancore. He was a vocalist in the court of Swathi Thirunal. His compositions i ...
(1783–1863). Unnayi Variyar
Unnayi Warrier was a poet, writer, scholar, and dramatist who lived in Kerala, India during the 17th/18th century. He is best known for his chef-d'oeuvre ''Nalacharitham'' aattakatha and is known to have made significant contributions to the ar ...
's ''Nalacharitham
Nalacharitham is a Kathakali play ( Aattakatha) written by Unnayi Warrier. Based on the Mahabharatha, it tells the story of King Nalan and his consort Damayanthi. The play consists of four parts – called First, Second, Third and Fourth Day ...
Aattakatha'' is one of the most famous works in this genre. ''Margamkali
Margamkali (Malayalam:മാർഗ്ഗംകളി ) is an ancient Indian round dance of the St. Thomas Christians community- based in Kerala state, mainly practiced by the endogamous sub-sect known as the Knanaya or Southist Christians. The ...
'' was the form of ritual and entertainment among the Syrian Christians Syrian or Syriac Christians may refer to
* Adherents of Christianity in Syria
* Adherents of Syriac Christianity, various Christian bodies of Syriac traditions, especially:
** Syriac/Assyrian/Aramean people, Christian neo-Aramaic speakers through ...
corresponding to the ''Sanghakali'' of the Brahmins. ''Margamkalippattu'' is the song for this performance depicting the story of Thomas the Apostle
Thomas the Apostle ( arc, 𐡀𐡌𐡅𐡕𐡌, hbo, תוֹמא הקדוש or תוֹמָא שליחא (''Toma HaKadosh'' "Thomas the Holy" or ''Toma Shlikha'' "Thomas the Messenger/Apostle" in Hebrew-Aramaic), syc, ܬܐܘܡܐ, , meaning "twi ...
. This was one of the numerous pieces of Christian literature that must have gained currency in the 16th and 17th centuries.
In the court of Travancore
The Kingdom of Travancore ( /ˈtrævənkɔːr/), also known as the Kingdom of Thiruvithamkoor, was an Indian kingdom from c. 1729 until 1949. It was ruled by the Travancore Royal Family from Padmanabhapuram, and later Thiruvananthapuram. At ...
king Marthanda Varma
Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma (Malayalam: ) was the founding monarch of the southern Indian Kingdom of Travancore (previously Venadu) from 1729 until his death in 1758. He was succeeded by Rama Varma ("Dharma Raja") (1758–98).Subrahman ...
(1706–1758) and his successor Dharma Raja Kartika Tirunal Rama Varma, there flourished a number of poets distinguished in several ways. Ramapurathu Warrier
Ramapurathu Warrier (1703–1753) is considered to be the pioneer of the "Vanchippattu" or Boat song form of poetry in Malayalam language. ''Vanchippattu'' is a poetic form of folk origin composed entirely in the Dravidian metre ''nathonnata''. H ...
(1703–1753), the author of ''Kuchela Vrittam Vanchippattu'', was one of them. The ''Vanchippattu'' or Boat song is a poetic form of folk origin composed entirely in the Dravidian metre ''nathonnata''. Kunchan Nambiar
Kunchan Nambiar was a prominent Malayalam poet of the 18th century (1705-1770). Apart from being a prolific poet, Nambiar is also famous as the originator of the dance art form of Thullal, most of his works were written for use in Thullal perfo ...
(1705–1770), the founder of Thullal and its rich literature, is often considered as the master of Malayalam satirist poetry. Born in Killikkurussimangalam
Killikkurussimangalam (also known as Lakkidi) is a village around 8 km from nearby town Ottappalam in Palakkad district of Kerala, south India. The river Nila (Bharatapuzha) flows through the southern border of Lakkidi.
Etymology
The village go ...
, he spent his boyhood at Kudamalur and youth at Ambalappuzha. 1748 he moved to the court of Marthanda Varma and later to the court of his successor Dharma Raja. The word "Thullal" literally means "dance", but under this name Nambiar devised a new style of verse narration with a little background music and dance-like swinging movement to wean the people away from the Chakkiyar Koothu, which was the art form popular till then. He used pure Malayalam as opposed to the stylised and Sanskritised Malayalam language of Chakkiyar Koothu. He also adopted many elements from Padayani
Padayani, also known Padeni (from the Malayalam word for military formations), is a traditional folk dance and a ritual art from the central portion of the Indian state of Kerala. A ceremonial dance involving masks, it is an ancient ritual per ...
and Kolam Thullal
Kolam Thullal is a ritual dance form prevalent in south Kerala, southern India. It is customary in houses and temples of Bhagavathy, a female deity. It is performed at temple festivals and to drive away evil spirits from the "possessed" bodies. It ...
and certain local folk arts. There are three kinds of Tullal distinguished on the basis of the performer's costume and the style of rendering, viz., ''Ottan, Sitankan'' and ''Parayan''. Dravidian metres are used throughout although there is a quatrain in a Sanskrit metre.
Prose literature
There was a great lull in the field of literary creation in Malayalam for nearly a century after the death of Kunchan Nambiar. There was however a consistent and steady development of prose at this time. The evolution of prose literature in the early centuries was a very slow process. In the wake of ''Bhashakautaliyam'' several translations began to appear in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The prose of ''Attaprakarams'' was meant to aid the Chakiyars in learning the art of Koodiyattom. ''Doothavakyam'' (14th century CE) is one of the earliest of these works. 15th century Malayalam prose is represented by '' Brahmanda Puranam'', a summary of the original in Sanskrit. A large number of prose works appeared during this period, most of which are either narrative based on ''purana
Purana (; sa, , '; literally meaning "ancient, old"Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature (1995 Edition), Article on Puranas, , page 915) is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly about legends an ...
s'' and religious works in Sanskrit or commentaries on similar works. With the starting of the first printing presses in the 16th century by Christian missionaries, prose literature received a great boost. Several regional versions of ''Keralolpathi
The Keralolpathi ( ml, കേരളോല്പത്തി; IAST:''kēraḷōlpatti''; ) is a Malayalam Brahmanical literary work that deals with the origin and legends of the land of Kerala. P. Shungunny Menon ascribes the authorship of this wor ...
'', tracing the beginnings of Kerala history, began to appear in the 18th century. Paremmakkal Thoma Kathanar (1737–1799) wrote the first travelogue in Malayalam, ''Varthamanapustakam'' (Book of News). The works of Christian missionaries like Arnos Patiri (Johann Ernst Hanxleden), 1699–1732) and Paulinose Patiri (John Philip Wesdin, 1748–1806) also led to a widening of the range of topics and themes in Malayalam literature.
Venmani school
The third quarter of the nineteenth century bore witness to the rise of a new school of poets devoted to the observation of life around them and the use of pure Malayalam (''Pachcha Malayalam''). The major poets of the Venmani school were Venmani Achhan Nambudiripad
Venmani Parameshwaran Nambudiripad (1817-1890), popularly known as Venmani Achhan Nambudiripad was a famous poet of Malayalam. He was born in the Venmani Illam, a family which was involved in the Venmani School of Malayalam Literature. He was the n ...
(1817–1891), Venmani Mahan Nambudiripad
Venmani Mahan Nambudiripad (1844-1893) (also known as KadambanKadambhan) was a famous Malayalam poet of the Venmani Illam and one of the main literary figures of the Venmani Movement of Malayalam Literature
Malayalam, the lingua franca of ...
(1844–1893), Poonthottam Achhan Nambudiri (1821–1865), Poonthottam Mahan Nambudiri (1857–1896) and the members of the Kodungallur Kovilakam
Kodungallur Kovilakam ( ml, കൊടുങ്ങല്ലൂര് കോവിലകം), is a palace of the royal family of the late edievalKingdom of Kodungallur (Cranganore), in the modern-day Indian state of Kerala. Kodungallur was a fe ...
(Royal Family) such as Kodungallur Kunjikkuttan Thampuran
Kodungallur Kunjikkuttan Thampuran (1864 - 1914) also transliterated as ''Kotungallur Kunhikkuttan Thampuran'', was a Malayalam poet and Sanskrit scholar lived in Kerala, India. His birth-name was Rama Varma. He is famous for his single-hande ...
. The style of these poets became quite popular for a while and influenced even others who were not members of the group like Velutheri Kesavan Vaidyar (1839–1897) and Perunlli Krishnan Vaidyan (1863–1894). The Venmani school pioneered a style of poetry that was associated with common day themes, and the use of pure Malayalam rather than Sanskrit. The poetry was therefore easily understood by the common man. The works were known for its humour, wit, and lyrical metre.
Modern prose literature
Contemporary Malayalam poetry deals with social, political, and economic life context. The tendency of the modern poetry is often towards political radicalism
Radical politics denotes the intent to transform or replace the principles of a society or political system, often through social change, structural change, revolution or radical reform. The process of adopting radical views is termed radica ...
. Nineteenth century was not a very creative period for Malayalam literature (except towards the end) from the point of view of imaginative writing. The modern Malayalam grammar is based on the book '' Kerala Panineeyam'' written by A. R. Raja Raja Varma in the late 19th century CE. But the foundations for the great renaissance that began at the end of the century were laid during this period. The establishment of colleges for imparting English education, the translation of the Bible and other religious works, the compilation of dictionaries and grammars, the formation of the text book committee, the growth of printing presses, the starting of newspapers and periodicals, the introduction of science and technology, the beginning of industrialization and the awakening of social and political consciousness: these constitute the giant strides towards modernisation. Like his predecessors Swathi Thirunal
( ml, സ്വാതി തിരുനാള് രാമവർമ്മ) (16 April 1813 – 26 December 1846) was the Maharaja of the Kingdom of Travancore. He is also considered as a brilliant music composer and is credited with over 4 ...
and Uthram Thirunal
Uthram Thirunal Marthanda Varma (26 September 1814 – 18 August 1860) was the Maharajah of Travancore state in southern India, succeeding his elder brother Maharajah Swathi Thirunal in 1846 till his demise in 1860. Known for his progress ...
, Ayilyam Thirunal
Ayilyam Thirunal Rama Varma (1832–1880) was the ruler of the princely state of Travancore in India from 1860 to 1880. His reign was highly successful with Travancore gaining the appellation of "model state of India". Ayilyam Thirunal was ...
(1832–1880) and Visakham Thirunal (1837–1885) were great patrons of letters and were themselves talented writers. Christian missionaries Benjamin Bailey (1805–1871), Joseph Peet, Richard Collins and George Mathen (1819–1870) were responsible for many works on Malayalam language based on western models. Perhaps the most important of these missionaries was Herman Gundert
Hermann Gundert (Stuttgart, 4 February 1814 – 25 April 1893 in Calw, Germany) was a German missionary, scholar, and linguist, as well as the maternal grandfather of German novelist and Nobel laureate Hermann Hesse. Gundert is chiefly known ...
(1814–1893). Born in Stuttgart
Stuttgart (; Swabian: ; ) is the capital and largest city of the German state of Baden-Württemberg. It is located on the Neckar river in a fertile valley known as the ''Stuttgarter Kessel'' (Stuttgart Cauldron) and lies an hour from the ...
in Germany
Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...
and educated at Tübingen
Tübingen (, , Swabian: ''Dibenga'') is a traditional university city in central Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It is situated south of the state capital, Stuttgart, and developed on both sides of the Neckar and Ammer rivers. about one in thr ...
and Switzerland
). Swiss law does not designate a ''capital'' as such, but the federal parliament and government are installed in Bern, while other federal institutions, such as the federal courts, are in other cities (Bellinzona, Lausanne, Luzern, Neuchâtel ...
, Gundert came to India in 1836. He wrote over twenty books in Malayalam, the most important of which are ''A Malayalam-English Dictionary, A Grammar of Malayalam, Keralappazhama'' and ''Pazhamcholmala''. The first authoritative grammar of Malayalam was also Gundert's contribution (1851). This led to the production of a number of grammatical works in Malayalam. Vaikkam Patchu Moothathu (1814–1883) published his ''Grammar of Malayalam'' in 1876, ''Kerala Kaumudi'' by Kovunni Nedungadi (1831–1889) came out in 1878. This was soon followed by the first history of the language by P. Govinda Pillai (1849–1897) published in 1881. The first work on rhetoric in Malayalam on the European model was brought out by Father Gerad under the title ''Alankara Sastram'' in the same year. By the end of the 19th century two different traditions could be clearly distinguished in Malayalam literature: the western school and the oriental or traditionalist school. Writers such as Kerala Varma Valiya Koyithampuran represent the confluence of these two major traditions. His major works include ''Mayurasandesam'' (Peacock Message) and the translations of Kalidasa's ''Abhijñānaśākuntalam
''Abhijnanashakuntalam'' (Devanagari: अभिज्ञानशाकुन्तलम्, IAST: ''Abhijñānaśākuntalam''), also known as ''Shakuntala'', ''The Recognition of Shakuntala'', ''The Sign of Shakuntala'', and many other variant ...
'' (which got him the title of Kerala Kalidasa), and of Von Limburg Brower's ''Akbar''. Meanwhile, many literary magazines were established to encourage all kinds of writers and writings, such as C. P. Achutha Menon's ''Vidyavinodini'', Kandathil Varghese Mappillai's '' Bhashaposhini'' and Appan Thampuran's ''Rasikaranjini''.
In the wake of Kerala Varma's translation of ''Abhijñānaśākuntalam'', several attempts were made to translate numerous plays from Sanskrit and English into Malayalam. These plays were seldom acted. The stage conditions of those days were crude and unfit to project a performance. As if irritated by this imitation plays of low quality, P. Rama Kurup wrote ''Chakki Chankaram'' (1893). Kerala Varma's nephew A. R. Raja Raja Varma went a step further than his uncle in the promotion of a synthesis between the different trends current in the literature of his time. A professor in the His Highness Maharaja's University College, Thiruvananthapuram, he had to modernize the process of teaching Malayalam language and literature; this made him write books on grammar and rhetoric (which earned him the title of Kerala Panini) and eventually prepare the ground for an enlightened renaissance in Malayalam poetry and literary criticism. A close associate of both Kerala Varma and Raja Raja Varma, K. C. Kesava Pillai wrote ''Kesaviyam'' (a ''mahakavya'') and a number of ''attakkathas''. Azhakathu Padmanabha Kurup (1869–1932: author of ''Ramachandravilasam''), Pandalam Kerala Varma
Kerala Varma (January 1879 – June 1919), most commonly known as Mahakavi Pandalam Kerala Varma (Malayalam: മഹാകവി പന്തളം കേരള വർമ്മ), was an Indian poet, scholar, and publisher. He was born in Pandala ...
(1879–1919: author of ''Rukmangatha Charitam''), Kattakkayam Cherian Mappila (1859 – 1937: author of ''Sri Yesu Vijayam''), Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer
Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer (Malayalam: ഉള്ളൂർ എസ്. പരമേശ്വര അയ്യർ; 6 June 1877 – 15 June 1949), born Sambasivan but popularly known as Ulloor, was an Indian poet of Malayalam literature and a histo ...
(1877–1949 : author of ''Umakeralam'') and Vallathol Narayana Menon
Vallathol Narayana Menon (Malayalam: വള്ളത്തോൾ നാരായണ മേനോൻ) (16 October 1878 – 13 March 1958) was a Malayalam poet and one of the triumvirate of modern Malayalam poetry, along with Asan and Ulloor ...
(1879–1958: author of ''Chitrayogam''), all paid their obeisance to this neoclassicist trend.
The developments in prose at this time were very significant, Vengayil Kunhiraman Nayanar
Vengayil Kunhiraman Nayanar (1860 – 14 November 1914) was a Malayali essayist and short story writer, and a prominent landlord of Malabar district.
Vengayil family
Nayanar was born in an aristocratic Nair family known as "Vengayil" in Chiracka ...
(1861–1895), more famous under his pseudonym Kesari, was one of the first to explore the essay form in Malayalam. He was closely associated with periodicals like ''Kerala Chandrika'' (started in 1879 at Thiruvananthapuram
Thiruvananthapuram (; ), also known by its former name Trivandrum (), is the capital of the Indian state of Kerala. It is the most populous city in Kerala with a population of 957,730 as of 2011. The encompassing urban agglomeration populati ...
), ''Kerala Patrika'' (started in 1884 by C. Kunhiraman Menon (1854–1936) and Appu Nedungadi (1866–1934) at Kozhikode
Kozhikode (), also known in English as Calicut, is a city along the Malabar Coast in the state of Kerala in India. It has a corporation limit population of 609,224 and a metropolitan population of more than 2 million, making it the second l ...
), ''Kerala Sanchari'' (after 1898 under the editorship of Murkoth Kumaran) and the English Journal ''Malabar Spectator''. His ''Vasanavikriti "Vasanavikruti" is a short story written by Vengayil Kunhiraman Nayanar. It is considered by historians and literary experts as the first short story
A short story is a piece of prose fiction that typically can be read in one sitting and focuse ...
'' is considered by historians and literary experts as the first short story
A short story is a piece of prose fiction that typically can be read in one sitting and focuses on a self-contained incident or series of linked incidents, with the intent of evoking a single effect or mood. The short story is one of the oldest ...
in Malayalam literature. It was published in ''Vidyavinodini'' in 1891. ''Fulmoni Ennum Koruna Ennum Peraya Randu Sthreekalude Katha'' (Phulmōni ennuṁ kōruṇa ennuṁ pērāya ranṭu strīkaḷuṭe katha), a translation of Hana Catherine Mullens
Hana Catherine Mullens (1826–1861) was a European Christian missionary, educator, translator and writer. She was a leader of zenana missions, setting up schools for girls and writing what is arguably the first novel in Bengali. She spent most ...
's Bengali novel ''Fulmoni O Korunar Biboron'' by Rev. Joseph Peet, is believed to be the first novel printed and released in Malayalam (1858). ''Ghathakawadham'' (''Ghātakavadhaṁ'', 1877) by Rev. Richard Collins was the first novel printed and published in Malayalam with a story based in Kerala
Kerala ( ; ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin, Malabar, South ...
and around Malayali
The Malayali people () (also spelt Malayalee and also known by the demonym Keralite) are a Dravidian peoples, Dravidian ethnolinguistic group originating from the present-day state of Kerala in India, occupying its southwestern Malabar coast. ...
s.
The first novel conceived and published in Malayalam was Appu Nedungadi's ''Kundalatha
''Kundalatha'' (or Kundalata, ml, കുന്ദലത) is a novel by Appu Nedungadi, published in 1887. It is considered to be the first Malayalam novel.
See also
* ''Indulekha (novel), Indulekha''
External links
Novel and Short Story to the ...
'' (1887). Though ''Kundalatha'' is not considered a major novel, it gets the pride of place as the first work in the language having the basic characteristics of a novel. O. Chandhu Menon
Oyyarathu Chandu Menon (popularly known as O. Chandu Menon) (1847–1899) was a Malayalam language novelist. He is the author of '' Indulekha'', the first major novel in Malayalam published in 1889.
Life
Chandu Menon was born on 9 January 1847 in ...
's '' Indulekha'' was the first major novel in Malayalam language. It was a landmark in the history of Malayalam literature and initiated the novel as a new flourishing genre. The title refers to the main character in this novel, a beautiful, well educated Nair lady of 18 years. C. V. Raman Pillai's '' Marthandavarma'' (1891) had many distinctions: it was the first historical novel in any South Indian languages, first novel from Travancore
The Kingdom of Travancore ( /ˈtrævənkɔːr/), also known as the Kingdom of Thiruvithamkoor, was an Indian kingdom from c. 1729 until 1949. It was ruled by the Travancore Royal Family from Padmanabhapuram, and later Thiruvananthapuram. At ...
, first Malayalam novel to be a part of a trilogy and the first Malayalam novel to have a masculine title. ''Marthandavarma'' was completed even before ''Indulekha'' but could not be published until 1891 owing to lack of finance. The novel recounted the history of Venad
Venad was a medieval kingdom lying between the Western Ghat mountains and the Arabian Sea on the south-western tip of India with its headquarters at the port city of Kollam/Quilon.Noburu Karashmia (ed.), A Concise History of South India: Is ...
(Travancore
The Kingdom of Travancore ( /ˈtrævənkɔːr/), also known as the Kingdom of Thiruvithamkoor, was an Indian kingdom from c. 1729 until 1949. It was ruled by the Travancore Royal Family from Padmanabhapuram, and later Thiruvananthapuram. At ...
) during the final period of Rajah Rama Varma's reign and subsequently to the accession of Marthanda Varma
Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma (Malayalam: ) was the founding monarch of the southern Indian Kingdom of Travancore (previously Venadu) from 1729 until his death in 1758. He was succeeded by Rama Varma ("Dharma Raja") (1758–98).Subrahman ...
. The novel had a film adaptation of the same name in 1933 and was the first Malayalam novel to be adapted into film. During the early 20th century, Malayalam received outstanding novels, either as translations or adaptations of Western literature. The post-independence period saw a fresh start in the history of longer fiction in Malayalam as in many other Indian languages, parallel to the evolution of post-world war fiction in other parts of the world. It was both a break and a continuation. P. Kesava Dev, who was a Communist in the thirties and forties turned away from diehard ideologies and wrote a symbolic novel called ''Arku Vendi?'' (For Whose Sake?) in 1950, challenging the philosophy of Stalinist liquidation of political enemies. It had a special significance in the context of the 'Calcutta thesis'. After portraying the class struggle of farm labourers in ''Randidangazhi
''Randidangazhi'' ( en, Two Measures, ml, രണ്ടിടങ്ങഴി) is a Malayalam novel written by Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai in 1948. The novel tells the story of the cruelty meted out by feudal landlords to impoverished farm labour ...
'' (Two Measures) in 1949, Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai
Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai (17 April 1912 – 10 April 1999), popularly known as Thakazhi after his place of birth, was an Indian novelist and short story writer of Malayalam literature. He wrote over 30 novels and novellas and over 7 shor ...
turned away from party politics and produced a moving romance in ''Chemmeen
''Chemmeen'' () is a 1965 Indian Malayalam-language romance film, based on the novel of the same name by Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai. It was adapted into a screenplay by S. L. Puram Sadanandan, directed by Ramu Kariat, and produced by Babu Is ...
'' (Shrimps) in 1956. For S. K. Pottekkatt
Sankarankutty Kunjiraman Pottekkatt (14 March 1913 – 6 August 1982) was an Indian writer of Malayalam literature and a politician from Kerala, India. He was also a great traveller among the Keralites, who wrote many travelogues for the peopl ...
and Vaikom Muhammad Basheer
Vaikom Muhammad Basheer (21 January 1908 – 5 July 1994), popularly referred to as Beypore Sulthan, was a writer of Malayalam literature. He was a writer, humanist, freedom fighter, novelist and short story writer, noted for his path-breaking, ...
, who had not dabbled in politics, the continuity is marked in the former's ''Vishakanyaka'' (Poison Maid, 1948) and the latter's ''Ntuppuppakkoranendarnnu
''Ntuppuppakkoranendarnnu'' (''My Granddad Had an Elephant!'') is a short novel by Vaikom Muhammad Basheer
Vaikom Muhammad Basheer (21 January 1908 – 5 July 1994), popularly referred to as Beypore Sulthan, was a writer of Malayalam liter ...
'' (My Grandpa had an Elephant, 1951). The non-political social or domestic novel was championed by Uroob, P. C. Kuttikrishnan (Uroob) with his ''Ummachu'' (1955) and ''Sundarikalum Sundaranmarum'' (Men and Women of Charm, 1958). In 1957 Basheer's ''Pathummayude Aadu'' (Pathumma's Goat) brought in a new kind of prose tale, which perhaps only Basheer could handle with dexterity. The fifties thus mark the evolution of a new kind of fiction, which had its impact on the short stories as well. This was the auspicious moment for the entry of M. T. Vasudevan Nair
Madath Thekkepaattu Vasudevan Nair (born 1933 July 15 ), popularly known as MT, is an Indian author, screenplay writer and film director. He is a prolific and versatile writer in modern Malayalam literature, and is one of the masters of post-I ...
and T. Padmanabhan upon the scene. Front runners in the post-modern trend include Kakkanadan, O. V. Vijayan, E. Harikumar, M. Mukundan and Anand (writer), Anand. The travelogues written by S. K. Pottekkatt
Sankarankutty Kunjiraman Pottekkatt (14 March 1913 – 6 August 1982) was an Indian writer of Malayalam literature and a politician from Kerala, India. He was also a great traveller among the Keralites, who wrote many travelogues for the peopl ...
were turning point in the travelogue literature. Prominent literary critics of twentieth century include Kuttikrishna Marar.
In the second half of the 20th century, Jnanpith
The Jnanpith Award is the oldest and the highest Indian literary award presented annually by the Bharatiya Jnanpith to an author for their "outstanding contribution towards literature". Instituted in 1961, the award is bestowed only on Indian w ...
winning poets and writers like G. Sankara Kurup
G. Sankara Kurup, (3 June 1901 – 2 February 1978) also referred to as Mahakavi G (The Great Poet G), was an Indian poet, essayist and literary critic of Malayalam literature. Known as one of the greats of Malayalam poetry, he was the first r ...
, S. K. Pottekkatt
Sankarankutty Kunjiraman Pottekkatt (14 March 1913 – 6 August 1982) was an Indian writer of Malayalam literature and a politician from Kerala, India. He was also a great traveller among the Keralites, who wrote many travelogues for the peopl ...
, Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai
Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai (17 April 1912 – 10 April 1999), popularly known as Thakazhi after his place of birth, was an Indian novelist and short story writer of Malayalam literature. He wrote over 30 novels and novellas and over 7 shor ...
, Edasseri Govindan Nair
Edasseri Govindan Nair ( ml, ഇടശ്ശേരി ഗോവിന്ദൻ നായർ; 23 December 1906 – 16 October 1974) was an Indian poet and playwright of Malayalam literature. Known as one of the major poets of Malayalam, Edasseri ...
, M. T. Vasudevan Nair
Madath Thekkepaattu Vasudevan Nair (born 1933 July 15 ), popularly known as MT, is an Indian author, screenplay writer and film director. He is a prolific and versatile writer in modern Malayalam literature, and is one of the masters of post-I ...
, O. N. V. Kurup
Ottaplakkal Neelakandan Velu Kurup (known as O. N. V. Kurup; 27 May 1931 – 13 February 2016) was a Malayalam poet and lyricist from Kerala, India, who won the Jnanpith Award, the highest literary award in India for the year 2007. He receive ...
, and Akkitham Achuthan Namboothiri
Akkitham Achuthan Namboothiri (18 March 1926 – 15 October 2020), popularly known as Akkitham, was an Indian poet and essayist who wrote in Malayalam. He was known for a simple and lucid style of writing, exploring themes of profound love and ...
, had made valuable contributions to the modern Malayalam literature. Later, writers like O. V. Vijayan, Kamaladas, M. Mukundan, Arundhati Roy
Suzanna Arundhati Roy (born 24 November 1961) is an Indian author best known for her novel ''The God of Small Things'' (1997), which won the Booker Prize for Fiction in 1997 and became the best-selling book by a non-expatriate Indian author. S ...
, Vaikom Muhammed Basheer
Vaikom Muhammad Basheer (21 January 1908 – 5 July 1994), popularly referred to as Beypore Sulthan, was a writer of Malayalam literature. He was a writer, humanist, freedom fighter, novelist and short story writer, noted for his path-breaking, ...
, have gained international recognition. Kerala
Kerala ( ; ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin, Malabar, South ...
has the Indian states ranking by media exposure, highest media exposure in India with newspapers publishing in nine languages, mainly English language, English and Malayalam
Malayalam (; , ) is a Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry (Mahé district) by the Malayali people. It is one of 22 scheduled languages of India. Malayalam was des ...
.
Early prose literature
List of early prose literature in the 19th century.[
]
Allegories
Plays
The writers like Kavalam Narayana Panicker have contributed much to Malayalam drama.
Stories
Novels
Apologues
See also
* Indian literature
* List of Indian poets#Malayalam, List of Malayalam poets
* List of fiction writers in Malayalam
* Malayalam Literary Awards
* Arabi Malayalam
* Bible translations into Malayalam
* Malayalam (Unicode block)
* Malayalam Braille
References
Further reading
*
*
*
External links
Information on Malayalam Literature at Department of Public Relations, Government of Kerala
*
List of malayalam poems and poets
{{DEFAULTSORT:Malayalam Literature
Indian literature
Literature by language
Malayalam-related lists, literature
Malayalam-language literature
Indian literature by language