Cinema of China
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The cinema of China is one of three distinct historical threads of
Chinese-language Chinese (, especially when referring to written Chinese) is a group of languages spoken natively by the ethnic Han Chinese majority and many minority ethnic groups in Greater China. About 1.3 billion people (or approximately 16% of the wor ...
cinema together with the
cinema of Hong Kong The cinema of Hong Kong ( zh, t=香港電影) is one of the three major threads in the history of Chinese language cinema, alongside the cinema of China and the cinema of Taiwan. As a former British colony, Hong Kong had a greater degree of p ...
and the cinema of Taiwan. Cinema was introduced in China in
1896 Events January–March * January 2 – The Jameson Raid comes to an end, as Jameson surrenders to the Boers. * January 4 – Utah is admitted as the 45th U.S. state. * January 5 – An Austrian newspaper reports that ...
and the first Chinese film, '' Dingjun Mountain'', was made in
1905 As the second year of the massive Russo-Japanese War begins, more than 100,000 die in the largest world battles of that era, and the war chaos leads to the 1905 Russian Revolution against Nicholas II of Russia ( Shostakovich's 11th Symphony ...
. In the early decades the film industry was centered on
Shanghai Shanghai (; , , Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ) is one of the four direct-administered municipalities of the People's Republic of China (PRC). The city is located on the southern estuary of the Yangtze River, with the Huangpu River flowin ...
. The 1920s was dominated by small studios and commercial films, especially in the action
wuxia ( ), which literally means "martial heroes", is a genre of Chinese fiction concerning the adventures of martial artists in ancient China. Although is traditionally a form of historical fiction, its popularity has caused it to be adapted ...
genre. The first
sound film A sound film is a motion picture with synchronized sound, or sound technologically coupled to image, as opposed to a silent film. The first known public exhibition of projected sound films took place in Paris in 1900, but decades passed before ...
, '' Sing-Song Girl Red Peony'', using the
sound-on-disc Sound-on-disc is a class of sound film processes using a phonograph or other disc to record or play back sound in sync with a motion picture. Early sound-on-disc systems used a mechanical interlock with the movie projector, while more recent syste ...
technology, was made in
1931 Events January * January 2 – South Dakota native Ernest Lawrence invents the cyclotron, used to accelerate particles to study nuclear physics. * January 4 – German pilot Elly Beinhorn begins her flight to Africa. * January 22 – Sir I ...
. The 1930s, considered the first "Golden Period" of Chinese cinema, saw the advent of the leftist cinematic movement. The dispute between
Nationalists Nationalism is an idea and movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the state. As a movement, nationalism tends to promote the interests of a particular nation (as in a group of people), Smith, Anthony. ''Nationalism: The ...
and
Communists Communism (from Latin la, communis, lit=common, universal, label=none) is a far-left sociopolitical, philosophical, and economic ideology and current within the socialist movement whose goal is the establishment of a communist society, a s ...
was reflected in the films produced. After the
Japanese invasion of China The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) or War of Resistance (Chinese term) was a military conflict that was primarily waged between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan. The war made up the Chinese theater of the wider Pacific Th ...
and the occupation of Shanghai, the industry in the city was severely curtailed, with filmmakers moving to
Hong Kong Hong Kong ( (US) or (UK); , ), officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China (abbr. Hong Kong SAR or HKSAR), is a city and special administrative region of China on the eastern Pearl River Delta i ...
,
Chungking Chongqing ( or ; ; Sichuanese pronunciation: , Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ), alternately romanized as Chungking (), is a municipality in Southwest China. The official abbreviation of the city, "" (), was approved by the State Coun ...
(Chongqing) and other places. A "Solitary Island" period began in Shanghai, where the filmmakers who remained worked in the
foreign concession In international relations, a concession is a " synallagmatic act by which a State transfers the exercise of rights or functions proper to itself to a foreign private test which, in turn, participates in the performance of public functions and th ...
s. ''
Princess Iron Fan Princess Iron Fan () is a character from the 16th century Chinese novel ''Journey to the West''. She is the wife of the Bull Demon King and mother of Red Boy. She is one of the most popular ''Journey to the West'' villains, alongside her husband ...
'' (1941), the first Chinese animated feature film, was released at the end of this period. It influenced wartime Japanese animation and later Osamu Tezuka. After being completely engulfed by the occupation in 1941, and until the end of the war in 1945, the film industry in the city was under Japanese control. After the end of the war, a second golden age took place, with production in Shanghai resuming. ''
Spring in a Small Town ''Spring in a Small Town'' is a 1948 black-and-white Chinese film, written by Li Tianji () and directed by Fei Mu, a director known for his empathetic portrayal of women.Daruvala, S. (2007). The aesthetics and moral politics of Fei Mu's Spring in ...
'' (1948) was named the best Chinese-language film at the
24th Hong Kong Film Awards The 24th Hong Kong Film Awards ceremony was held on 27 March 2005, in the Hong Kong Coliseum and hosted by Carol Cheng and Lawrence Cheng. Twenty-nine winners in nineteen categories were unveiled, with films ''Kung Fu Hustle'' and ''2046'' being th ...
. After the
communist revolution A communist revolution is a proletarian revolution often, but not necessarily, inspired by the ideas of Marxism that aims to replace capitalism with communism. Depending on the type of government, socialism can be used as an intermediate stag ...
in 1949, domestic films that were already released and a selection of foreign films were banned in 1951, marking a tirade of
film censorship in China Film censorship in China involves the banning of films which are deemed unsuitable for release and it also involves the editing of such films and the removal of content which is objected to by the governments of China. In April 2018, films were rev ...
. Despite this, movie attendance increased sharply. During the
Cultural Revolution The Cultural Revolution, formally known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a sociopolitical movement in the People's Republic of China (PRC) launched by Mao Zedong in 1966, and lasting until his death in 1976. Its stated goa ...
, the film industry was severely restricted, coming almost to a standstill from 1967 to 1972. The industry flourished following the end of the Cultural Revolution, including the "scar dramas" of the 1980s, such as ''
Evening Rain ''Evening Rain'' (Chinese: 巴山夜雨) is a 1981 Chinese drama film which reflects the fight between Chinese people and the Gang of Four during the ten years of turmoil in China. It was directed by Wu Yonggang and Wu Yigong with Li Zhiyu, Zhan ...
'' (1980), ''
Legend of Tianyun Mountain ''Legend of Tianyun Mountain'' () is a 1980 Chinese film about Chinese people's sufferings from the long-term political campaigns from "Anti-rightists" in 1950s until the fall of Gang of Four. It depicted the individuals' hardship in the political ...
'' (1980) and ''
Hibiscus Town ''Hibiscus Town'' () is a 1986 Chinese film directed by Xie Jin, based on a novel by the same name written by Gu Hua. The film, a melodrama, follows the life and travails of a young woman who lives through the turmoil of the Cultural Revolution a ...
'' (1986), depicting the emotional traumas left by the period. Starting in the mid to late 1980s, with films such as '' One and Eight'' (1983) and ''
Yellow Earth ''Yellow Earth'' () is a 1984 Chinese drama film. This film is telling a story of a young, village girl who bravely resists old-dated customs and searches for freedom. It was the directorial debut for Chen Kaige. The film's notable cinematogra ...
'' (1984), the rise of the Fifth Generation brought increased popularity to Chinese cinema abroad, especially among Western arthouse audiences. Films like '' Red Sorghum'' (1987), ''
The Story of Qiu Ju ''The Story of Qiu Ju'' () is a 1992 Chinese comedy-drama film. The film was directed by Zhang Yimou and, as in many of his films, stars Gong Li in the title role. The screenplay is an adaption of Chen Yuanbin's (陈源斌) novella ''The Wan Famil ...
'' (1992) and '' Farewell My Concubine'' (1993) won major international awards. The movement partially ended after the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre. The post-1990 period saw the rise of the Sixth Generation and post-Sixth Generation, both mostly making films outside the main Chinese film system which played mostly on the international film festival circuit. Following the international commercial success of films such as '' Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon'' (2000) and ''
Hero A hero (feminine: heroine) is a real person or a main fictional character who, in the face of danger, combats adversity through feats of ingenuity, courage, or strength. Like other formerly gender-specific terms (like ''actor''), ''her ...
'' (2002), the number of co-productions in Chinese-language cinema has increased and there has been a movement of Chinese-language cinema into a domain of large scale international influence. After '' The Dream Factory'' (1997) demonstrated the viability of the commercial model, and with the growth of the Chinese box office in the new millennium, Chinese films have broken box office records and, as of January 2017, 5 of the top 10 highest-grossing films in China are domestic productions. '' Lost in Thailand'' (2012) was the first Chinese film to reach at the Chinese box office. ''
Monster Hunt ''Monster Hunt'' () is a 2015 mainland Chinese-Hong Kong 3D fantasy action comedy adventure film directed by Raman Hui (in his feature directorial debut). The film was released in China on 16 July 2015 in 3D and IMAX 3D. Upon release, it became ...
'' (2015) was the first to reach . '' The Mermaid'' (2016) was the first to . ''
Wolf Warrior 2 ''Wolf Warrior 2'' () is a 2017 Chinese action film co-written, co-produced, and directed by Wu Jing, who also starred in the lead role. The film co-stars Celina Jade, Frank Grillo, Hans Zhang, and Wu Gang. The film is a sequel to 2015's ''Wol ...
'' (2017) beat them out to become the highest-grossing film in China. China is the home of the largest movie and drama production complex and film studios in the world, the
Oriental Movie Metropolis Oriental Movie Metropolis is a major Chinese studio facility, combining film and television production and several other facilities. The Metropolis was funded by Wang Jianlin, one of China's wealthiest men and head of the Dalian Wanda Group, unti ...
and
Hengdian World Studios Hengdian World Studios () is a film studio located in Hengdian, a Chinese town in the city of Dongyang, Zhejiang Province. It is one of the largest film studios in the world. The movie studio is operated by the privately owned Hengdian Group fo ...
, and in 2010 it had the third largest film industry by number of feature films produced annually. In 2012 the country became the second-largest market in the world by box office receipts. In 2016, the gross box office in China was (). The country has the largest number of screens in the world since 2016, and is expected to become the largest theatrical market by 2019. China has also become a major hub of business for Hollywood studios. In November 2016, China passed a film law banning content deemed harmful to the "dignity, honor and interests" of the People's Republic and encouraging the promotion of "socialist core values", approved by the National People's Congress Standing Committee. Due to industry regulations, films are typically allowed to stay in theaters for one month. However, studios may apply to regulators to have the limit extended. In recent years, Chinese audiences have been increasingly interested in hinese language filmsproduced domestically. Production values in domestic films have been rising. According to the research firm Ampere Analysis, domestic films accounted for 85% of China's box office in 2020. Aynne Kokas, a media studies professor at the University of Virginia and author of the book "Hollywood Made in China" stated that, "There are Chinese blockbusters that Chinese filmmakers are making that people want to watch, and they feel less derivative than those made in Hollywood." The high box office earnings of 2021 Chinese films like " Hi, Mom" and "
The Battle at Lake Changjin ''The Battle at Lake Changjin'' () is a 2021 Chinese war film co-directed and co-produced by Chen Kaige, Tsui Hark and Dante Lam, written by Lan Xiaolong and Huang Jianxin, and starring Wu Jing and Jackson Yee. It was commissioned by the ...
" has indicated that the Chinese domestic film industry has reached self-reliance and doesn't need international audience appeal to produce commercially successful films. Recent patriotic films have been labelled as propaganda films by western mainstream media. However
Richard Peña Richard Peña (born 1953) is a Professor of Professional Practice at the Columbia University School of The Arts. He was formerly program director of the Film Society of Lincoln Center (organizers of the New York Film Festival and the New Direc ...
, a lecturer at
Columbia University Columbia University (also known as Columbia, and officially as Columbia University in the City of New York) is a private research university in New York City. Established in 1754 as King's College on the grounds of Trinity Church in Manhatt ...
's School of the Arts in New York told VOA in regards to the claim of "propaganda" label that it was more a matter of perspective of "the beholder". Ian Huffer, Senior Lecturer in Media Studies at Massey University, added that "Most recent Chinese blockbusters that have been characterised as propaganda by Western journalism are really more like those Hollywood films over the years that have used military conflicts to evoke jingoist feeling or that show the US saving the world from global catastrophe".


Beginnings

Motion pictures A film also called a movie, motion picture, moving picture, picture, photoplay or (slang) flick is a work of visual art that simulates experiences and otherwise communicates ideas, stories, perceptions, feelings, beauty, or atmosphere ...
were introduced to China in 1896. China was one of the earliest countries to be exposed to the medium of film, due to Louis Lumière sending his cameraman to Shanghai a year after inventing
cinematography Cinematography (from ancient Greek κίνημα, ''kìnema'' "movement" and γράφειν, ''gràphein'' "to write") is the art of motion picture (and more recently, electronic video camera) photography. Cinematographers use a lens to foc ...
. The first recorded screening of a motion picture in China took place in
Shanghai Shanghai (; , , Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ) is one of the four direct-administered municipalities of the People's Republic of China (PRC). The city is located on the southern estuary of the Yangtze River, with the Huangpu River flowin ...
on 11 August 1896, as an "act" on a variety bill. The first Chinese film, a recording of the
Peking opera Peking opera, or Beijing opera (), is the most dominant form of Chinese opera, which combines music, vocal performance, mime, dance and acrobatics. It arose in Beijing in the mid-Qing dynasty (1644–1912) and became fully developed and recognize ...
, '' Dingjun Mountain'', was made in November 1905 in
Beijing } Beijing ( ; ; ), alternatively romanized as Peking ( ), is the capital of the People's Republic of China. It is the center of power and development of the country. Beijing is the world's most populous national capital city, with over 21 ...
. For the next decade the production companies were mainly foreign-owned, and the domestic film industry was centered on Shanghai, a thriving entrepot and the largest city in the
Far East The ''Far East'' was a European term to refer to the geographical regions that includes East and Southeast Asia as well as the Russian Far East to a lesser extent. South Asia is sometimes also included for economic and cultural reasons. The ter ...
. In 1913, the first independent Chinese screenplay, ''
The Difficult Couple ''The Difficult Couple'' (), also translated as ''Die for Marriage'', is a 1913 Chinese film. It is known for being the earliest Chinese feature film. Although it had a dialogue of only a little more than 1,000 characters, it was the first Chines ...
'', was filmed in Shanghai by
Zheng Zhengqiu Zheng Zhengqiu (; January 25, 1889 – July 16, 1935) was a Chinese filmmaker often considered a "founding father" of Chinese cinema.Zhang, Yingjin & Xiao, Zhiwei (1998). "Zheng Zhengqiu" in ''Encyclopedia of Chinese Film''. Taylor & Francis, pp ...
and
Zhang Shichuan Zhang Shichuan (; 1889–1953 or 1890–1954), also credited as S. C. Chang, was a Chinese entrepreneur, film director, and film producer, who is considered a founding father of Chinese cinema. He and Zheng Zhengqiu made the first Chinese featur ...
. Zhang Shichuan then set up the first Chinese-owned film production company in 1916. The first full-length feature film was ''Yan Ruisheng'' ( 閻瑞生) released in 1921. which was a docudrama about the killing of a Shanghai courtesan, although it was too crude a film to ever be considered commercially successful. During the 1920s film technicians from the United States trained Chinese technicians in Shanghai, and American influence continued to be felt there for the next two decades. Since film was still in its earliest stages of development, most Chinese silent films at this time were only comic skits or operatic shorts, and training was minimal at a technical aspect due to this being a period of experimental film. Later, after trial and error, China was able to draw inspiration from its own traditional values and began producing martial arts films, with the first being '' Burning of Red Lotus Temple'' (1928). ''Burning of Red Lotus Temple'' was so successful at the box office, the Star Motion Pictures (Mingxing) production later filmed 18 sequels, marking the beginning of China's esteemed martial arts films. Many imitators followed, including U. Lien (Youlian) Studio's ''Red Heroine'' (1929), which is still extant. It was during this period that some of the more important production companies first came into being, notably
Mingxing Mingxing Film Company (), also known as the Star Motion Picture Company, was one of the largest production company, production companies during the 1920s, and 1930s in the Republic of China (1912–49), Republican era. Founded in Shanghai, the co ...
and the Shaw brothers' Tianyi ("Unique"). Mingxing, founded by Zheng Zhengqiu and Zhang Shichuan in 1922, initially focused on comic shorts, including the oldest surviving complete Chinese film, ''
Laborer's Love ''Laborer's Love'' () is a classic silent comedy short film produced in China during the Republican Era, which officially premiered on October 5, 1922 at the Olympic Theater in Shanghai. It is also known as ''Romance of a Fruit Peddler'' or ''R ...
'' (1922). This soon shifted, however, to feature-length films and family dramas including '' Orphan Rescues Grandfather'' (1923). Meanwhile, Tianyi shifted their model towards folklore dramas, and also pushed into foreign markets; their film '' White Snake'' (1926) proved a typical example of their success in the Chinese communities of Southeast Asia. In 1931, the first Chinese
sound film A sound film is a motion picture with synchronized sound, or sound technologically coupled to image, as opposed to a silent film. The first known public exhibition of projected sound films took place in Paris in 1900, but decades passed before ...
''Sing-Song Girl Red Peony'' was made, the product of a cooperation between the Mingxing Film Company's image production and
Pathé Frères Pathé or Pathé Frères (, styled as PATHÉ!) is the name of various French businesses that were founded and originally run by the Pathé Brothers of France starting in 1896. In the early 1900s, Pathé became the world's largest film equipme ...
's sound technology. However, the sound was disc-recorded, which was then played in the theatre in-sync with the action on the screen. The first
sound-on-film Sound-on-film is a class of sound film processes where the sound accompanying a picture is recorded on photographic film, usually, but not always, the same strip of film carrying the picture. Sound-on-film processes can either record an analog ...
talkie A sound film is a motion picture with synchronized sound, or sound technologically coupled to image, as opposed to a silent film. The first known public exhibition of projected sound films took place in Paris in 1900, but decades passed before ...
made in China was either ''Spring on Stage'' (歌場春色) by Tianyi, or ''Clear Sky After Storm'' by Great China Studio and Jinan Studio. Musical films, such as '' Song at Midnight'' (1937) and ''Street Angels'' (1937), starring Zhou Xuan, became one of the most popular film genres in China.


Leftist movement

However, the first truly important Chinese films were produced beginning in the 1930s, with the advent of the "progressive" or "left-wing" movement, like
Cheng Bugao Cheng Bugao (1898–20 June 1966) () was a prominent Chinese film director during the 1930s. Employed by the Mingxing Film Company, Cheng was responsible for several important "leftist" films in the period, including the ''Wild Torrents'' (1933) ...
's '' Spring Silkworms'' (1933),
Wu Yonggang Wu Yonggang (November 1, 1907 – December 18, 1982) was a prominent Chinese film director during the 1930s. Today Wu is best known for his directorial debut, '' The Goddess''. Wu had a long career with the Lianhua Film Company in the 1930s, in ...
's '' The Goddess'' (1934), and Sun Yu's ''The Great Road'', also known as ''
The Big Road ''The'' () is a grammatical article in English, denoting persons or things already mentioned, under discussion, implied or otherwise presumed familiar to listeners, readers, or speakers. It is the definite article in English. ''The'' is the ...
'' (1934). These films were noted for their emphasis on class struggle and external threats (i.e. Japanese aggression), as well as on their focus on common people, such as a family of silk farmers in ''Spring Silkworms'' and a prostitute in ''The Goddess''. In part due to the success of these kinds of films, this post-1930 era is now often referred to as the first "golden period" of Chinese cinema. The Leftist cinematic movement often revolved around the Western-influenced Shanghai, where filmmakers portrayed the struggling lower class of an overpopulated city. Three
production companies A production company, production house, production studio, or a production team is a studio that creates works in the fields of performing arts, new media art, film, television, radio, comics, interactive arts, video games, websites, music, an ...
dominated the market in the early to mid- 1930s: the newly formed Lianhua ("United China"), the older and larger Mingxing and Tianyi. Both Mingxing and Lianhua leaned left (Lianhua's management perhaps more so), while Tianyi continued to make less socially conscious fare. The period also produced the first big Chinese movie stars, such as
Hu Die Hu Die (; 1907 or 1908 – April 23, 1989), also known by her English name Butterfly Wu, was a Chinese actress during the 1920s and 1930s. Like many artistes and writers, she was persecuted during the Cultural Revolution. Biography Early ...
,
Ruan Lingyu Ruan Lingyu (born Ruan Fenggen; April 26, 1910 – March 8, 1935), also known by her English name Lily Yuen, was a Chinese silent film actress. One of the most prominent Chinese film stars of the 1930s, her exceptional acting ability and suicid ...
,
Li Lili Li Lili (; 2 June 1915 – 7 August 2005) was a Chinese film actress and singer. Her films '' Playthings'', '' The Great Road'' and ''Storm on the Border'' were blockbusters of the 1930s and 1940s.Elaine DuanTop 10 legendary Chinese women in th ...
,
Chen Yanyan Chen Yanyan (; 12 January 1916 – 7 May 1999), born Chen Jianyan, was a Chinese actress and film producer in the cinema of Republic of China (1912–1949), British Hong Kong and Taiwan. Life Chen was born as Chen Jianyan in Ningbo, China in 19 ...
,
Zhou Xuan Zhou Xuan (; born Su Pu (); August 1, 1920 – September 22, 1957), also romanized as Chow Hsuan, was an iconic Chinese singer and film actress. By the 1940s, she had become one of China's Seven Great Singing Stars. She was the best known o ...
,
Zhao Dan Zhao Dan (June 27, 1915 – October 10, 1980) was a Chinese actor popular in the golden age of Chinese Cinema. Biography Zhao first became famous working in the Mingxing Film Company in the 1930s including playing opposite Zhou Xuan in '' St ...
and
Jin Yan Jin Yan (; April 7, 1910 – December 27, 1983), also known by his English name Raymond King, was a Korean-born Chinese actor who gained fame during China's golden age of cinema, based in Shanghai. His acting talents and good looks gained hi ...
. Other major films of the period include '' Love and Duty'' (1931), ''
Little Toys ''Playthings'' (), also known as ''Little Toys'', is a 1933 silent film directed by filmmaker Sun Yu. It is one of two films Sun Yu directed in 1933 (the other being '' Daybreak''). The film stars popular Chinese actress Ruan Lingyu, and was pro ...
'' (1933), ''
New Women ''New Women'' () is a 1935 Chinese silent drama film produced by the United Photoplay Service. It is sometimes translated as ''New Woman''. The film starred Ruan Lingyu (in her penultimate film) and was directed by Cai Chusheng. This film became ...
'' (1934), '' Song of the Fishermen'' (1934), ''
Plunder of Peach and Plum ''Plunder of Peach and Plum'' () is an early Chinese sound film from 1934. Produced by the left-leaning Shanghai-based Diantong Film Company, ''Plunder'' was directed by Ying Yunwei and starred popular actor Yuan Muzhi (who also co-wrote the scree ...
'' (1934), ''
Crossroads Crossroads, crossroad, cross road or similar may refer to: * Crossroads (junction), where four roads meet Film and television Films * ''Crossroads'' (1928 film), a 1928 Japanese film by Teinosuke Kinugasa * ''Cross Roads'' (film), a 1930 Brit ...
'' (1937), and '' Street Angel'' (1937). Throughout the 1930s, the
Nationalists Nationalism is an idea and movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the state. As a movement, nationalism tends to promote the interests of a particular nation (as in a group of people), Smith, Anthony. ''Nationalism: The ...
and the
Communists Communism (from Latin la, communis, lit=common, universal, label=none) is a far-left sociopolitical, philosophical, and economic ideology and current within the socialist movement whose goal is the establishment of a communist society, a s ...
struggled for power and control over the major studios; their influence can be seen in the films the studios produced during this period.


Japanese occupation and World War II

The
Japanese invasion of China The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) or War of Resistance (Chinese term) was a military conflict that was primarily waged between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan. The war made up the Chinese theater of the wider Pacific Th ...
in 1937, in particular the
Battle of Shanghai The Battle of Shanghai () was the first of the twenty-two major engagements fought between the National Revolutionary Army (NRA) of the Republic of China (ROC) and the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) of the Empire of Japan at the beginning of th ...
, ended this golden run in Chinese cinema. All production companies except
Xinhua Film Company The Xinhua or New China Film Company (), was one of the film studios to capitalize on the popularity of the leftist film movement in 1930s Shanghai, that had begun with the Mingxing and Lianhua studios. It is not related to the modern-day Xinhua Ne ...
("New China") closed shop, and many of the filmmakers fled Shanghai, relocating to Hong Kong, the wartime Nationalist capital
Chongqing Chongqing ( or ; ; Sichuanese dialects, Sichuanese pronunciation: , Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ), Postal Romanization, alternately romanized as Chungking (), is a Direct-administered municipalities of China, municipality in Southwes ...
, and elsewhere. The Shanghai film industry, though severely curtailed, did not stop however, thus leading to the "
Solitary Island Solitary is the state of being alone or in solitude. The term may refer to: * shortened form of solitary confinement * Solitary animal, an animal that does not live with others in its species * Solitary but social, a type of social organization ...
" period (also known as the "Sole Island" or "Orphan Island"), with Shanghai's foreign concessions serving as an "island" of production in the "sea" of Japanese-occupied territory. It was during this period that artists and directors who remained in the city had to walk a fine line between staying true to their leftist and nationalist beliefs and Japanese pressures. Director
Bu Wancang Bu Wancang (July 1, 1900 – December 30, 1973), also known by his English name Richard Poh, was a prolific Chinese film director and screenwriter active between the 1920s and the 1960s. He was born in Anhui. Career Originally a member of the ...
's ''Hua Mu Lan'', also known as '' Mulan Joins the Army'' (1939), with its story of a young Chinese peasant fighting against a foreign invasion, was a particularly good example of Shanghai's continued film-production in the midst of war. This period ended when Japan declared war on the Western allies on 7 December 1941; the solitary island was finally engulfed by the sea of the Japanese occupation. With the Shanghai industry firmly in Japanese control, films like the
Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere The , also known as the GEACPS, was a concept that was developed in the Empire of Japan and propagated to Asian populations which were occupied by it from 1931 to 1945, and which officially aimed at creating a self-sufficient bloc of Asian peo ...
-promoting ''
Eternity Eternity, in common parlance, means Infinity, infinite time that never ends or the quality, condition, or fact of being everlasting or eternal. Classical philosophy, however, defines eternity as what is timeless or exists outside time, whereas ...
'' (1943) were produced. At the end of
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
, one of the most controversial Japanese-authorized companies,
Manchukuo Film Association or (Chinese: 株式會社滿洲映畫協會) was a Japanese film studio in Manchukuo during the 1930s and 1940s. Background Man'ei was established by the Kwantung Army in the occupied northeast part of China in 1937. Man'ei controlled the en ...
, would be separated and integrated into Chinese cinema.


Second golden age

The film industry continued to develop after 1945. Production in Shanghai once again resumed as a new crop of studios took the place that Lianhua and Mingxing studios had occupied in the previous decade. In 1945,
Cai Chusheng Cai Chusheng (January 12, 1906 – July 15, 1968) was a Chinese film director of the pre-Communist era, and was the first Chinese director to win an international film award at the Moscow International Film Festival. Best known for his progres ...
returned to Shanghai to revive the Lianhua name as the "Lianhua Film Society with Shi Dongshan, Meng Junmou and Zheng Junli." This in turn became Kunlun Studios which would go on to become one of the most important studios of the era, (Kunlun Studios merged with seven other studios to form Shanghai film studio in 1949) putting out the classics ''
The Spring River Flows East ''The Spring River Flows East'', also translated as ''The Tears of Yangtze'', is a 1947 epic Chinese film written and directed by Cai Chusheng and Zheng Junli and produced by the Kunlun Film Company. It is considered one of the most influential a ...
'' (1947), '' Myriad of Lights'' (1948), ''
Crows and Sparrows ''Crows and Sparrows'' () is a 1949 Chinese film made by the left-leaning Kunlun Studios on the eve of the Communist victory, directed by Zheng Junli and scripted by Chen Baichen. Notable for its extremely critical view of corrupt Nationalist burea ...
'' (1949) and ''Wanderings of Three-Hairs the Orphan'', also known as '' San Mao, The Little Vagabond'' (1949). Many of these films showed the disillusionment with the oppressive rule of
Chiang Kai-shek Chiang Kai-shek (31 October 1887 – 5 April 1975), also known as Chiang Chung-cheng and Jiang Jieshi, was a Chinese Nationalist politician, revolutionary, and military leader who served as the leader of the Republic of China (ROC) from 1928 ...
's Nationalist Party and the struggling oppression of nation by war. ''The Spring River Flows East'', a three-hour-long two-parter directed by Cai Chusheng and
Zheng Junli Zheng Junli (December 6, 1911 – April 23, 1969) was a Chinese actor and director born in Shanghai and who rose to prominence in the golden age of Chinese Cinema. His films ''The Spring River Flows East'' and ''Crows and Sparrows'' are widely c ...
, was a particularly strong success. Its depiction of the struggles of ordinary Chinese during the Second Sino-Japanese war, replete with biting social and political commentary, struck a chord with audiences of the time. Meanwhile, companies like the
Wenhua Film Company The Wenhua Film Company () was a Chinese major privately owned film production company headquartered in Shanghai, China. It was founded in 1946 and defunct in 1952 of the immediate post-war period in China.Zhang, p. 101. History The film company ...
("Culture Films"), moved away from the leftist tradition and explored the evolution and development of other dramatic genres. Wenhua treated postwar problems in universalistic and humanistic ways, avoiding the family narrative and melodramatic formulae. Excellent examples of Wenhua's fare are its first two postwar features, '' Unending Emotions'' (1947) and '' Fake Bride, Phony Bridegroom'' (1947). Another memorable Wenhua film is ''
Long Live the Missus ''Long Live the Missus!'' ( zh, t=太太萬歲, s=太太万岁, first=t; pinyin: Tàitai Wànsuì) is a 1947 Chinese comedy film known as one of the best comedies of the civil war era. The film was directed by Sang Hu ( 桑弧) with a screenplay wr ...
'' (1947), like ''Unending Emotions'' with an original screenplay by writer
Eileen Chang Eileen Chang ( zh, t=張愛玲, s=张爱玲, first=t, w=Chang1 Ai4-ling2, p=Zhāng Àilíng;September 30, 1920 – September 8, 1995), also known as Chang Ai-ling or Zhang Ailing, or by her pen name Liang Jing (梁京), was a Chinese-born A ...
. Wenhua's romantic drama ''
Spring in a Small Town ''Spring in a Small Town'' is a 1948 black-and-white Chinese film, written by Li Tianji () and directed by Fei Mu, a director known for his empathetic portrayal of women.Daruvala, S. (2007). The aesthetics and moral politics of Fei Mu's Spring in ...
'' (1948), a film by director
Fei Mu Fei Mu (October 10, 1906 — January 31, 1951), also romanised as Fey Mou, was a Cinema of China, Chinese film director of the pre-Communist era. His ''Spring in a Small Town'' (1948) was declared the greatest Chinese film ever made by the Hong ...
shortly prior to the revolution, is often regarded by Chinese film critics as one of the most important films in the history of Chinese cinema, in 2005, Hong Kong film awards it as the best 100 years of film. Ironically, it was precisely its artistic quality and apparent lack of "political grounding" that led to its labeling by the
Communists Communism (from Latin la, communis, lit=common, universal, label=none) is a far-left sociopolitical, philosophical, and economic ideology and current within the socialist movement whose goal is the establishment of a communist society, a s ...
as rightist or reactionary, and the film was quickly forgotten by those on the mainland following the Communist victory in China in 1949. However, with the China Film Archive's re-opening after the Cultural Revolution, a new print was struck from the original negative, allowing ''Spring of the Small Town'' to find a new and admiring audience and to influence an entire new generation of filmmakers. Indeed, an acclaimed
remake A remake is a film, television series, video game, song or similar form of entertainment that is based upon and retells the story of an earlier production in the same medium—e.g., a "new version of an existing film". A remake tells the same ...
was made in 2002 by
Tian Zhuangzhuang Tian Zhuangzhuang (; born April 1952 in Beijing) is a Chinese film director, producer and actor. Tian was born to an influential actor and actress in China. Following a short stint in the military, Tian began his artistic career first as an am ...
. A Chinese Peking opera film, ''
A Wedding in the Dream ''A Wedding in the Dream'' () is a 1948 Chinese Peking opera film directed by Fei Mu and generally considered China's first color film.Zhang, p. 101 It starred and was co-written by Mei Lanfang Mei Lan (22 October 1894 – 8 August 1961), ...
'' (1948), by the same director (Fei Mu), was the first Chinese
color film Color photography is photography that uses media capable of capturing and reproducing colors. By contrast, black-and-white or gray-monochrome photography records only a single channel of luminance (brightness) and uses media capable only of ...
.


Early Communist era

With the communist revolution in China in 1949, the government saw motion pictures as an important mass production art form and tool for
propaganda Propaganda is communication that is primarily used to influence or persuade an audience to further an agenda, which may not be objective and may be selectively presenting facts to encourage a particular synthesis or perception, or using loaded ...
. Starting from 1951, pre-1949 Chinese films,
Hollywood Hollywood usually refers to: * Hollywood, Los Angeles, a neighborhood in California * Hollywood, a metonym for the cinema of the United States Hollywood may also refer to: Places United States * Hollywood District (disambiguation) * Hollywood, ...
and Hong Kong productions were banned as the
Chinese Communist Party The Chinese Communist Party (CCP), officially the Communist Party of China (CPC), is the founding and One-party state, sole ruling party of the China, People's Republic of China (PRC). Under the leadership of Mao Zedong, the CCP emerged victoriou ...
sought to tighten control over mass media, producing instead movies centering on peasants, soldiers and workers, such as ''
Bridge A bridge is a structure built to span a physical obstacle (such as a body of water, valley, road, or rail) without blocking the way underneath. It is constructed for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle, which is usually somethi ...
'' (1949) and ''
The White Haired Girl ''The White-Haired Girl'' () is a Chinese opera, ballet, (later adapted to Beijing Opera and a film) by Yan Jinxuan to a Chinese libretto by He Jingzhi and Ding Yi. The folklore of the white-haired girl is believed to have spread widely in the are ...
'' (1950).Yau, Esther. "China After the Revolution", in ''The Oxford History of World Cinema'', edited by Geoffrey Nowell-Smith (1997). Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 694. One of the production bases in the middle of all the transition was the
Changchun Film Studio Changchun Film Studio Group Corporation () is a Chinese film production company in Changchun. It is one of the studios transitioned from the 1940s, and has been considered one of the cornerstones of the Chinese film industry. Early history The ...
. The private studios in Shanghai, including Kunming, Wenhua, Guotai and Datong, were encouraged to make new films from 1949 to 1951. They made approximately 47 films during this period, but soon ran into trouble, owing to the furore over the Kunlun-produced drama ''
The Life of Wu Xun ''The Life of Wu Xun'' () is a 1950 Chinese film directed by Sun Yu and starring Zhao Dan. A black and white movie, it was produced by Kunlun Film Studio. It deals with a true story of a figure in Chinese history, Wu Xun, who spent years collecti ...
'' (1950), directed by Sun Yu and starring veteran Zhao Dan. The feature was accused in an anonymous article in ''
People's Daily The ''People's Daily'' () is the official newspaper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The newspaper provides direct information on the policies and viewpoints of the CCP. In addition to its main Chinese-language ...
'' in May 1951 of spreading feudal ideas. After the article was revealed to be penned by
Mao Zedong Mao Zedong pronounced ; also romanised traditionally as Mao Tse-tung. (26 December 1893 – 9 September 1976), also known as Chairman Mao, was a Chinese communist revolutionary who was the founder of the People's Republic of China (PRC) ...
, the film was banned, a Film Steering Committee was formed to "re-educate" the film industry and within two years, these private studios were all incorporated into the state-run
Shanghai Film Studio The Shanghai Film Studio (), one of the three biggest film studios in China, is the film division of the Shanghai Film Group Corporation in Shanghai, China. It is responsible for the production of Chinese films and TV programs. History Shangha ...
.Ward, Julian. "The Remodelling of a National Cinema: Chinese Films of the Seventeen Years (1949–66)", in ''The Chinese Cinema Book'', edited by Song Hwee Lim and Julian Ward (2011). BFI: Palgrave Macmillan, p. 88. The Communist regime solved the problem of a lack of film theaters by building mobile projection units which could tour the remote regions of China, ensuring that even the poorest could have access to films. By 1965 there were around 20,393 such units. The number of movie-viewers hence increased sharply, partly bolstered by the fact that film tickets were given out to work units and attendance was compulsory, with admissions rising from 47 million in 1949 to 4.15 billion in 1959. In the 17 years between the founding of the
People's Republic of China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
and the
Cultural Revolution The Cultural Revolution, formally known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a sociopolitical movement in the People's Republic of China (PRC) launched by Mao Zedong in 1966, and lasting until his death in 1976. Its stated goa ...
, 603 feature films and 8,342 reels of documentaries and
newsreel A newsreel is a form of short documentary film, containing news stories and items of topical interest, that was prevalent between the 1910s and the mid 1970s. Typically presented in a cinema, newsreels were a source of current affairs, informa ...
s were produced, sponsored mostly as Communist propaganda by the government. For example, in '' Guerrilla on the Railroad'' (铁道游击队), dated 1956, the Chinese Communist Party was depicted as the primary resistance force against the Japanese in the war against invasion. Chinese filmmakers were sent to
Moscow Moscow ( , US chiefly ; rus, links=no, Москва, r=Moskva, p=mɐskˈva, a=Москва.ogg) is the capital and largest city of Russia. The city stands on the Moskva River in Central Russia, with a population estimated at 13.0 million ...
to study the
Soviet The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, ...
socialist realism Socialist realism is a style of idealized realistic art that was developed in the Soviet Union and was the official style in that country between 1932 and 1988, as well as in other socialist countries after World War II. Socialist realism is ch ...
style of filmmaking. The Beijing Film Academy established in 1950 and in 1956, the
Beijing Film Academy Beijing Film Academy (BFA; ) is a coeducational state-run higher education institution in Beijing, China. The film school is the largest institution specializing in the tertiary education for film and television production in Asia. The academy h ...
was officially opened. One important film of this era is '' This Life of Mine'' (1950), directed by Shi Hu, which follows an old beggar reflecting on his past life as a policeman working for the various regimes since 1911. The first
widescreen Widescreen images are displayed within a set of aspect ratios (relationship of image width to height) used in film, television and computer screens. In film, a widescreen film is any film image with a width-to-height aspect ratio greater than t ...
Chinese film was produced in 1960.
Animated films Animation is a method by which still figures are manipulated to appear as moving images. In traditional animation, images are drawn or painted by hand on transparent celluloid sheets to be photographed and exhibited on film. Today, most ani ...
using a variety of
folk arts Folk and traditional arts are rooted in and reflective of the cultural life of a community. They encompass the body of expressive culture associated with the fields of folklore and cultural heritage. Material culture, Tangible folk art includes ob ...
, such as papercuts, shadow plays,
puppetry Puppetry is a form of theatre or performance that involves the manipulation of puppets – inanimate objects, often resembling some type of human or animal figure, that are animated or manipulated by a human called a puppeteer. Such a perform ...
, and traditional paintings, also were very popular for entertaining and educating children. The most famous of these, the classic ''
Havoc in Heaven ''Havoc in Heaven'', also translated as ''Uproar in Heaven'', is a Chinese donghua feature film directed by Wan Laiming and produced by all four of the Wan brothers. The film was created at the height of the Chinese animation industry in the 196 ...
'' (two parts, 1961, 4), was made by
Wan Laiming Wan Laiming (; 18 January 1900 – 7 October 1997) was born in Nanjing, Qing dynasty. He was one of the Wan brothers who pioneered the Chinese animation industry, and is commonly considered as China's first animator. As the director of the Sha ...
of the
Wan Brothers The Wan Brothers () were born in the early 20th century in Nanjing, China. They became the founders and pioneers of the Chinese animation industry and made the first Asian animation feature-length film, ''Princess Iron Fan'' in 1941. Background ...
and won Outstanding Film award at the
London International Film Festival The BFI London Film Festival is an annual film festival founded in 1957 and held in the United Kingdom, running for two weeks in October with co-operation from the British Film Institute. It screens more than 300 films, documentaries and shor ...
. The thawing of censorship in 1956–57 (known as the
Hundred Flowers Campaign The Hundred Flowers Campaign, also termed the Hundred Flowers Movement (), was a period from 1956 to 1957 in the People's Republic of China during which the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) encouraged citizens to openly express their opinions of t ...
) and the early 1960s led to more indigenous Chinese films being made which were less reliant on their Soviet counterparts. During this campaign the sharpest criticisms came from the satirical comedies of
Lü Ban Lü Ban (; 1913–1976), born Hao Enxing (), was a Chinese actor, comedian and film director, and a member of the Chinese Communist Party. He was the author of the first Chinese satirical comedy film in 1956. His career ended a year later when he ...
. ''
Before the New Director Arrives Before is the opposite of after, and may refer to: * ''Before'' (Gold Panda EP), 2009 * ''Before'' (James Blake EP), 2020 * "Before" (song), a 1996 song by the Pet Shop Boys * "Before", a song by the Empire of the Sun from ''Two Vines'' * "Befo ...
'' exposes the hierarchical relationships occurring between the cadres, while his next film, '' The Unfinished Comedy'' (1957), was labelled as a "poisonous weed" during the
Anti-Rightist Movement The Anti-Rightist Campaign () in the People's Republic of China, which lasted from 1957 to roughly 1959, was a political campaign to purge alleged "Rightists" within the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the country as a whole. The campaign was l ...
and Lü was banned from directing for life.''The Unfinished Comedy'' was only screened after Mao's death. Other noteworthy films produced during this period were adaptations of literary classics, such as Sang Hu's '' The New Year's Sacrifice'' (1956; adapted from a
Lu Xun Zhou Shuren (25 September 1881 – 19 October 1936), better known by his pen name Lu Xun (or Lu Sun; ; Wade–Giles: Lu Hsün), was a Chinese writer, essayist, poet, and literary critic. He was a leading figure of modern Chinese literature. W ...
story) and
Shui Hua Shui Hua () (November 23, 1916 – December 16, 1995), born Zhang Yufan,Zhang, Yingjin & Xiao, Zhiwei (1998). "Shui Hua" in ''Encyclopedia of Chinese Film''. Taylor & Francis, p. 305. . was a Chinese film director who gained prominence in the 1950 ...
's '' The Lin Family Shop'' (1959; adapted from a
Mao Dun Shen Dehong (Shen Yanbing; 4 July 1896 – 27 March 1981), known by the pen name of Mao Dun, was a Chinese essayist, journalist, novelist, and playwright. Mao Dun, as a 20th-century Chinese novelist, literary and cultural critic, and Minis ...
story). The most prominent filmmaker of this era was
Xie Jin Xie Jin (; 21 November 1923 – 18 October 2008) was a Chinese film director. He rose to prominence in 1957, directing the film '' Woman Basketball Player No. 5'', and is considered one of the Third Generation directors of China. Most recently h ...
, whose three films in particular, '' Woman Basketball Player No. 5'' (1957), '' The Red Detachment of Women'' (1961) and ''
Two Stage Sisters Two Stage Sisters is a 1964 Chinese drama film produced by Shanghai Tianma Film Studio and directed by Xie Jin, starring Xie Fang and Cao Yindi. Made just before the Cultural Revolution, it tells the story of two female Yue opera practitioners f ...
'' (1964), exemplify China's increased expertise at filmmaking during this time. Films made during this period are polished and exhibit high production value and elaborate sets. While
Beijing } Beijing ( ; ; ), alternatively romanized as Peking ( ), is the capital of the People's Republic of China. It is the center of power and development of the country. Beijing is the world's most populous national capital city, with over 21 ...
and Shanghai remained the main centers of production, between 1957–60 the government built regional studios in
Guangzhou Guangzhou (, ; ; or ; ), also known as Canton () and alternatively romanized as Kwongchow or Kwangchow, is the capital and largest city of Guangdong province in southern China. Located on the Pearl River about north-northwest of Hong Kon ...
,
Xi'an Xi'an ( , ; ; Chinese: ), frequently spelled as Xian and also known by #Name, other names, is the list of capitals in China, capital of Shaanxi, Shaanxi Province. A Sub-provincial division#Sub-provincial municipalities, sub-provincial city o ...
and
Chengdu Chengdu (, ; Simplified Chinese characters, simplified Chinese: 成都; pinyin: ''Chéngdū''; Sichuanese dialects, Sichuanese pronunciation: , Standard Chinese pronunciation: ), Chinese postal romanization, alternatively Romanization of Chi ...
to encourage representations of ethnic minorities in films. Chinese cinema began to directly address the issue of such ethnic minorities during the late 1950s and early 1960s, in films like ''
Five Golden Flowers ''Five Golden Flowers'' ( Chinese: 五朶金花; pinyin: ''Wǔ duo jīnhuā'') is a 1959 Chinese romantic musical film directed by Wang Jiayi and produced by Changchun Film Studio. The screenplay was written by Zhao Jikang and Wang Gongpu. Set in ...
'' (1959), '' Third Sister Liu'' (1960), ''
Serfs Serfdom was the status of many peasants under feudalism, specifically relating to manorialism, and similar systems. It was a condition of debt bondage and indentured servitude with similarities to and differences from slavery, which developed ...
'' (1963), ''
Ashima Ashima (; la, Asima) is an ancient Semitic goddess. Ancient Middle East Asima was a West Semitic goddess of fate related to the Akkadian goddess Shimti ("fate"), who was a goddess in her own right but also a title of other goddesses such as ...
'' (1964).


Films of the Cultural Revolution

During the
Cultural Revolution The Cultural Revolution, formally known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a sociopolitical movement in the People's Republic of China (PRC) launched by Mao Zedong in 1966, and lasting until his death in 1976. Its stated goa ...
, the film industry was severely restricted. Almost all previous films were banned, and only a few new ones were produced, the so-called "revolutionary model operas". The most notable of these was a
ballet Ballet () is a type of performance dance that originated during the Italian Renaissance in the fifteenth century and later developed into a concert dance form in France and Russia. It has since become a widespread and highly technical form of ...
version of the revolutionary opera '' The Red Detachment of Women'', directed by Pan Wenzhan and Fu Jie in 1970. Feature film production came almost to a standstill in the early years from 1967 to 1972. Movie production revived after 1972 under the strict jurisdiction of the
Gang of Four The Gang of Four () was a Maoist political faction composed of four Chinese Communist Party (CCP) officials. They came to prominence during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) and were later charged with a series of treasonous crimes. The gang ...
until 1976, when they were overthrown. The few films that were produced during this period, such as 1975's ''
Breaking with Old Ideas ''Breaking with Old Ideas'' is a 1975 Chinese film directed by Li Wenhua. The film is one of the few that were produced during the Cultural Revolution.Zhang, Yingjin & Xiao, Zhiwei. "Breaking with Old Ideas" in ''Encyclopedia of Chinese Film''. T ...
'', were highly regulated in terms of plot and characterization.


Post-Cultural Revolution


Box office boom after the Cultural Revolution

In the years immediately following the Cultural Revolution, the film industry again flourished as a medium of popular entertainment. Production rose steadily, from 19 features in 1977 to 125 in 1986. Domestically produced films played to large audiences, and tickets for foreign
film festival A film festival is an organized, extended presentation of films in one or more cinemas or screening venues, usually in a single city or region. Increasingly, film festivals show some films outdoors. Films may be of recent date and, depending upon ...
s sold quickly. The industry tried to revive crowds by making more innovative and "exploratory" films like their counterparts in the West. After the Cultural Revolution had ended in 1976, Chinese cinema grew significantly in the late 1970s. In 1979, annual box office admissions reached a peak of tickets sold, equivalent to an average of per person. Chinese cinema continued to prosper into the early 1980s. In 1980, annual box office admissions stood at tickets sold, equivalent to an average of per person. In terms of box office admissions, this period represented the peak ticket sales in the history of the Chinese box office. High ticket sales were driven by low ticket prices, with a cinema ticket typically costing between ¥0.1 () and ¥0.3 () at the time. A number of films during this period drew box office admissions in the hundreds of millions. China's highest-grossing film in box office admissions was ''
Legend of the White Snake The Legend of the White Snake is a Chinese legend. It has since been presented in a number of major Chinese operas, films, and television series. The earliest attempt to fictionalize the story in printed form appears to be ''The White Maiden ...
'' (1980) with an estimated admissions, followed by (1981) and ''The Undaunted Wudang'' (1983) with more than ticket sales each. The highest-grossing foreign film was the
Japanese film The has a history that spans more than 100 years. Japan has one of the oldest and largest film industries in the world; as of 2021, it was the fourth largest by number of feature films produced. In 2011 Japan produced 411 feature films that ea ...
''
Kimi yo Fundo no Kawa o Watare , known as ''Manhunt'', ''Hot Pursuit'' or ''Dangerous Chase'' in some translations, is a 1976 Japanese crime thriller film directed by Junya Satō. It is based on the novel of the same name by Juko Nishimura, and stars Ken Takakura in the leadi ...
'' (1976), which released in 1978 and sold more than tickets, followed by the
Indian film The Cinema of India consists of motion pictures produced in India, which had a large effect on world cinema since the late 20th century. Major centers of film production across the country include Mumbai, Chennai, Hyderabad, Visakhapatnam, Ko ...
'' Caravan'' (1971) which released in 1979 and sold about tickets. In the late 1980s the film industry fell on hard times, faced with the dual problems of competition from other forms of entertainment and concern on the part of the authorities that many of the popular thriller and
martial art Martial arts are codified systems and traditions of combat practiced for a number of reasons such as self-defense; military and law enforcement applications; competition; physical, mental, and spiritual development; entertainment; and the preserv ...
s films were socially unacceptable. In January 1986 the film industry was transferred from the
Ministry of Culture Ministry of Culture may refer to: *Ministry of Tourism, Cultural Affairs, Youth and Sports (Albania) * Ministry of Culture (Algeria) *Ministry of Culture (Argentina) *Minister for the Arts (Australia) *Ministry of Culture (Azerbaijan) * Ministry of ...
to the newly formed Ministry of Radio, Cinema, and Television to bring it under "stricter control and management" and to "strengthen supervision over production."


"Scar dramas"

The end of the Cultural Revolution brought the release of "scar dramas" (傷痕剧 ''shānghén jù''), which depicted the emotional traumas left by this period. The best-known of these is probably Xie Jin's ''
Hibiscus Town ''Hibiscus Town'' () is a 1986 Chinese film directed by Xie Jin, based on a novel by the same name written by Gu Hua. The film, a melodrama, follows the life and travails of a young woman who lives through the turmoil of the Cultural Revolution a ...
'' (1986), although they could be seen as late as the 1990s with
Tian Zhuangzhuang Tian Zhuangzhuang (; born April 1952 in Beijing) is a Chinese film director, producer and actor. Tian was born to an influential actor and actress in China. Following a short stint in the military, Tian began his artistic career first as an am ...
's ''
The Blue Kite ''The Blue Kite'' () is a 1993 drama film directed by Tian Zhuangzhuang. Though banned by the Chinese government upon its completion (along with a ten-year ban on filmmaking imposed on Tian), the film soon found a receptive international audienc ...
'' (1993). In the 1980s, open criticism of certain past Communist Party policies was encouraged by
Deng Xiaoping Deng Xiaoping (22 August 1904 – 19 February 1997) was a Chinese revolutionary leader, military commander and statesman who served as the paramount leader of the People's Republic of China (PRC) from December 1978 to November 1989. After CC ...
as a way to reveal the excesses of the Cultural Revolution and the earlier
Anti-Rightist Campaign The Anti-Rightist Campaign () in the People's Republic of China, which lasted from 1957 to roughly 1959, was a political campaign to purge alleged " Rightists" within the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the country as a whole. The campaign was ...
, also helping to legitimize Deng's new policies of "
reform and opening up The Chinese economic reform or reform and opening-up (), known in the West as the opening of China, is the program of economic reforms termed "Socialism with Chinese characteristics" and " socialist market economy" in the People's Republic of C ...
." For instance, the Best Picture prize in the inaugural 1981
Golden Rooster Awards The Golden Rooster Awards () are film awards given in mainland China. The awards were originally given annually, beginning in 1981. The name of the award came from the year of the Rooster in 1981. Award recipients receive a statuette in the shap ...
was given to two "scar dramas", ''
Evening Rain ''Evening Rain'' (Chinese: 巴山夜雨) is a 1981 Chinese drama film which reflects the fight between Chinese people and the Gang of Four during the ten years of turmoil in China. It was directed by Wu Yonggang and Wu Yigong with Li Zhiyu, Zhan ...
'' (
Wu Yonggang Wu Yonggang (November 1, 1907 – December 18, 1982) was a prominent Chinese film director during the 1930s. Today Wu is best known for his directorial debut, '' The Goddess''. Wu had a long career with the Lianhua Film Company in the 1930s, in ...
,
Wu Yigong Wu Yigong (; 1 December 1938 – 14 September 2019) was a Chinese film director and producer. Biography Born in Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, Wu Yigong enrolled in the directing department of the Beijing Film Academy in 1956. After graduation in ...
, 1980) and ''
Legend of Tianyun Mountain ''Legend of Tianyun Mountain'' () is a 1980 Chinese film about Chinese people's sufferings from the long-term political campaigns from "Anti-rightists" in 1950s until the fall of Gang of Four. It depicted the individuals' hardship in the political ...
'' (
Xie Jin Xie Jin (; 21 November 1923 – 18 October 2008) was a Chinese film director. He rose to prominence in 1957, directing the film '' Woman Basketball Player No. 5'', and is considered one of the Third Generation directors of China. Most recently h ...
, 1980). Many scar dramas were made by members of the Fourth Generation whose own careers or lives had suffered during the events in question, while younger, Fifth Generation directors such as Tian tended to focus on less controversial subjects of the immediate present or the distant past. Official enthusiasm for scar dramas waned by the 1990s when younger filmmakers began to confront negative aspects of the Mao era. ''The Blue Kite'', though sharing a similar subject as the earlier scar dramas, was more realistic in style, and was made only through obfuscating its real script. Shown abroad, it was banned from release in mainland China, while Tian himself was banned from making any films for nearly a decade afterward. After the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, few if any scar dramas were released domestically in mainland China.


Rise of the fifth generation

Beginning in the mid-late 1980s, the rise of the so-called fifth generation of Chinese filmmakers brought increased popularity of Chinese cinema abroad. Most of the filmmakers who made up the Fifth Generation had graduated from the
Beijing Film Academy Beijing Film Academy (BFA; ) is a coeducational state-run higher education institution in Beijing, China. The film school is the largest institution specializing in the tertiary education for film and television production in Asia. The academy h ...
in 1982 and included
Zhang Yimou Zhang Yimou (; born 2 April 1950) is a Chinese film director, producer, writer, actor and former cinematographer.Tasker, Yvonne (2002). "Zhang Yimou" i''Fifty Contemporary Filmmakers'' Routledge Publishing, p. 412. . Google Book Search. Retriev ...
,
Tian Zhuangzhuang Tian Zhuangzhuang (; born April 1952 in Beijing) is a Chinese film director, producer and actor. Tian was born to an influential actor and actress in China. Following a short stint in the military, Tian began his artistic career first as an am ...
,
Chen Kaige Chen Kaige (; born 12 August 1952) is a Chinese film director and a leading figure of the fifth generation of Chinese cinema.Berry, Michael (2002). "Chen Kaige: Historical Revolution and Cinematic Rebellion" in Speaking in Images: Interviews wit ...
, Zhang Junzhao,
Li Shaohong Li Shaohong (born 7 July 1955) is a Chinese film and television director and producer. She is considered a member of the Fifth Generation movement, and China's top woman director. Her films have won multiple awards in China and abroad, includin ...
,
Wu Ziniu Wu Ziniu (born 31 October 1952), is a Chinese film director and a member of the Cinema of China#Rise of the Fifth Generation, "Fifth Generation" film movement, a movement of filmmakers who graduated from the Beijing Film Academy in the early 1980s ...
and others. These graduates constituted the first group of filmmakers to graduate since the
Cultural Revolution The Cultural Revolution, formally known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a sociopolitical movement in the People's Republic of China (PRC) launched by Mao Zedong in 1966, and lasting until his death in 1976. Its stated goa ...
and they soon jettisoned traditional methods of storytelling and opted for a more free and unorthodox symbolic approach. After the so-called
scar literature Scar literature or literature of the wounded () is a genre of Chinese literature which emerged in the late 1970s during the "Boluan Fanzheng" period, soon after the death of Mao Zedong, portraying the sufferings of cadres and intellectuals du ...
in fiction had paved the way for frank discussion, Zhang Junzhao's '' One and Eight'' (1983) and Chen Kaige's ''
Yellow Earth ''Yellow Earth'' () is a 1984 Chinese drama film. This film is telling a story of a young, village girl who bravely resists old-dated customs and searches for freedom. It was the directorial debut for Chen Kaige. The film's notable cinematogra ...
'' (1984) in particular were taken to mark the beginnings of the Fifth Generation. The most famous of the Fifth Generation directors, Chen Kaige and Zhang Yimou, went on to produce celebrated works such as '' King of the Children'' (1987), ''
Ju Dou ''Ju Dou'' () is a 1990 film directed by Zhang Yimou and Yang Fengliang and starring Gong Li as the title character. It is notable for being printed in vivid Technicolor long after the process had been abandoned in the United States. It was also ...
'' (1989), ''
Raise the Red Lantern ''Raise the Red Lantern'' is a 1991 film directed by Zhang Yimou and starring Gong Li. It is an adaptation by of the 1990 novella '' Raise the Red Lantern'' (originally ''Wives and Concubines'') by Su Tong. The film was later adapted into an ...
'' (1991) and '' Farewell My Concubine'' (1993), which were not only acclaimed by Chinese cinema-goers but by the Western
arthouse An art film (or arthouse film) is typically an independent film, aimed at a niche market rather than a mass market audience. It is "intended to be a serious, artistic work, often experimental and not designed for mass appeal", "made primarily f ...
audience.
Tian Zhuangzhuang Tian Zhuangzhuang (; born April 1952 in Beijing) is a Chinese film director, producer and actor. Tian was born to an influential actor and actress in China. Following a short stint in the military, Tian began his artistic career first as an am ...
's films, though less well known by Western viewers, were well noted by directors such as
Martin Scorsese Martin Charles Scorsese ( , ; born November 17, 1942) is an American film director, producer, screenwriter and actor. Scorsese emerged as one of the major figures of the New Hollywood era. He is the recipient of List of awards and nominatio ...
. It was during this period that Chinese cinema began reaping the rewards of international attention, including the 1988
Golden Bear The Golden Bear (german: Goldener Bär) is the highest prize awarded for the best film at the Berlin International Film Festival. The bear is the heraldic animal of Berlin, featured on both the coat of arms and flag of Berlin. History The winn ...
for '' Red Sorghum'', the 1992
Golden Lion The Golden Lion ( it, Leone d'oro) is the highest prize given to a film at the Venice Film Festival. The prize was introduced in 1949 by the organizing committee and is now regarded as one of the film industry's most prestigious and distinguishe ...
for ''
The Story of Qiu Ju ''The Story of Qiu Ju'' () is a 1992 Chinese comedy-drama film. The film was directed by Zhang Yimou and, as in many of his films, stars Gong Li in the title role. The screenplay is an adaption of Chen Yuanbin's (陈源斌) novella ''The Wan Famil ...
'', the 1993
Palme d'Or The Palme d'Or (; en, Golden Palm) is the highest prize awarded at the Cannes Film Festival. It was introduced in 1955 by the festival's organizing committee. Previously, from 1939 to 1954, the festival's highest prize was the Grand Prix du Fe ...
for '' Farewell My Concubine'', and three
Best Foreign Language Film This is a list of categories of awards commonly awarded through organizations that bestow film awards, including those presented by various film, festivals, and people's awards. Best Actor/Best Actress *See Best Actor#Film awards, Best Actress#F ...
nominations from the Academy Awards. All these award-winning films starred actress
Gong Li Gong Li (Chinese: 巩俐; born 31 December 1965) is a Chinese actress. She starred in three of the four Chinese-language films that were nominated for the Academy Award for Best International Feature Film. Gong was born in Shenyang, Liaoni ...
, who became the Fifth Generation's most recognizable star, especially to international audiences. Diverse in style and subject, the Fifth Generation directors' films ranged from
black comedy Black comedy, also known as dark comedy, morbid humor, or gallows humor, is a style of comedy that makes light of subject matter that is generally considered taboo, particularly subjects that are normally considered serious or painful to discus ...
(
Huang Jianxin Huang Jianxin (born 14 June 1954) is a Chinese filmmaker. He also writes film scripts under the pen name Huang Xin. He is normally considered part of the fifth generation of Chinese filmmakers (a group that includes Chen Kaige, Zhang Yimou and Ti ...
's '' The Black Cannon Incident'', 1985) to the esoteric (Chen Kaige's '' Life on a String'', 1991), but they share a common rejection of the socialist-realist tradition worked by earlier Chinese filmmakers in the Communist era. Other notable Fifth Generation directors include
Wu Ziniu Wu Ziniu (born 31 October 1952), is a Chinese film director and a member of the Cinema of China#Rise of the Fifth Generation, "Fifth Generation" film movement, a movement of filmmakers who graduated from the Beijing Film Academy in the early 1980s ...
,
Hu Mei Hu Mei (born 2 September 1958) is a Chinese film director, television director and Film producer, producer. Usually classed as a Fifth Generation director, since she graduated from the Directors' class of the 1982 Beijing Film Academy cohort, she ...
,
Li Shaohong Li Shaohong (born 7 July 1955) is a Chinese film and television director and producer. She is considered a member of the Fifth Generation movement, and China's top woman director. Her films have won multiple awards in China and abroad, includin ...
and
Zhou Xiaowen Zhou Xiaowen (; born 1954 in Beijing) is a Chinese filmmaker. He graduated from the Cinematography Department of the Beijing Film Academy in 1975 and is part of the so-called Fifth Generation of Chinese filmmakers.Zhang, Yingjin & Xiao, Zhiwe ...
. Fifth Generation filmmakers reacted against the ideological purity of Cultural Revolution cinema. By relocating to regional studios, they began to explore the actuality of local culture in a somewhat documentarian fashion. Instead of stories depicting heroic military struggles, the films were built out of the drama of ordinary people's daily lives. They also retained political edge, but aimed at exploring issues rather than recycling approved policy. While Cultural Revolution films used character, the younger directors favored psychological depth along the lines of European cinema. They adopted complex plots, ambiguous symbolism, and evocative imagery. Some of their bolder works with political overtones were banned by Chinese authorities. These films came with a creative genres of stories, new style of shooting as well, directors utilized extensive color and
long shot In photography, filmmaking and video production, a wide shot (sometimes referred to as a full shot or long shot) is a shot that typically shows the entire object or human figure and is usually intended to place it in some relation to its surrou ...
s to present and explore history and structure of national culture. As a result of the new films being so intricate, the films were for more educated audiences than anything. The new style was profitable for some and helped filmmakers to make strides in the business. It allowed directors to get away from reality and show their artistic sense. The Fourth Generation also returned to prominence. Given their label after the rise of the Fifth Generation, these were directors whose careers were stalled by the Cultural Revolution and who were professionally trained prior to 1966.
Wu Tianming Wu Tianming (; December 5, 1939 – March 4, 2014) was a Chinese film director and producer who was considered one of the leading "Fourth Generation" directors. Biography Wu was born in Sanyuan County, Shaanxi Province, China on December 5, 19 ...
, in particular, made outstanding contributions by helping to finance major Fifth Generation directors under the auspices of the
Xi'an Film Studio Xi'an ( , ; ; Chinese: ), frequently spelled as Xian and also known by other names, is the capital of Shaanxi Province. A sub-provincial city on the Guanzhong Plain, the city is the third most populous city in Western China, after Chongqin ...
(which he took over in 1983), while continuing to make films like '' Old Well'' (1986) and ''
The King of Masks ''The King of Masks'' () is a 1996 Chinese film directed by Wu Tianming. Synopsis In 1930s China, Wang is The King of Masks, an aged street performer who practices the change-mask opera art of bian lian. He laments that he has no male heirs t ...
'' (1996). The Fifth Generation movement ended in part after the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, although its major directors continued to produce notable works. Several of its filmmakers went into self-imposed exile: Wu Tianming moved to the
United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
(but later returned), Huang Jianxin left for
Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...
, while many others went into television-related works.


Main melody dramas

During a period when socialist dramas were beginning to lose viewership, the Chinese government began to involve itself deeper into the world of popular culture and cinema by creating the official genre of the "main melody" (主旋律 ''zhǔxuánlǜ''), inspired by Hollywood's strides in musical dramas. In 1987, the Ministry of Radio, Film and Television issued a statement encouraging the making of movies which emphasizes the main melody to "invigorate national spirit and national pride". The expression ''main melody'' refers to the musical term ''
leitmotif A leitmotif or leitmotiv () is a "short, recurring musical phrase" associated with a particular person, place, or idea. It is closely related to the musical concepts of ''idée fixe'' or ''motto-theme''. The spelling ''leitmotif'' is an anglici ...
'', which translates to the 'theme of our times', which scholars suggest is representative of China's socio-political climate and cultural context of popular cinema. These main melody films, still produced regularly in modern times, try to emulate the commercial mainstream by the use of Hollywood-style music and special effects. A significant feature of these films is the incorporation of a " red song", which is a song written as propaganda to support the People's Republic of China. By revolving the film around the motif of a red song, the film is able to gain traction at the box office as songs are generally thought to be more accessible than a film. Theoretically, once the red song dominates the charts, it will stir interest in the film that which it accompanies. Main melody dramas are often subsidized by the state and have free access to government and military personnel. The Chinese government spends between "one and two million RMBs" annually to support the production of films in the main melody genre.
August 1st Film Studio August First Film Studio, or Bayi Film Studio ( Chinese: 八一电影制片厂; pinyin: ''Bāyī diànyǐng zhì piàn chǎng)'', is the only military film studio in China. It was founded on August 1, 1952 to film It is a comprehensive film stud ...
, the film and TV production arm of the
People's Liberation Army The People's Liberation Army (PLA) is the principal military force of the People's Republic of China and the armed wing of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The PLA consists of five service branches: the Ground Force, Navy, Air Force, ...
, is a studio that produces main melody cinema. Main melody films, which often depict past military engagements or are biopics of first-generation CCP leaders, have won several Best Picture prizes at the
Golden Rooster Awards The Golden Rooster Awards () are film awards given in mainland China. The awards were originally given annually, beginning in 1981. The name of the award came from the year of the Rooster in 1981. Award recipients receive a statuette in the shap ...
. Some of the more famous main melody dramas include the ten-hour epic '' Decisive Engagement'' (大决战, 1991), directed by Cai Jiawei, Yang Guangyuan and Wei Lian; '' The Opium War'' (1997), directed by
Xie Jin Xie Jin (; 21 November 1923 – 18 October 2008) was a Chinese film director. He rose to prominence in 1957, directing the film '' Woman Basketball Player No. 5'', and is considered one of the Third Generation directors of China. Most recently h ...
; and ''
The Founding of a Republic ''The Founding of a Republic'' is a Chinese historical drama produced in 2009 to mark the 60th anniversary of the People's Republic of China and was made to portray the final years of the Chinese Communist Revolution that followed the end of the ...
'' (2009), directed by
Han Sanping Han Sanping (born 1 October 1953) is a Chinese film producer and distributor. Until 2014, he served as the chairman of the State-owned enterprise, state-owned China Film Group Corporation, which is one of the largest distributors and exporters of ...
and Fifth Generation director
Huang Jianxin Huang Jianxin (born 14 June 1954) is a Chinese filmmaker. He also writes film scripts under the pen name Huang Xin. He is normally considered part of the fifth generation of Chinese filmmakers (a group that includes Chen Kaige, Zhang Yimou and Ti ...
. ''
The Founding of an Army ''The Founding of an Army'' is a 2017 Chinese historical drama produced by the China Film Group Corporation to commemorate the 90th anniversary of the founding of the People’s Liberation Army. Produced by Han Sanping and directed by Andrew Lau, i ...
'' (2017) was commissioned by the government to celebrate the 90th anniversary of the People's Liberation Army, and is the third instalment in The Founding of a Republic series. The film featured many young Chinese pop singers that are already well-established in the industry, including
Li Yifeng Li Yifeng (born Li He, 4 May 1987) also known as Evan Li, is a Chinese actor and singer, who rose to fame after participating in the 2007 ''My Hero'' contest. He debuted as a singer in the same year, with the album ''Four Leaf Clover''. Since 20 ...
,
Liu Haoran Liu Haoran (; born 10 October 1997), also known as Turbo Liu, is a Chinese actor. Liu ranked 18th on ''Forbes'' China Celebrity 100 list in 2020, 19th in 2019, and 89th in 2017. In 2021, Liu became the youngest actor to gross over 15 billion RM ...
, and
Lay Zhang Zhang Yixing (; born ), known professionally as Lay Zhang or simply Lay (), is a Chinese rapper, singer, songwriter, dancer, actor and businessman. Zhang first gained recognition for participating in the Chinese television talent show ''Star A ...
, so as to further the film's reputation as a main melody drama.


The sixth generation

The post-1990 era has been labelled the "return of the amateur filmmaker" as state
censorship Censorship is the suppression of speech, public communication, or other information. This may be done on the basis that such material is considered objectionable, harmful, sensitive, or "inconvenient". Censorship can be conducted by governments ...
policies after the Tiananmen Square demonstrations produced an edgy underground film movement loosely referred to as the Sixth Generation. Owing to the lack of state funding and backing, these films were shot quickly and cheaply, using materials like
16 mm film 16 mm film is a historically popular and economical gauge of film. 16 mm refers to the width of the film (about inch); other common film gauges include 8 and 35 mm. It is generally used for non-theatrical (e.g., industrial, educ ...
and
digital video Digital video is an electronic representation of moving visual images (video) in the form of encoded digital data. This is in contrast to analog video, which represents moving visual images in the form of analog signals. Digital video comprises ...
and mostly non-professional actors and actresses, producing a documentary feel, often with long takes, hand-held cameras, and ambient sound; more akin to
Italian neorealism Italian neorealism ( it, Neorealismo), also known as the Golden Age, is a national film movement characterized by stories set amongst the poor and the working class. They are filmed on location, frequently with non-professional actors. They pri ...
and
cinéma vérité Cinéma vérité (, , ; "truthful cinema") is a style of documentary filmmaking developed by Edgar Morin and Jean Rouch, inspired by Dziga Vertov's theory about Kino-Pravda. It combines improvisation with use of the camera to unveil truth or high ...
than the often lush, far more considered productions of the Fifth Generation.Rose, S
"The great fall of China"
''
The Guardian ''The Guardian'' is a British daily newspaper. It was founded in 1821 as ''The Manchester Guardian'', and changed its name in 1959. Along with its sister papers ''The Observer'' and ''The Guardian Weekly'', ''The Guardian'' is part of the Gu ...
'', 2002-08-01. Retrieved on 2007-04-28.
Unlike the Fifth Generation, the Sixth Generation brings a more individualistic, anti-romantic life-view and pays far closer attention to contemporary urban life, especially as affected by disorientation, rebellion and dissatisfaction with China's contemporary social marketing economic tensions and comprehensive cultural background. Many were made with an extremely low budget (an example is
Jia Zhangke Jia Zhangke ( zh, c=贾樟柯, p=Jiǎ Zhāngkē, born 24 May 1970) .He is a Chinese-language film and television director, screenwriter, producer, actor, and writer. He is the dean of the Shanxi Film Academy of Shanxi Media College and the dea ...
, who shoots on digital video, and formerly on 16 mm;
Wang Xiaoshuai Wang Xiaoshuai (; born May 22, 1966) is a Chinese film director, screenwriter and occasional actor. He is commonly grouped under the loose association of filmmakers known as the "Sixth Generation" of the Cinema of China. Like others in this gener ...
's '' The Days'' (1993) was made for US$10,000). The title and subjects of many of these films reflect the Sixth Generation's concerns. The Sixth Generation takes an interest in marginalized individuals and the less represented fringes of society. For example, Zhang Yuan's hand-held ''
Beijing Bastards ''Beijing Bastards'' () is a 1993 drama film by Sixth Generation director Zhang Yuan, and is one of the first independently produced Chinese films. Cast * Karzi "a rock promoter" - played by Li Wei 李委 * Cui Jian as himself * Wu Lala (武啦 ...
'' (1993) focuses on youth
punk Punk or punks may refer to: Genres, subculture, and related aspects * Punk rock, a music genre originating in the 1970s associated with various subgenres * Punk subculture, a subculture associated with punk rock, or aspects of the subculture s ...
subculture A subculture is a group of people within a culture that differentiates itself from the parent culture to which it belongs, often maintaining some of its founding principles. Subcultures develop their own norms and values regarding cultural, poli ...
, featuring artists like
Cui Jian Cui Jian ( zh, c=崔健, p=Cuī Jiàn, ; born 2 August 1961) is a Beijing-based Chinese singer-songwriter, trumpeter and guitarist. Affectionately called "Old Cui" (), he pioneered Chinese rock music. For this distinction Cui Jian is often l ...
,
Dou Wei Dou Wei is a Chinese musician, singer-songwriter and composer. Music Dou Wei is a multi-instrumentalist and produces music across many genres. He first came to prominence as a member of the hard rock group Black Panther (Hei Bao, 黑豹). In ...
and He Yong frowned upon by many state authorities, while Jia Zhangke's debut film ''
Xiao Wu ''Xiao Wu'' (), also known as ''Pickpocket'', is a 1997 Chinese drama and the first directed by Jia Zhangke. Starring Wang Hongwei in the titular role along with Hao Hongjian and Zuo Baitao, it was filmed in Fenyang, Jia's hometown, in 16 mm. Sy ...
'' (1997) concerns a provincial
pickpocket Pickpocketing is a form of larceny that involves the stealing of money or other valuables from the person or a victim's pocket without them noticing the theft at the time. It may involve considerable dexterity and a knack for misdirection. A th ...
. As the Sixth Generation gained international exposure, many subsequent movies were joint ventures and projects with international backers, but remained quite resolutely low-key and low budget. Jia's ''
Platform Platform may refer to: Technology * Computing platform, a framework on which applications may be run * Platform game, a genre of video games * Car platform, a set of components shared by several vehicle models * Weapons platform, a system or ...
'' (2000) was funded in part by
Takeshi Kitano is a Japanese comedian, television presenter, actor, filmmaker, and author. While he is known primarily as a comedian and TV host in his native Japan, he is better known abroad for his work as a filmmaker and actor as well as TV host. With th ...
's production house, while his ''
Still Life A still life (plural: still lifes) is a work of art depicting mostly wikt:inanimate, inanimate subject matter, typically commonplace objects which are either natural (food, flowers, dead animals, plants, rocks, shells, etc.) or artificiality, m ...
'' was shot on
HD video High-definition video (HD video) is video of higher resolution and quality than standard-definition. While there is no standardized meaning for ''high-definition'', generally any video image with considerably more than 480 vertical scan lines (N ...
. ''Still Life'' was a surprise addition and Golden Lion winner of the 2006
Venice International Film Festival The Venice Film Festival or Venice International Film Festival ( it, Mostra Internazionale d'Arte Cinematografica della Biennale di Venezia, "International Exhibition of Cinematographic Art of the Venice Biennale") is an annual film festival he ...
. ''Still Life'', which concerns provincial workers around the
Three Gorges The Three Gorges () are three adjacent gorges along the middle reaches of the Yangtze River, in the hinterland of the People's Republic of China. With a subtropical monsoon climate, they are known for their scenery. The "Three Gorges Scenic A ...
region, sharply contrasts with the works of Fifth Generation Chinese directors like Zhang Yimou and Chen Kaige who were at the time producing ''
House of Flying Daggers ''House of Flying Daggers'' ( Chinese: 十面埋伏) is a 2004 ''wuxia'' romance film directed by Zhang Yimou and starring Andy Lau, Zhang Ziyi and Takeshi Kaneshiro. Unlike other ''wuxia'' films, it is more of a love story than purely a marti ...
'' (2004) and '' The Promise'' (2005). It featured no star of international renown and was acted mostly by non-professionals. Many Sixth Generation films have highlighted the negative attributes of China's entry into the modern
capitalist Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. Central characteristics of capitalism include capital accumulation, competitive markets, price system, priva ...
market Market is a term used to describe concepts such as: *Market (economics), system in which parties engage in transactions according to supply and demand *Market economy *Marketplace, a physical marketplace or public market Geography *Märket, an ...
. Li Yang's ''
Blind Shaft ''Blind Shaft'' () is a 2003 in film, 2003 film about a pair of brutal con artists operating in the illegal coal mines of present-day North China, northern China. The film was written and Film director, directed by Li Yang (director), Li Yang ( ...
'' (2003) for example, is an account of two murderous con-men in the unregulated and notoriously dangerous mining industry of northern China. (Li refused the tag of Sixth Generation, although admitted he was not Fifth Generation). While Jia Zhangke's ''
The World In its most general sense, the term "world" refers to the totality of entities, to the whole of reality or to everything that is. The nature of the world has been conceptualized differently in different fields. Some conceptions see the worl ...
'' (2004) emphasizes the emptiness of
globalization Globalization, or globalisation (Commonwealth English; see spelling differences), is the process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and governments worldwide. The term ''globalization'' first appeared in the early 20t ...
in the backdrop of an internationally themed amusement park. Some of the more prolific Sixth Generation directors to have emerged are
Wang Xiaoshuai Wang Xiaoshuai (; born May 22, 1966) is a Chinese film director, screenwriter and occasional actor. He is commonly grouped under the loose association of filmmakers known as the "Sixth Generation" of the Cinema of China. Like others in this gener ...
('' The Days'', ''
Beijing Bicycle ''Beijing Bicycle'' () is a 2001 Chinese drama film by Sixth Generation Chinese director Wang Xiaoshuai, with joint investment from the Taiwanese Arc Light Films and the French Pyramide Productions. The film stars first-time actors Cui Lin an ...
'', '' So Long, My Son''), Zhang Yuan (''
Beijing Bastards ''Beijing Bastards'' () is a 1993 drama film by Sixth Generation director Zhang Yuan, and is one of the first independently produced Chinese films. Cast * Karzi "a rock promoter" - played by Li Wei 李委 * Cui Jian as himself * Wu Lala (武啦 ...
'', '' East Palace West Palace''),
Jia Zhangke Jia Zhangke ( zh, c=贾樟柯, p=Jiǎ Zhāngkē, born 24 May 1970) .He is a Chinese-language film and television director, screenwriter, producer, actor, and writer. He is the dean of the Shanxi Film Academy of Shanxi Media College and the dea ...
(''
Xiao Wu ''Xiao Wu'' (), also known as ''Pickpocket'', is a 1997 Chinese drama and the first directed by Jia Zhangke. Starring Wang Hongwei in the titular role along with Hao Hongjian and Zuo Baitao, it was filmed in Fenyang, Jia's hometown, in 16 mm. Sy ...
'', ''
Unknown Pleasures ''Unknown Pleasures'' is the debut studio album by English rock band Joy Division, released on 15 June 1979 by Factory Records. The album was recorded and mixed over three successive weekends at Stockport's Strawberry Studios in April 1979, wit ...
'', ''
Platform Platform may refer to: Technology * Computing platform, a framework on which applications may be run * Platform game, a genre of video games * Car platform, a set of components shared by several vehicle models * Weapons platform, a system or ...
'', ''
The World In its most general sense, the term "world" refers to the totality of entities, to the whole of reality or to everything that is. The nature of the world has been conceptualized differently in different fields. Some conceptions see the worl ...
'', ''
A Touch of Sin ''A Touch of Sin'' () is a 2013 Chinese anthology film written and directed by Jia Zhangke and starring Jiang Wu, Wang Baoqiang, Luo Lanshan, and Zhao Tao, Jia's wife and longtime collaborator. The film consists of four loosely interconnected ta ...
'', ''
Mountains May Depart ''Mountains May Depart'' () is a 2015 Mandarin-language drama and the 8th feature film directed by Jia Zhangke. It competed for the Palme d'Or at the 2015 Cannes Film Festival. and was also selected to be shown in the Special Presentations secti ...
'', ''
Ash Is Purest White ''Ash Is Purest White'' ( zh, 江湖儿女; 'Sons and Daughters of Jianghu') is a 2018 Chinese drama directed by Jia Zhangke. It was selected to compete for the Palme d'Or at the 2018 Cannes Film Festival. The story is loosely based on the lea ...
''),
He Jianjun He Jianjun (; born 1960 in BeijingBarbieri, Maria (2005). "He Jianjun" i''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture'' edited by Edward Lawrence Davis. Routledge, p. 340. . ) is a Chinese film director and screenwriter. A graduate of the Beiji ...
(''
Postman A mail carrier, mailman, mailwoman, postal carrier, postman, postwoman, or letter carrier (in American English), sometimes colloquially known as a postie (in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom), is an employee of a post ...
'') and
Lou Ye Lou Ye (), born 1965, is a Chinese screenwriter- director who is commonly grouped with the " Sixth Generation" directors of Chinese cinema. Films Born in Shanghai, Lou was educated at the Beijing Film Academy. In 1993, he made his first film ''W ...
('' Suzhou River'', ''
Summer Palace The Summer Palace () is a vast ensemble of lakes, gardens and palaces in Beijing. It was an imperial garden in the Qing dynasty. Inside includes Longevity Hill () Kunming Lake and Seventeen Hole Bridge. It covers an expanse of , three-quarter ...
''). One director of their generation who does not share most of the concerns of the Sixth Generation is
Lu Chuan Lu Chuan (born 8 February 1971) is a Chinese filmmaker, screenwriter and producer. He is the son of novelist Lu Tianming (). Education Educated at the in Nanjing, Lu spent two years serving in the Army as a secretary to a general. After his time ...
('' Kekexili: Mountain Patrol'', 2004; ''
City of Life and Death ''City of Life and Death'' is a 2009 Chinese drama film written and directed by Lu Chuan, marking his third feature film. The film deals with the Battle of Nanjing and the following massacre committed by the Japanese army during the Second World W ...
'', 2010).


Notable Sixth Generation directors

In the 2018 Cannes Film Festival, two of China's Sixth generation filmmakers,
Jia Zhangke Jia Zhangke ( zh, c=贾樟柯, p=Jiǎ Zhāngkē, born 24 May 1970) .He is a Chinese-language film and television director, screenwriter, producer, actor, and writer. He is the dean of the Shanxi Film Academy of Shanxi Media College and the dea ...
and Zhang Meng – whose grim works transformed Chinese cinema in the 1990s – showed on the French Riviera. While both directors represent Chinese cinema, their profiles are quite different. The 49-year-old Jia set up the
Pingyao International Film Festival The Pingyao International Film Festival (PYIFF), officially as "Pingyao Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon International Film Festival", is a film festival held in Pingyao, Shanxi, China. It was launched in October 2017 by Jia Zhangke, a Chinese fil ...
in 2017 and on the other hand is Zhang, a 56-year-old film school professor who spent years working on government commissions and domestic TV shows after struggling with his own projects. Despite their different profiles, they mark an important cornerstone in Chinese cinema and are both credited with bringing Chinese movies to the international big screen. Chinese director Jia Zhangke's latest film ''Ash Is Purest White'' has been selected to compete in the official competition for the Palme d'Or of the 71st Cannes Film Festival, the highest prize awarded at the film festival. It is Jia’s fifth movie, a gangster revenge drama that is his most expensive and mainstream film to date. Back in 2013, Jia won Best Screenplay Award for ''A Touch of Sin'', following nominations for ''Unknown Pleasures'' in 2002 and ''24 City'' in 2008. In 2014, he was a member of the official jury and the following year his film ''Mountains May Depart'' was nominated. According to entertainment websit
Variety
a record number of Chinese films were submitted this year but only Jia's romantic drama was selected to compete for the Palme d'Or. Meanwhile, Zhang will make his debut at Cannes with ''The Pluto Moment'', a slow-moving relationship drama about a team of filmmakers scouting for locations and musical talent in China’s rural hinterland. The film is Zhang’s highest profile production so far, as it stars actor Wang Xuebing in the leading role. The film was partly financed by iQiyi, the company behind one of China’s most popular online video browsing sharing sites.
Diao Yinan Diao Yinan (; born 1969 in Xi'an, Shaanxi) is a Chinese director, screenwriter and occasional actor. He won the Golden Bear for Best Film at the 2014 Berlin International Film Festival for the widely acclaimed Chinese neo-noir film ''Black Coal, ...
is also a notable member of the sixth generation whose works include ''Black Coal Thin Ice'', ''Wild Goose Lake'', ''Night Train'' and ''Uniform'' which have premiered at festivals such as Cannes and received acclaim abroad.


Other directors

He Ping is a director of mostly
Western Western may refer to: Places *Western, Nebraska, a village in the US *Western, New York, a town in the US *Western Creek, Tasmania, a locality in Australia *Western Junction, Tasmania, a locality in Australia *Western world, countries that id ...
-like films set in Chinese locale. His '' Swordsmen in Double Flag Town'' (1991) and '' Sun Valley'' (1995) explore narratives set in the sparse terrain of West China near the
Gobi Desert The Gobi Desert (Chinese: 戈壁 (沙漠), Mongolian: Говь (ᠭᠣᠪᠢ)) () is a large desert or brushland region in East Asia, and is the sixth largest desert in the world. Geography The Gobi measures from southwest to northeast an ...
. His
historical drama A historical drama (also period drama, costume drama, and period piece) is a work set in a past time period, usually used in the context of film and television. Historical drama includes historical fiction and romance film, romances, adventure f ...
''
Red Firecracker, Green Firecracker ''Red Firecracker, Green Firecracker'' () is a 1994 film directed by He Ping and starring Ning Jing, Wu Gang, Zhao Xiaorui, Gao Yang, Xu Zhengyun and Zhao Liang. Plot A young woman inherits her father's fireworks factory, as he had no s ...
'' (1994) won a myriad of prizes home and abroad. Recent cinema has seen Chinese cinematographers direct some acclaimed films. Other than Zhang Yimou, Lü Yue made '' Mr. Zhao'' (1998), a
black comedy Black comedy, also known as dark comedy, morbid humor, or gallows humor, is a style of comedy that makes light of subject matter that is generally considered taboo, particularly subjects that are normally considered serious or painful to discus ...
film well received abroad.
Gu Changwei Gu Changwei (born 12 December 1957) is a Chinese cinematographer and film director. Gu was born in Xi'an, Shaanxi in the People's Republic of China. Gu is considered one of the major Chinese cinematographers working today.Zhang, Yingjin & Xiao, Zhi ...
's
minimalist In visual arts, music and other media, minimalism is an art movement that began in post–World War II in Western art, most strongly with American visual arts in the 1960s and early 1970s. Prominent artists associated with minimalism include Don ...
epic ''
Peacock Peafowl is a common name for three bird species in the genera ''Pavo (genus), Pavo'' and ''Afropavo'' within the tribe Pavonini of the family Phasianidae, the pheasants and their allies. Male peafowl are referred to as peacocks, and female pea ...
'' (2005), about a quiet, ordinary Chinese family with three very different siblings in the post-
Cultural Revolution The Cultural Revolution, formally known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, was a sociopolitical movement in the People's Republic of China (PRC) launched by Mao Zedong in 1966, and lasting until his death in 1976. Its stated goa ...
era, took home the Silver Bear prize for 2005
Berlin International Film Festival The Berlin International Film Festival (german: Internationale Filmfestspiele Berlin), usually called the Berlinale (), is a major international film festival held annually in Berlin, Germany. Founded in 1951 and originally run in June, the festi ...
. Hou Yong is another cinematographer who made films (''
Jasmine Women ''Jasmine Women'' is a 2004 Chinese film directed and co-written by Hou Yong in his directorial debut. The film is an adaptation of Su Tong's novel ''Women's Life'' (妇女生活) and depicts the emotionally troubled lives of 4 generations of Sh ...
'', 2004) and TV series. There are actors who straddle the dual roles of acting and directing.
Xu Jinglei Xu Jinglei (, born 16 April 1974 in Chaoyang District, Beijing) is a Chinese actress and film director. She was hailed as one of the Four Dan Actresses in China. In 2002, Xu won the Huabiao Award for Outstanding New Actress for her performance ...
, a popular Chinese actress, has made six movies to date. Her second film '' Letter from an Unknown Woman'' (2004) landed her the
San Sebastián International Film Festival The San Sebastián International Film Festival ( SSIFF; es, Festival Internacional de San Sebastián, eu, Donostia Zinemaldia) is an annual FIAPF A category film festival held in the Spanish city of Donostia-San Sebastián in September, in th ...
Best Director award. Another popular actress and director is
Zhao Wei Zhao Wei (; born 12 March 1976), also known as Vicky Zhao or Vicki Zhao, is a Chinese actress, businesswoman, film director, producer and pop singer. She is considered one of the most popular actresses in China and Chinese-speaking regions, a ...
, whose directorial debut '' So Young'' (2013) was a huge box office and critical success. The most highly regarded Chinese actor-director is undoubtedly
Jiang Wen Jiang Wen (born 5 January 1963) is a Chinese actor, screenwriter, and director. As a director, he is sometimes grouped with the "Sixth Generation" that emerged in the 1990s. Jiang is also well known internationally as an actor, having starred wit ...
, who has directed several critically acclaimed movies while following on his acting career. His directorial debut, ''
In the Heat of the Sun ''In the Heat of the Sun'' is a 1994 Chinese film directed and written by Jiang Wen. The film is based loosely on author Wang Shuo's novel '' Wild Beast''. Jiang Wen, known as one of China’s best actors and seen in numerous films such as ''Red ...
'' (1994) was the first PRC film to win Best Picture at the
Golden Horse Film Awards The Taipei Golden Horse Film Festival and Awards () is a film festival and awards ceremony held annually in Taiwan. It was founded in 1962 by the Government Information Office of the Republic of China (ROC) in Taiwan. The awards ceremony is us ...
held in
Taiwan Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the nort ...
. His other films, like ''
Devils on the Doorstep ''Devils on the Doorstep'' (; ja, 鬼が来た!; literally "the devils are here"; the devil is a term of abuse for foreign invaders, here referring to brutal and violent Japanese invaders in China during World War II) is a 2000 Chinese black come ...
'' (2000, Cannes Grand Prix) and ''
Let the Bullets Fly ''Let the Bullets Fly'' is a 2010 Chinese action comedy film written and directed by Jiang Wen, based on a story by Ma Shitu. The film is set in Sichuan during the 1920s when the bandit Zhang (Jiang Wen) descends upon a town posing as its new gove ...
'' (2010), were similarly well received. By the early 2011, ''Let the Bullets Fly'' had become the highest grossing domestic film in China's history.


Generation-independent movement

There is a growing number of independent seventh or post-Sixth Generation filmmakers making films with extremely low budgets and using digital equipment. They are the so-called dGeneration (for digital). These films, like those from Sixth Generation filmmakers, are mostly made outside the Chinese film system and are shown mostly on the international film festival circuit.
Ying Liang Ying Liang (; born 1977) is a Chinese independent film director and screenwriter. Biography Ying Liang graduated from the Department of Directing at the Chongqing Film Academy and Beijing Normal University. His short film ''The Missing House' ...
and Jian Yi are two of these generation filmmakers. Ying's '' Taking Father Home'' (2005) and '' The Other Half'' (2006) are both representative of the generation trends of the feature film.
Liu Jiayin Liu Jiayin is a Chinese independent filmmaker and educator, born in Beijing in 1981. She has made two experimental features combining documentary and narrative elements, ''Oxhide'' (2005) and ''Oxhide II'' (2009), both of which received internatio ...
made two dGeneration feature films, '' Oxhide'' (2004) and ''
Oxhide II ''Oxhide'' (), directed by Liu Jiayin, is a 2005 narrative independent Chinese film that portrays the director's family and their apartment in Beijing. Liu was 23 years old when the film was recorded. Awards, nominations, and honors * 2005 Berlin ...
'' (2010), blurring the line between documentary and narrative film. ''Oxhide'', made by Liu when she was a film student, frames herself and her parents in their claustrophobic Beijing apartment in a narrative praised by critics. '' An Elephant Sitting Still'', considered one of the greatest film debuts in Chinese cinema, is also the only film by the late Hu Bo.


New documentary movement

Two decades of reform and commercialization have brought dramatic social changes in mainland China, reflected not only in fiction film but in a growing documentary movement.
Wu Wenguang Wu Wenguang 吴文光 (born 1956 in Yunnan Yunnan , () is a landlocked province in the southwest of the People's Republic of China. The province spans approximately and has a population of 48.3 million (as of 2018). The capital of the p ...
's 70-minute '' Bumming in Beijing: The Last Dreamers'' (1990) is now seen as one of the first works of this " New Documentary Movement" (NDM) in China. ''Bumming'', made between 1988 and 1990, contains interviews with five young artists eking out a living in
Beijing } Beijing ( ; ; ), alternatively romanized as Peking ( ), is the capital of the People's Republic of China. It is the center of power and development of the country. Beijing is the world's most populous national capital city, with over 21 ...
, subject to state authorized tasks. Shot using a
camcorder A camcorder is a self-contained portable electronic device with video and recording as its primary function. It is typically equipped with an articulating screen mounted on the left side, a belt to facilitate holding on the right side, hot-swa ...
, the documentary ends with four of the artists moving abroad after the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre. ''
Dance with the Farm Workers Dance is a performing art form consisting of sequences of movement, either improvised or purposefully selected. This movement has aesthetic and often symbolic value. Dance can be categorized and described by its choreography, by its repertoire ...
'' (2001) is another documentary by Wu. Another internationally acclaimed documentary is Wang Bing's nine-hour tale of deindustrialization '' Tie Xi Qu: West of the Tracks'' (2003). Wang's subsequent documentaries, '' He Fengming'' (2007), ''
Crude Oil Petroleum, also known as crude oil, or simply oil, is a naturally occurring yellowish-black liquid mixture of mainly hydrocarbons, and is found in geological formations. The name ''petroleum'' covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude ...
'' (2008), ''
Man with no name The Man with No Name ( it, Uomo senza nome) is the antihero character portrayed by Clint Eastwood in Sergio Leone's "''Dollars Trilogy''" of Italian Spaghetti Western films: ''A Fistful of Dollars'' (1964), '' For a Few Dollars More'' (1965), ...
'' (2009), '' Three Sisters'' (2012) and '' Feng ai'' (2013), cemented his reputation as a leading documentarist of the movement.
Li Hong Li Hong () (652 – 25 May 675), formally Emperor Xiaojing (孝敬皇帝, literally, "the filial and respectful emperor") with the temple name of Yizong (義宗), was a crown prince (not emperor, despite his formal title) of the Chinese dynasty ...
, the first woman in the NDM, in '' Out of Phoenix Bridge'' (1997) relates the story of four young women, who moving from rural areas to the big cities like millions of other men and women, have come to Beijing to make a living. The New Documentary Movement in recent times has overlapped with the dGeneration filmmaking, with most documentaries being shot cheaply and independently in the digital format. Xu Xin's ''
Karamay Karamay is a prefecture-level city in the north of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, People's Republic of China. The name of the city comes from the Uyghur language and means "black oil", referring to the oil fields near the city. Karamay w ...
'' (2010), Zhao Liang's Behemoth,
Huang Weikai Huang or Hwang may refer to: Location * Huang County, former county in Shandong, China, current Longkou City * Yellow River, or Huang River, in China * Huangshan, mountain range in Anhui, China * Huang (state), state in ancient China. * Hwang Riv ...
's ''
Disorder Disorder may refer to randomness, non-order, or no intelligible pattern. Disorder may also refer to: Healthcare * Disorder (medicine), a functional abnormality or disturbance * Mental disorder or psychological disorder, a psychological pattern a ...
'' (2009), Zhao Dayong's ''
Ghost Town Ghost Town(s) or Ghosttown may refer to: * Ghost town, a town that has been abandoned Film and television * Ghost Town (1936 film), ''Ghost Town'' (1936 film), an American Western film by Harry L. Fraser * Ghost Town (1956 film), ''Ghost Town'' ...
'' (2009), Du Haibing's ''
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'' (2009),
Xu Tong Xu or XU may refer to: People and characters * Xu (surname), one of two Chinese surnames ( or /), transliterated as Xu in English * ǃXu, a name for the ǃKung group of Bushmen; may also refer to the ǃKung language or the ǃKung people * ǃXu ( ...
's ''
Fortune Teller Fortune telling is the practice of predicting information about a person's life. Melton, J. Gordon. (2008). ''The Encyclopedia of Religious Phenomena''. Visible Ink Press. pp. 115-116. The scope of fortune telling is in principle identical w ...
'' (2009) and
Li Ning Li Ning (born March 10, 1963 in Liuzhou, Guangxi) is a Chinese retired gymnast, billionaire entrepreneur, and the founder of the eponymous sportswear company Li-Ning. Gymnastics career Li started training at the age of eight and was select ...
’s '' Tape'' (2010) were all shot in digital format. All had made their impact in the international documentary scene and the use of digital format allows for works of vaster lengths.


Animation


Before the 1950s

Inspired by the success of
Disney The Walt Disney Company, commonly known as Disney (), is an American multinational mass media and entertainment conglomerate headquartered at the Walt Disney Studios complex in Burbank, California. Disney was originally founded on October ...
animation, the self-taught pioneers
Wan brothers The Wan Brothers () were born in the early 20th century in Nanjing, China. They became the founders and pioneers of the Chinese animation industry and made the first Asian animation feature-length film, ''Princess Iron Fan'' in 1941. Background ...
,
Wan Laiming Wan Laiming (; 18 January 1900 – 7 October 1997) was born in Nanjing, Qing dynasty. He was one of the Wan brothers who pioneered the Chinese animation industry, and is commonly considered as China's first animator. As the director of the Sha ...
and
Wan Guchan Wan Guchan (; 18 January 1900 – 19 November 1995) was a Chinese filmmaker. Born in Nanjing, Jiangsu, he was one of the Wan brothers who pioneered the Chinese animations industry. Early history Wan Guchan joined his twin brother Wan Laiming ...
, made the first Chinese
animated short Animation is a method by which still figures are manipulated to appear as moving images. In traditional animation, images are drawn or painted by hand on transparent celluloid sheets to be photographed and exhibited on film. Today, most anima ...
in the 1920s, thus inaugurating the history of Chinese animation. (Chen Yuanyuan 175)Chen, Yuanyuan. "Old Or New Art? Rethinking Classical Chinese Animation." Journal of Chinese Cinemas, vol. 11, no. 2, 2017, pp. 175-188. Many live-action films of the Republican era also included animated sequences. In 1937, the Wan brothers decided to produce 《铁扇公主》''
Princess Iron Fan Princess Iron Fan () is a character from the 16th century Chinese novel ''Journey to the West''. She is the wife of the Bull Demon King and mother of Red Boy. She is one of the most popular ''Journey to the West'' villains, alongside her husband ...
'', which was the first Chinese animated feature film and the fourth, after the American feature films ''
Snow White "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs" is a 19th-century German fairy tale that is today known widely across the Western world. The Brothers Grimm published it in 1812 in the first edition of their collection ''Grimms' Fairy Tales'' and numbered as Ta ...
'', '' Gulliver’s Travels'', and '' The Adventure of Pinocchio''. It was at this time that Chinese animation as an art form had risen to prominence on the world stage. Completed in 1941, the film was released under China United Pictures and aroused a great response in Asia. Japanese animator Shigeru Tezuka once said that he gave up medicine after watching the cartoon and decided to pursue animation.


1950s–1980s

During this golden era, Chinese animation had developed a variety of styles, including ink animation, shadow play animation, puppet animation, and so on. Some of the most representative works are 《大闹天宫》'' Uproar in Heaven'', 《哪吒闹海》 ''
Nezha Nezha ( 哪吒) is a protection deity in Chinese folk religion. His official Taoist name is "Marshal of the Central Altar" (). He was then given the title "Third Lotus Prince" () after he became a deity. Origins According to Meir Shahar, Nezh ...
's Rebellion in the Sea'' and《天书奇谈》 ''Heavenly Book'', which have also won lofty praise and numerous awards in the world.


1980s–1990s

After Deng Xiaoping’s Reform Period and the "opening up" of China, the movies《葫芦兄弟》 ''Calabash Brothers'', 《黑猫警长》''Black Cat Sheriff'', 《阿凡提》''Avanti Story'' and other impressive animated movies were released. However, at this time, China still favored the Japanese’s more unique, American and European-influenced animated works over the less-advanced domestic ones.


1990s–2010s

In the 1990s, digital production methods replaced manual hand-drawing methods; however, even with the use of advanced technology, none of the animated works were considered to be a breakthrough film. Animated films that tried to cater to all age groups, such as ''Lotus Lantern'' and ''Storm Resolution'', did not attract much attention. The only animated works that seemed to achieve popularity were the ones for catered for children, such as ''
Pleasant Goat and Big Big Wolf ''Pleasant Goat and Big Big Wolf'' is a Chinese animated anime-influenced television series created by animation director Huang Weiming and produced by Creative Power Entertaining. The show is about a group of goats living on the Green Green ...
''《喜羊羊与灰太狼》.


2010s–present

During this period, the technical level of Chinese domestic animation production has been established comprehensively, and 3D animation films have become the mainstream. However, as more and more foreign films (such as ones from Japan, Europe, and the United States) are being imported into China, Chinese animated works is left in the shadows of these animated foreign films. It was only with the release of 《西游记之大圣归来》'' Monkey King: Hero is Back'' in 2015, a computer animated film, that Chinese animated works took back the rein. The film was a huge hit and broke the record for Chinese domestic animated movies with CN¥956 million at China’s box office. After the success of ''Journey to the West'', several other high-quality animated films were released, such as《大鱼海棠》 ''
Big Fish and Begonia ''Big Fish & Begonia'' () is a 2016 Chinese animation, Chinese animated epic (genre), epic fantasy film written, produced and directed by Liang Xuan and Zhang Chun. The first animated feature film of B&T Studio collaborating with Studio Mir, it is ...
'' and 《白蛇缘起》 ''White Snake''. Though none of these movies made headway in regards to the box office, they did make filmmakers more and more interested in animated works. This all changed with the breakthrough animated film, 《哪吒之魔童降世》 ''Ne Zha''. Released in 2019, it became the second highest-grossing film of all time in China, the highest-grossing animated non-English film, and the highest-grossing animated film in a single territory. It was with this film that Chinese animated films, as a medium, finally broke the notion in China that domestic animated films are only for children. With ''Nezha'', and a spinoff, ''Jiang Ziya'', Chinese animation has now come to be known as a veritable source of entertainment for all ages.


New models and the new Chinese cinema


Commercial successes

With China's liberalization in the late 1970s and its opening up to foreign markets, commercial considerations have made its impact in post-1980s filmmaking. Traditionally arthouse movies screened seldom make enough to break even. An example is Fifth Generation director Tian Zhuangzhuang's ''
The Horse Thief ''The Horse Thief'' is a 1986 Chinese film by director Tian Zhuangzhuang. It follows one of Tian's favorite topics, Chinese minorities, a topic he touched upon in 1984's ''On the Hunting Ground'' and would return to in 2004's documentary, ''Delamu ...
'' (1986), a narrative film with minimal dialog on a
Tibet Tibet (; ''Böd''; ) is a region in East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are some other ethnic groups such as Monpa people, ...
an horse thief. The film, showcasing exotic landscapes, was well received by Chinese and some Western arthouse audiences, but did poorly at the box office. Tian's later ''
The Warrior and the Wolf ''The Warrior and the Wolf'' () is a 2009 Chinese historical action film directed by Tian Zhuangzhuang. It tells the story of the battle between two ancient warriors. It is Tian's latest directorial effort since 2006's '' The Go Master''. Filmin ...
'' (2010) was a similar commercial failure. Prior to these, there were examples of successful commercial films in the post-liberalization period. One was the romance film '' Romance on the Lu Mountain'' (1980), which was a success with older Chinese. The film broke the
Guinness Book of Records ''Guinness World Records'', known from its inception in 1955 until 1999 as ''The Guinness Book of Records'' and in previous United States editions as ''The Guinness Book of World Records'', is a reference book published annually, listing world ...
as the longest-running film on a first run.
Jet Li Li Lianjie (courtesy name Yangzhong; born 26 April 1963), better known by his stage name Jet Li, is a Chinese film actor, film producer, Chinese martial arts, martial artist, and retired wushu (sport), Wushu champion. He is a naturalized Singapo ...
's cinematic debut ''
Shaolin Temple Shaolin Monastery (少林寺 ''Shàolínsì''), also known as Shaolin Temple, is a renowned monastic institution recognized as the birthplace of Chan Buddhism and the cradle of Shaolin Kung Fu. It is located at the foot of Wuru Peak of the So ...
'' (1982) was an instant hit at home and abroad (in
Japan Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
and the
Southeast Asia Southeast Asia, also spelled South East Asia and South-East Asia, and also known as Southeastern Asia, South-eastern Asia or SEA, is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, south-eastern region of Asia, consistin ...
, for example). Another successful commercial film was '' Murder in 405'' (405谋杀案, 1980), a murder thriller.
Feng Xiaogang Feng Xiaogang (; born 18 March 1958 in Beijing) is a Chinese film director, screenwriter, actor, producer and politician. He is well known in China as a highly successful commercial filmmaker whose comedy films do consistently well at the box of ...
's '' The Dream Factory'' (1997) was heralded as a turning point in Chinese movie industry, a '' hesui pian'' (
Chinese New Year Chinese New Year is the festival that celebrates the beginning of a New Year, new year on the traditional lunisolar calendar, lunisolar and solar Chinese calendar. In Sinophone, Chinese and other East Asian cultures, the festival is commonly r ...
-screened film) which demonstrated the viability of the commercial model in China's socialist market economy. Feng has become one of the most successful commercial director in the post-1997 era. Almost all his films made high returns domestically while he used ethnic Chinese co-stars like
Rosamund Kwan Rosamund Kwan Chi Lam (born Kwan Kar Wai on 24 September 1962) is a Hong Kong former actress, best known for starring as the female lead "Thirteenth Aunt" in the 1990s ''Once Upon a Time in China'' film series. She had since retired from acti ...
, Jacqueline Wu,
Rene Liu Rene Liu Ruo-ying (; born 1 June, 1969) is a Taiwanese singer-songwriter, actress, director and writer. In the Sinophone world, Liu is widely known by her affectionate nickname "Milk Tea". Her music often focuses on love stories and has built an ...
and
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to boost his films' appeal. In the decade following 2010, owing to the influx of Hollywood films (though the number screened each year is curtailed), Chinese domestic cinema faces mounting challenges. The industry is growing and domestic films are starting to achieve the box office impact of major Hollywood blockbusters. However, not all domestic films are successful financially. In January 2010
James Cameron James Francis Cameron (born August 16, 1954) is a Canadian filmmaker. A major figure in the post-New Hollywood era, he is considered one of the industry's most innovative filmmakers, regularly pushing the boundaries of cinematic capability w ...
's ''
Avatar Avatar (, ; ), is a concept within Hinduism that in Sanskrit literally means "descent". It signifies the material appearance or incarnation of a powerful deity, goddess or spirit on Earth. The relative verb to "alight, to make one's appearanc ...
'' was pulled out from non-3D theaters for
Hu Mei Hu Mei (born 2 September 1958) is a Chinese film director, television director and Film producer, producer. Usually classed as a Fifth Generation director, since she graduated from the Directors' class of the 1982 Beijing Film Academy cohort, she ...
's biopic ''
Confucius Confucius ( ; zh, s=, p=Kǒng Fūzǐ, "Master Kǒng"; or commonly zh, s=, p=Kǒngzǐ, labels=no; – ) was a Chinese philosopher and politician of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages. C ...
'', but this move led to a backlash on Hu's film. Zhang Yang's 2005 ''
Sunflower The common sunflower (''Helianthus annuus'') is a large annual forb of the genus ''Helianthus'' grown as a crop for its edible oily seeds. Apart from cooking oil production, it is also used as livestock forage (as a meal or a silage plant), as ...
'' also made little money, but his earlier, low-budget ''
Spicy Love Soup ''Spicy Love Soup'' () is a 1997 Chinese film directed by Zhang Yang and written by Zhang, Liu Fendou, Cai Shangjun, and Diao Yi'nan based on a story by Zhang and Peter Loehr. ''Spicy Love Soup'' was produced by Loehr's Imar Film Company, Xi ...
'' (1997) grossed ten times its budget of ¥3 million. Likewise, the 2006 '' Crazy Stone'', a
sleeper hit In the entertainment industry, a sleeper hit is a film, television series, music release, video game, or some other entertainment product that was initially unsuccessful on release but became a success later on. A sleeper hit may have little promo ...
, was made for just 3 million HKD/US$400,000. In 2009–11, Feng's ''
Aftershock In seismology, an aftershock is a smaller earthquake that follows a larger earthquake, in the same area of the main shock, caused as the displaced crust adjusts to the effects of the main shock. Large earthquakes can have hundreds to thousand ...
'' (2009) and
Jiang Wen Jiang Wen (born 5 January 1963) is a Chinese actor, screenwriter, and director. As a director, he is sometimes grouped with the "Sixth Generation" that emerged in the 1990s. Jiang is also well known internationally as an actor, having starred wit ...
's ''
Let the Bullets Fly ''Let the Bullets Fly'' is a 2010 Chinese action comedy film written and directed by Jiang Wen, based on a story by Ma Shitu. The film is set in Sichuan during the 1920s when the bandit Zhang (Jiang Wen) descends upon a town posing as its new gove ...
'' (2010) became China's highest grossing domestic films, with ''Aftershock'' earning ¥670 million (US$105 million) and ''Let the Bullets Fly'' ¥674 million (US$110 million). '' Lost in Thailand'' (2012) became the first Chinese film to reach ¥1 billion at the Chinese box office and ''
Monster Hunt ''Monster Hunt'' () is a 2015 mainland Chinese-Hong Kong 3D fantasy action comedy adventure film directed by Raman Hui (in his feature directorial debut). The film was released in China on 16 July 2015 in 3D and IMAX 3D. Upon release, it became ...
'' (2015) became the first to reach . As of 2021, 9 of the top 10 highest-grossing films in China are domestic productions. On 8 February 2016, the Chinese box office set a new single-day gross record, with , beating the previous record of on 18 July 2015. Also in February 2016, '' The Mermaid'', directed by
Stephen Chow Stephen Chow Sing-chi (, born 22 June 1962), known professionally as Stephen Chow, is a Hong Kong filmmaker, former actor and comedian, known for ''Shaolin Soccer'' and ''Kung Fu Hustle''. Early life and education Stephen Chow was born in British ...
, became the highest-grossing film in China, overtaking ''Monster Hunt''. It is also the first film to reach . Under the influence of Hollywood science fiction movies like ''
Prometheus In Greek mythology, Prometheus (; , , possibly meaning "forethought")Smith"Prometheus". is a Titan god of fire. Prometheus is best known for defying the gods by stealing fire from them and giving it to humanity in the form of technology, know ...
'', published on 8 June 2012, such genres especially the space science films have risen rapidly in the Chinese film market in recent years. On 5 February 2019, the film ''
The Wandering Earth ''The Wandering Earth'' () is a 2019 Chinese science fiction film directed by Frant Gwo, loosely based on the 2000 short story of the same name by Liu Cixin. The film stars Qu Chuxiao, Li Guangjie, Ng Man-tat, Zhao Jinmai, Wu Jing and Qu Jingj ...
'' directed by Frant Kwo reached $699.8 million worldwide, which became the third highest-grossing film in the history of Chinese cinema.


Chinese international cinema and successes abroad

Since the late 1980s and progressively in the 2000s, Chinese films have enjoyed considerable box office success abroad. Formerly viewed only by cineastes, its global appeal mounted after the international box office and critical success of
Ang Lee Ang Lee (; born October 23, 1954) is a Taiwanese filmmaker. Born in Pingtung County of southern Taiwan, Lee was educated in Taiwan and later in the United States. During his filmmaking career, he has received international critical and popula ...
's period
wuxia ( ), which literally means "martial heroes", is a genre of Chinese fiction concerning the adventures of martial artists in ancient China. Although is traditionally a form of historical fiction, its popularity has caused it to be adapted ...
film '' Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon'' which won
Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film The Academy Award for Best International Feature Film (known as Best Foreign Language Film prior to 2020) is one of the Academy Awards handed out annually by the U.S.-based Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS). It is given to a ...
in 2000. This multi-national production increased its appeal by featuring stars from all parts of the Chinese-speaking world. It provided an introduction to Chinese cinema (and especially the
wuxia ( ), which literally means "martial heroes", is a genre of Chinese fiction concerning the adventures of martial artists in ancient China. Although is traditionally a form of historical fiction, its popularity has caused it to be adapted ...
genre) for many and increased the popularity of many earlier Chinese films. To date ''Crouching Tiger'' remains the most commercially successful foreign-language film in U.S. history. Similarly, in 2002, Zhang Yimou's ''
Hero A hero (feminine: heroine) is a real person or a main fictional character who, in the face of danger, combats adversity through feats of ingenuity, courage, or strength. Like other formerly gender-specific terms (like ''actor''), ''her ...
'' was another international box office success. Its cast featured famous actors from Mainland China and Hong Kong who were also known to some extent in the West, including
Jet Li Li Lianjie (courtesy name Yangzhong; born 26 April 1963), better known by his stage name Jet Li, is a Chinese film actor, film producer, Chinese martial arts, martial artist, and retired wushu (sport), Wushu champion. He is a naturalized Singapo ...
,
Zhang Ziyi Zhang Ziyi (; ; born 9 February 1979) is a Chinese actress and model. She is regarded as one of the Four Dan Actresses of China. Her first major role was in '' The Road Home'' (1999). She later gained international recognition for her role in ...
,
Maggie Cheung Maggie Cheung Man-yuk (; born 20 September 1964) is a Hong Kong former actress. Raised in Hong Kong and Britain, she started her career after placing second in 1983's Miss Hong Kong Pageant. She achieved critical success in the late 1980s and in ...
and
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. Despite criticisms by some that these two films pander somewhat to Western tastes, ''Hero'' was a phenomenal success in most of
Asia Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an area ...
and topped the U.S. box office for two weeks, making enough in the U.S. alone to cover the production costs. Other films such as '' Farewell My Concubine'', '' 2046'', '' Suzhou River'', '' The Road Home'' and ''
House of Flying Daggers ''House of Flying Daggers'' ( Chinese: 十面埋伏) is a 2004 ''wuxia'' romance film directed by Zhang Yimou and starring Andy Lau, Zhang Ziyi and Takeshi Kaneshiro. Unlike other ''wuxia'' films, it is more of a love story than purely a marti ...
'' were critically acclaimed around the world. The
Hengdian World Studios Hengdian World Studios () is a film studio located in Hengdian, a Chinese town in the city of Dongyang, Zhejiang Province. It is one of the largest film studios in the world. The movie studio is operated by the privately owned Hengdian Group fo ...
can be seen as the "Chinese Hollywood", with a total area of up to 330 ha. and 13 shooting bases, including a 1:1 copy of the
Forbidden City The Forbidden City () is a Chinese palace, palace complex in Dongcheng District, Beijing, China, at the center of the Imperial City, Beijing, Imperial City of Beijing. It is surrounded by numerous opulent imperial gardens and temples includ ...
. The successes of ''Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon'' and ''Hero'' make it difficult to demarcate the boundary between "Mainland Chinese" cinema and a more international-based "Chinese-language cinema". ''Crouching Tiger'', for example, was directed by a
Taiwan Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the nort ...
-born American director (
Ang Lee Ang Lee (; born October 23, 1954) is a Taiwanese filmmaker. Born in Pingtung County of southern Taiwan, Lee was educated in Taiwan and later in the United States. During his filmmaking career, he has received international critical and popula ...
) who works often in Hollywood. Its pan-Chinese leads include Mainland Chinese (
Zhang Ziyi Zhang Ziyi (; ; born 9 February 1979) is a Chinese actress and model. She is regarded as one of the Four Dan Actresses of China. Her first major role was in '' The Road Home'' (1999). She later gained international recognition for her role in ...
), Hong Kong (
Chow Yun-Fat Chow Yun-fat (born 18 May 1955), previously known as Donald Chow, is a Hong Kong actor. He is perhaps best known for his collaborations with filmmaker John Woo in the five Hong Kong action heroic bloodshed films: ''A Better Tomorrow'', ''A Be ...
), Taiwan (
Chang Chen Chang Chen (born 14 October 1976) is a Taiwanese actor. He was born in Taipei, Taiwan. His father Chang Kuo-chu and his brother Hans Chang are also actors. Career Chang started his film career at a very young age. He was then selected by a Ta ...
) and
Malaysia Malaysia ( ; ) is a country in Southeast Asia. The federation, federal constitutional monarchy consists of States and federal territories of Malaysia, thirteen states and three federal territories, separated by the South China Sea into two r ...
n (
Michelle Yeoh Michelle Yeoh Choo Kheng, ( ; born 6 August 1962) is a Malaysian actress. Credited as Michelle Khan in her early Hong Kong films, she rose to fame in the 1990s after starring in a series of Hong Kong action films where she performed her own ...
) actors and actresses; the film was co-produced by an array of Chinese, American, Hong Kong, and Taiwan film companies. Likewise, Lee's Chinese-language ''
Lust, Caution ''Lust, Caution'' () is a 2007 erotic period espionage mystery romance film directed by Ang Lee, based on the 1979 novella by Eileen Chang. ''Lust, Caution'' is set in Hong Kong in 1938 and in Shanghai in 1942, when the city was occupied by t ...
'' (2007) drew a crew and cast from Mainland China, Hong Kong and Taiwan, and includes an orchestral score by French composer
Alexandre Desplat Alexandre Michel Gérard Desplat (; born 23 August 1961) is a French film composer and conductor. He has won many awards, including two Academy Awards, for his musical scores to the films ''The Grand Budapest Hotel'' and ''The Shape of Water'', ...
. This merging of people, resources and expertise from the three regions and the broader
East Asia East Asia is the eastern region of Asia, which is defined in both geographical and ethno-cultural terms. The modern states of East Asia include China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan. China, North Korea, South Korea and ...
and the world, marks the movement of Chinese-language cinema into a domain of large scale international influence. Other examples of films in this mold include '' The Promise'' (2005), '' The Banquet'' (2006), ''
Fearless Fearless or The Fearless may refer to: Psychology * Lack of fear * Courage or bravery Film, television and audio Film * ''Fearless'' (1978 film), an Italian film directed by Stelvio Massi * ''Fearless'' (1993 film), an American drama directed ...
'' (2006), ''
The Warlords ''The Warlords'' (), previously known as ''The Blood Brothers'', is a 2007 epic action war drama film directed by Peter Chan and starring Jet Li, Andy Lau, Takeshi Kaneshiro and Xu Jinglei. The film was released on 13 December 2007 simultaneo ...
'' (2007), ''
Bodyguards and Assassins ''Bodyguards and Assassins'' is a 2009 Hong Kong historical action film directed by Teddy Chan, featuring an all-star cast including Donnie Yen, Wang Xueqi, Tony Leung Ka-fai, Nicholas Tse, Hu Jun, Chris Lee, Eric Tsang, Fan Bingbing, Zhang H ...
'' (2009) and '' Red Cliff'' (2008-09). The ease with which ethnic Chinese actresses and actors straddle the mainland and Hong Kong has significantly increased the number of co-productions in Chinese-language cinema. Many of these films also feature South Korean or Japanese actors to appeal to their East Asian neighbours. Some artistes originating from the mainland, like
Hu Jun Hu Jun (born March 18, 1968) is a Chinese actor best known for playing dramatic roles in various films and television series. He has acted in a number of Hong Kong films. Biography Hu Jun was born on March 18, 1968, to Wang Yiman (), a drama ac ...
,
Zhang Ziyi Zhang Ziyi (; ; born 9 February 1979) is a Chinese actress and model. She is regarded as one of the Four Dan Actresses of China. Her first major role was in '' The Road Home'' (1999). She later gained international recognition for her role in ...
,
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and
Zhou Xun Zhou Xun (, born 18 October 1974) is a Chinese actress and singer. She is regarded as one of the Four Dan Actresses of China. She gained international fame for her roles in '' Suzhou River'' (2000) and ''Balzac and the Little Chinese Seamstress'' ...
, obtained Hong Kong residency under the
Quality Migrant Admission Scheme The Quality Migrant Admission Scheme ("QMAS") is a points-based immigration system in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China. It was first announced in February 2006, and began accepting applications in Jun ...
and have acted in many Hong Kong productions.


Industry


Box office and screens

In 2010, Chinese cinema was the third largest film industry by number of feature films produced annually. In 2013, China's gross box office was ¥21.8 billion (
US$ The United States dollar (symbol: $; code: USD; also abbreviated US$ or U.S. Dollar, to distinguish it from other dollar-denominated currencies; referred to as the dollar, U.S. dollar, American dollar, or colloquially buck) is the official ...
3.6 billion), the second-largest film market in the world by box office receipts. In January 2013, '' Lost in Thailand'' (2012) became the first Chinese film to reach ¥1 billion at the box office. As of May 2013, 7 of the top 10 highest-grossing films in China were domestic productions. As of 2014, around half of all tickets are sold online, with the largest ticket selling sites being Maoyan.com (82 million), Gewara.com (45 million) and Wepiao.com (28 million). In 2014, Chinese films earned ¥1.87 billion outside China. By December 2013 there were 17,000 screens in the country. By 6 January 2014, there were 18,195 screens in the country.
Greater China Greater China is an informal geographical area that shares commercial and cultural ties with the Han Chinese people. The notion of "Greater China" refers to the area that usually encompasses Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan in East A ...
has around 251 IMAX theaters. There were 299 cinema chains (252 rural, 47 urban), 5,813
movie theater A movie theater (American English), cinema (British English), or cinema hall ( Indian English), also known as a movie house, picture house, the movies, the pictures, picture theater, the silver screen, the big screen, or simply theater is a ...
s and 24,317 screens in the country in 2014. The country added about 8,035 screens in 2015 (at an average of 22 new screens per day, increasing its total by about 40% to around 31,627 screens, which is about 7,373 shy of the number of screens in the United States. Chinese films accounted for 61.48% of ticket sales in 2015 (up from 54% last year) with more than 60% of ticket sales being made online. Average ticket price was down about 2.5% to $5.36 in 2015. It also witnessed 51.08% increase in admissions, with 1.26 billion people buying tickets to the cinema in 2015. Chinese films grossed overseas in 2015. During the week of the 2016
Chinese New Year Chinese New Year is the festival that celebrates the beginning of a New Year, new year on the traditional lunisolar calendar, lunisolar and solar Chinese calendar. In Sinophone, Chinese and other East Asian cultures, the festival is commonly r ...
, the country set a new record for the highest box office gross during one week in one territory with , overtaking the previous record of of 26 December 2015 to 1 January 2016 in the United States and Canada. Chinese films grossed () in foreign markets in 2016.


Film companies

As of April 2015, the largest Chinese film company by worth was
Alibaba Pictures Alibaba Pictures Group is a Chinese film company under the Alibaba Group. The film company was formerly ChinaVision Media, of which Alibaba Group bought a majority stake in late 2014. It subsequently was renamed from ChinaVision to Alibaba Pictur ...
(US$8.77 billion). Other large companies include Huayi Brothers Media (US$7.9 billion),
Enlight Media Beijing Enlight Media Co., Ltd. known as Enlight Media is a Chinese publicly traded company. It is a TV program production enterprise, as well as film production via Beijing Enlight Pictures. The company was incorporated on 24 April 2000. Beiji ...
(US$5.98 billion) and
Bona Film Group Beijing Polybona Film Distribution Co. Ltd. (), also known as Polybona Films or the Bona Film Group, is a Chinese production company and distributor of films from mainland China and Hong Kong. It is run as a subsidiary of the China Poly Group, and ...
(US$542 million). The biggest distributors by market share in 2014 were:
China Film Group China Film Group Corporation (CFGC), is the largest, most influential film enterprise in the People's Republic of China, owned by the Publicity Department of the Chinese Communist Party. According to ''Forbes'', it is a state monopoly that al ...
(32.8%),
Huaxia Film Huaxia Film Distribution () is a Chinese film distribution company. In 2014, the company was the second-largest film distributor in China, gaining 22.89% of the market. Filmography *''Drug Wars (film)'' (2012) *'' The Taking of Tiger Mountain'' ...
(22.89%),
Enlight Pictures Beijing Enlight Pictures Co., Ltd. is a Chinese film production company. In 2014, the company was the third largest film distributor in China, with 7.75% of the market. Beijing Enlight Pictures is a subsidiary of Beijing Enlight Media. History In 2 ...
(7.75%),
Bona Film Group Beijing Polybona Film Distribution Co. Ltd. (), also known as Polybona Films or the Bona Film Group, is a Chinese production company and distributor of films from mainland China and Hong Kong. It is run as a subsidiary of the China Poly Group, and ...
(5.99%),
Wanda Media Wanda Media (), also known as Wanda Pictures, is a Chinese film production company and distributor. Wanda Media is a subsidiary of Wanda Group which is responsible for the development, investment, production, publicity, marketing, copyright operati ...
(5.2%),
Le Vision Pictures Le Vision Pictures (Levp), a subsidiary of LeEco, is a production and distribution company in China. Founded in 2011, Le Vision Pictures has headquarters in Beijing and offices in Hong Kong and Los Angeles, U.S.. It has produced and distributed ...
(4.1%),
Huayi Brothers Huayi Brothers Media Corp. () is a Chinese multinational entertainment company that owns a film studio, a television production company, a talent agency, a record label, and a movie theater chain founded in Beijing, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Maca ...
(2.26%), United Exhibitor Partners (2%), Heng Ye Film Distribution (1.77%) and Beijing Anshi Yingna Entertainment (1.52%). The biggest
cinema chain A movie theater (American English), cinema (British English), or cinema hall (Indian English), also known as a movie house, picture house, the movies, the pictures, picture theater, the silver screen, the big screen, or simply theater is a ...
s in 2014 by box office gross were:
Wanda Cinema Line Wanda Cinemas () is a cinema operator in China, headquartered in the Wanda Plaza ( 万达广场) in Chaoyang District, Beijing.China Film Stellar China Film Stellar () is a Chinese movie theater A movie theater (American English), cinema (British English), or cinema hall ( Indian English), also known as a movie house, picture house, the movies, the pictures, picture theater, the si ...
(393.35 million),
Dadi Theater Circuit Dadi Theater Circuit () is a Chinese cinema chain. In 2014 it was the 3rd largest cinema chain in China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencie ...
(378.17 million), Shanghai United Circuit (355.07 million), Guangzhou Jinyi Zhujiang (335.39 million),
China Film South Cinema Circuit China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
(318.71 million), Zhejiang Time Cinema (190.53 million),
China Film Group Digital Cinema Line China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
(177.42 million), Hengdian Cinema Line (170.15 million) and
Beijing New Film Association } Beijing ( ; ; ), Chinese postal romanization, alternatively romanized as Peking ( ), is the Capital city, capital of the China, People's Republic of China. It is the center of power and development of the country. Beijing is the world's Li ...
(163.09 million).


Notable independent (non-state-owned) film companies

Huayi Brothers Huayi Brothers Media Corp. () is a Chinese multinational entertainment company that owns a film studio, a television production company, a talent agency, a record label, and a movie theater chain founded in Beijing, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Maca ...
is China’s most powerful independent (i.e., non state-owned) entertainment company, Beijing-based Huayi Brothers is a diversified company engaged in film and TV production, distribution, theatrical exhibition, as well as talent management. Notable films include 2004's ''Kung Fu Hustle''; and 2010's ''Aftershock'', which had a 91% rating on Rotten Tomatoes.
Beijing Enlight Media Beijing Enlight Media Co., Ltd. known as Enlight Media is a Chinese publicly traded company. It is a TV program production enterprise, as well as film production via Beijing Enlight Pictures. The company was incorporated on 24 April 2000. Beiji ...
focuses on the action and romance genres. Enlight usually places several films in China’s top 20 grossers. Enlight is also a major player in China’s TV series production and distribution businesses. Under the leadership of its CEO Wang Changtian, the publicly traded, Beijing-based company has achieved a market capitalization of nearly US$1 billion.


See also

*
East Asian cinema East Asian cinema is cinema produced in East Asia or by people from this region. It is part of Asian cinema, which in turn is part of world cinema. The most significant film industries that are categorized as East Asian cinema are the industries o ...
*
Chinese animation Chinese animation refers to animation made in China. In China and in Chinese, donghua ( zh, s=动画, t=動畫, p=dònghuà) describes all animated works, regardless of style or origin. However, outside of China and in English, ''donghua'' is co ...
*
Chinese art Chinese art is visual art that originated in or is practiced in China, Greater China or by Chinese artists. Art created by Chinese residing outside of China can also be considered a part of Chinese art when it is based in or draws on Chinese ...
* Movie Town Haikou *
Oriental Movie Metropolis Oriental Movie Metropolis is a major Chinese studio facility, combining film and television production and several other facilities. The Metropolis was funded by Wang Jianlin, one of China's wealthiest men and head of the Dalian Wanda Group, unti ...


Lists

*
List of Chinese actors The following is a list of notable Chinese-speaking/writing actors. Their nationality can be PRC (Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau), Taiwan or any other country. This list does not include actresses. B * Bai Jingting * Bai Yu C * William Chan ...
*
List of Chinese actresses The following is a list of notable actresses from Mainland China. A *Aliya *An Yuexi * Angelababy B * Bai Lu C *Chen Duling * Chen Hao * Chen Hong *Joan Chen * Chen Sisi *Chen Xiaoxu * Chen Yumei *Chen Yunshang *Chen Yuqi *Ching Li D *Deng Ji ...
*
List of Chinese directors ''The following is a list of notable film directors from Mainland China.'' B *Bu Wancang (1903–1974) C *Cai Chusheng (1906–1968), major leftist filmmaker in the 1930s, later fell victim to the Cultural Revolution. * Cai Shangjun, Chinese sc ...
* List of Chinese films *
List of Chinese film production companies (pre-PRC) The following is a list of notable film production companies from Mainland China before the communist revolution in 1949. C * Changcheng Film Company- (Great Wall) Active in the 1920s D * Dadi Film Company- (Great Earth), Hong Kong production ...
*
List of highest-grossing films in China This is a list of the highest-grossing films in Mainland China. Most of the data below is provided by EntGroup's China Box Office (CBO) website, with the gross in yuan. Highest-grossing films by box office revenue Top 50 all-time highest-grossing ...
* List of film production companies by country#China *
List of highest-grossing non-English films These are the highest-grossing, primarily non-English language films in the world. The vast majority of them are Chinese films. Film and language In terms of gross revenue, English-language films are vastly over-represented among the highes ...


Notes


References


Citations


Sources

* *


Further reading

* Carlo Celli. "China’s Confucian, Misogynistic Nationalism" ''National Identity in Global Cinema: How Movies Explain the World''. Palgrave MacMillan 2013, 1-22. *
Rey Chow Rey Chow (born 1957) is a cultural critic, specializing in 20th-century Chinese fiction and film and postcolonial theory. Educated in Hong Kong and the United States, she has taught at several major American universities, including Brown Univer ...
, ''Primitive Passions: Visuality, Sexuality, Ethnography, and Contemporary Chinese Cinema'',
Columbia University Press Columbia University Press is a university press based in New York City, and affiliated with Columbia University. It is currently directed by Jennifer Crewe (2014–present) and publishes titles in the humanities and sciences, including the fiel ...
1995. * Cheng, Jim, ''Annotated Bibliography For Chinese Film Studies'', Hong Kong University Press 2004. * Shuqin Cui, ''Women Through the Lens: Gender and Nation in a Century of Chinese Cinema'', University of Hawaii Press 2003. * Dai Jinhua, ''Cinema and Desire: Feminist Marxism and Cultural Politics in the Work of Dai Jinhua'', eds. Jing Wang and Tani E. Barlow. London: Verso 2002. * * * Harry H. Kuoshu, ''Celluloid China: Cinematic Encounters with Culture and Society'', Southern Illinois University Press 2002 - introduction, discusses 15 films at length. *
Jay Leyda Jay Leyda (February 12, 1910 – February 15, 1988)David Stirk and Elena Pinto Simon in was an American avant-garde filmmaker and film historian, noted for his work on U.S, Soviet, and Chinese cinema, as well as his documentary compilations on ...
, ''Dianying'', MIT Press, 1972. * Laikwan Pang, ''Building a New China in Cinema: The Chinese Left-Wing Cinema Movement, 1932-1937'', Rowman & Littlefield Pub Inc 2002. * * Rea, Christopher. ''Chinese Film Classics, 1922-1949.'' New York: Columbia University Press, 2021. ISBN 9780231188135 *Seio Nakajima. 2016. "The genesis, structure and transformation of the contemporary Chinese cinematic field: Global linkages and national refractions." ''Global Media and Communication'' Volume 12, Number 1, pp 85–108

* Zhen Ni, Chris Berry, ''Memoirs From The Beijing Film Academy'',
Duke University Press Duke University Press is an academic publisher and university press affiliated with Duke University. It was founded in 1921 by William T. Laprade as The Trinity College Press. (Duke University was initially called Trinity College). In 1926 Du ...
2002. * Semsel, George, ed. "Chinese Film: The State of the Art in the People's Republic", Praeger, 1987. * Semsel, George, Xia Hong, and Hou Jianping, eds. ''Chinese Film Theory: A Guide to the New Era'', Praeger, 1990. * Semsel, George, Chen Xihe, and Xia Hong, eds. Film in Contemporary China: Critical Debates, 1979-1989", Praeger, 1993. * Gary G. Xu, ''Sinascape: Contemporary Chinese Cinema'', Rowman & Littlefield, 2007. * Emilie Yueh-yu Yeh and Darrell William Davis. 2008. "Re-nationalizing China’s film industry: case study on the China Film Group and film marketization." ''Journal of Chinese Cinemas'' Volume 2, Issue 1, pp 37–51

* Yingjin Zhang (Author), Zhiwei Xiao (Author, Editor), ''Encyclopedia of Chinese Film'', Routledge, 1998. * Yingjin Zhang, ed., ''Cinema and Urban Culture in Shanghai, 1922-1943'', Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1999. * Yingjin Zhang, ''Chinese National Cinema'' (National Cinemas Series.), Routledge 2004 - general introduction. *
Ying Zhu Ying Zhu is Professor Emeritus at the City University of New York and Director of the Center for Film and Moving Image Research in the Academy of Film, Hong Kong Baptist University. Career A New York-based expert on Chinese film and media indu ...
, "Chinese Cinema during the Era of Reform: the Ingenuity of the System", Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003. *
Ying Zhu Ying Zhu is Professor Emeritus at the City University of New York and Director of the Center for Film and Moving Image Research in the Academy of Film, Hong Kong Baptist University. Career A New York-based expert on Chinese film and media indu ...
, "Art, Politics and Commerce in Chinese Cinema", co-edited with Stanley Rosen, Hong Kong University Press, 2010 *
Ying Zhu Ying Zhu is Professor Emeritus at the City University of New York and Director of the Center for Film and Moving Image Research in the Academy of Film, Hong Kong Baptist University. Career A New York-based expert on Chinese film and media indu ...
and Seio Nakajima, "The Evolution of Chinese Film as an Industry," pp. 17–33 in Stanley Rosen and Ying Zhu, eds., ''Art, Politics and Commerce in Chinese Cinema,'' Hong Kong University Press, 2010

* Wang, Lingzhen. ''Chinese Women's Cinema: Transnational Contexts''.
Columbia University Press Columbia University Press is a university press based in New York City, and affiliated with Columbia University. It is currently directed by Jennifer Crewe (2014–present) and publishes titles in the humanities and sciences, including the fiel ...
, 13 August 2013. , 9780231527446.


External links


Chinese Film Classics
- a website hosted at the University of British Columbia with over 30 early Chinese films with English subtitles, a
online course on early Chinese cinema
and other resources *
Journal of Chinese Cinema




{{DEFAULTSORT:Cinema Of China Cinema of China, Arts in China