This is a list of different language classification proposals developed for the

Indigenous languages of the Americas The Indigenous languages of the Americas are the languages that were used by the Indigenous peoples of the Americas before the arrival of non-Indigenous peoples. Over a thousand of these languages are still used today, while many more are now e ...

or Amerindian languages. The article is divided into North, Central, and South America sections; however, the classifications do not correspond to these divisions.

North America

''Glottolog'' 4.1 (2019)

Glottolog ''Glottolog'' is an open-access online bibliographic database of the world's languages. In addition to listing linguistic materials ( grammars, articles, dictionaries) describing individual languages, the database also contains the most up-to-d ...

'' 4.1 (2019) recognizes 42 independent families and 31 isolates in North America (73 total). The vast majority are (or were) spoken in the United States, with 26 families and 26 isolates (52 total). ;North American languages families proposed in ''

'' 4.1 ;Families (42) # Otomanguean (180) # Arawakan (78) #

Uto-Aztecan The Uto-Aztecan languages are a family of native American languages, consisting of over thirty languages. Uto-Aztecan languages are found almost entirely in the Western United States and Mexico. The name of the language family reflects the common ...

(69) # Algic (46) # Athabaskan-Eyak-Tlingit (45) # Mayan (33) # Chibchan (27) # Salishan (25) # Mixe-Zoque (19) # Siouan (18) # Eskimo–Aleut (12) # Totonacan (12) # Cochimi-Yuman (11) #

Iroquoian The Iroquoian languages () are a language family of indigenous peoples of North America. They are known for their general lack of labial consonants. The Iroquoian languages are polysynthetic and head-marking. As of 2020, almost all surviving I ...

(11) # Miwok-Costanoan (11) #

Kiowa-Tanoan Tanoan ( ), also Kiowa–Tanoan or Tanoan–Kiowa, is a family of languages spoken by indigenous peoples in present-day New Mexico, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. Most of the languages – Tiwa languages, Tiwa (Taos, Picuris, Southern Tiwa), Te ...

(8) #

Muskogean Muskogean ( ; also Muskhogean) is a language family spoken in the Southeastern United States. Members of the family are Indigenous Languages of the Americas. Typologically, Muskogean languages are highly synthetic and agglutinative. One docume ...

(7) # Pomoan (7) # Chumashan (6) # Wakashan (6) # Caddoan (5) # Misumalpan (5) # Sahaptian (5) # Xincan (5) # Chinookan (4) # Huavean (4) # Maiduan (4) # Yokutsan (4) # Kalapuyan (3) # Shastan (3) # Tequistlatecan (3) #

Tsimshian The Tsimshian (; ) are an Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, Indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest Coast of North America. Their communities are mostly in coastal British Columbia in Terrace, British Columbia, Terrace and ...

(3) # Chimakuan (2) # Coosan (2) # Haida (2) # Jicaquean (2) # Keresan (2) # Lencan (2) # Palaihnihan (2) # Tarascan (2) # Wintuan (2) # Yuki-Wappo (2) ;Isolates (31) # Adai # Alsea-Yaquina # Atakapa #

Beothuk The Beothuk ( or ; also spelled Beothuck) were a group of Indigenous peoples in Canada, Indigenous people of Canada who lived on the island of Newfoundland (island), Newfoundland. The Beothuk culture formed around 1500 CE. This may have been ...

# Cayuse # Chimariko # Chitimacha # Coahuilteco # Comecrudan # Cotoname # Cuitlatec # Esselen # Guaicurian # Karankawa # Karok # Klamath-Modoc #

Kutenai The Kutenai ( ), also known as the Ktunaxa ( ; ), Ksanka ( ), Kootenay (in Canada) and Kootenai (in the United States), are an indigenous peoples of the Americas, indigenous people of Canada and the United States. Kutenai bands live in so ...

# Maratino # Molale # Natchez # Salinan # Seri # Siuslaw # Takelma #

Timucua The Timucua were a Native American people who lived in Northeast and North Central Florida and southeast Georgia. They were the largest indigenous group in that area and consisted of about 35 chiefdoms, many leading thousands of people. The va ...

Tonkawa The Tonkawa are a Native American tribe from Oklahoma and Texas. Their Tonkawa language, now extinct language, extinct, is a linguistic isolate. Today, Tonkawa people are enrolled in the Federally recognized tribes, federally recognized Tonkawa ...

# Tunica # Washo # Yana #

Yuchi The Yuchi people are a Native American tribe based in Oklahoma, though their original homeland was in the southeastern United States. In the 16th century, the Yuchi lived in the eastern Tennessee River valley. By the late 17th century, they had ...

# Zuni

Gallatin (1836)

An early attempt at North American language classification was attempted by A. A. Albert Gallatin published in 1826, 1836, and 1848. Gallatin's classifications are missing several languages which are later recorded in the classifications by Daniel G. Brinton and John Wesley Powell. (Gallatin supported the assimilation of indigenous peoples to Euro-American culture.) : (Current terminology is indicated parenthetically in ''italics''.) Families # Algonkin-Lenape '' (= Algonquian)'' # Athapascas '' (= Athabaskan)'' # Catawban '' (= Catawba + Woccons)'' # Eskimaux '' (= Eskimoan)'' # Iroquois '' (= Northern Iroquoian)'' # Cherokees '' (= Southern Iroquoian)'' # Muskogee '' (= Eastern Muskogean)'' # Chahtas '' (= Western Muskogean)'' # Sioux '' (= Siouan)'' Languages

Gallatin (1848)

Families #

Algonquian languages The Algonquian languages ( ; also Algonkian) are a family of Indigenous languages of the Americas and most of the languages in the Algic language family are included in the group. The name of the Algonquian language family is distinguished from ...

Athabaskan languages Athabaskan ( ; also spelled ''Athabascan'', ''Athapaskan'' or ''Athapascan'', and also known as Dene) is a large branch of the Na-Dene languages, Na-Dene language family of North America, located in western North America in three areal language ...

# Catawban languages # Eskimoan languages #

Iroquoian languages The Iroquoian languages () are a language family of indigenous peoples of North America. They are known for their general lack of labial consonants. The Iroquoian languages are polysynthetic and head-marking. As of 2020, almost all surviving I ...

(Northern) #

(Southern) #

Muskogean languages Muskogean ( ; also Muskhogean) is a language family spoken in the Southeastern United States. Members of the family are Indigenous Languages of the Americas. Typologically, Muskogean languages are highly synthetic and agglutinative. One documen ...

Siouan languages Siouan ( ), also known as Siouan–Catawban ( ), is a language family of North America located primarily in the Great Plains, Ohio and Mississippi valleys and southeastern North America with a few other languages in the east. Name Authors who ...

Languages

Powell's (1892) "Fifty-eight"

John Wesley Powell, an explorer who served as director of the

Bureau of American Ethnology The Bureau of American Ethnology (or BAE, originally, Bureau of Ethnology) was established in 1879 by an act of Congress for the purpose of transferring archives, records and materials relating to the Indians of North America from the Departme ...

, published a classification of 58 "

stocks Stocks are feet and hand restraining devices that were used as a form of corporal punishment and public humiliation. The use of stocks is seen as early as Ancient Greece, where they are described as being in use in Solon's law code. The law de ...

" that is the "cornerstone" of genetic classifications in North America. Powell's classification was influenced by Gallatin to a large extent. John Wesley Powell was in a race with Daniel G. Brinton to publish the first comprehensive classification of North America languages (although Brinton's classification also covered South and Central America). As a result of this competition, Brinton was not allowed access to the linguistic data collected by Powell's fieldworkers. : ''(More current names are indicated parenthetically.)''

Rivet (1924)

Paul Rivet (1924) lists a total of 46 independent language families in North and Central America. Olive and Janambre are extinct languages of

Tamaulipas Tamaulipas, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Tamaulipas, is a state in Mexico; one of the 31 states which, along with Mexico City, comprise the 32 federal entities of Mexico. It is divided into 43 municipalities. It is located in nor ...

Mexico Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a country in North America. It is the northernmost country in Latin America, and borders the United States to the north, and Guatemala and Belize to the southeast; while having maritime boundar ...

. ;North American families # Algonkin #''

'' #

Eskimo ''Eskimo'' () is a controversial Endonym and exonym, exonym that refers to two closely related Indigenous peoples: Inuit (including the Alaska Native Iñupiat, the Canadian Inuit, and the Greenlandic Inuit) and the Yupik peoples, Yupik (or Sibe ...

# Hoka # Iroquois (Irokwa) #'' Kaddo'' #'' Keres'' #''

Kiowa Kiowa ( ) or Cáuigú () people are a Native Americans in the United States, Native American tribe and an Indigenous people of the Great Plains of the United States. They migrated southward from western Montana into the Rocky Mountains in Colora ...

'' #'' Klamath'' #''

'' # Muskhogi # Na-Dene # Penutia # Sahaptin # Salish # Siou (Syu) # Tano #'' Timukua'' #'' Chimakum'' #'' Tunika'' # Uto-Azten #'' Waiilatpu'' # Wakash #'' Yuki'' #''

'' #'' Zuñi'' ;Central American families #'' Amusgo'' #'' Kuikatec'' #'' Kuitlatek'' # Lenka #

Maya Maya may refer to: Ethnic groups * Maya peoples, of southern Mexico and northern Central America ** Maya civilization, the historical civilization of the Maya peoples ** Mayan languages, the languages of the Maya peoples * Maya (East Africa), a p ...

# Miskito-Sumo-Matagalpa # Mixe-Zoke # Mixtek #''

Olive The olive, botanical name ''Olea europaea'' ("European olive"), is a species of Subtropics, subtropical evergreen tree in the Family (biology), family Oleaceae. Originating in Anatolia, Asia Minor, it is abundant throughout the Mediterranean ...

'' # Otomi #'' Paya'' #'' Subtiaba'' #'' Tarask (Michoacano)'' # Totonak # Chinantek #'' Waїkuri'' #'' Xanambre (Janambre)'' # Xikake (Jicaque) # Xinka (Jinca, Sinca) # Zapotek

Sapir (1929): ''Encyclopædia Britannica''

Below is

Edward Sapir Edward Sapir (; January 26, 1884 – February 4, 1939) was an American anthropologist-linguistics, linguist, who is widely considered to be one of the most important figures in the development of the discipline of linguistics in the United States ...

's (1929) famous ''

Encyclopædia Britannica The is a general knowledge, general-knowledge English-language encyclopaedia. It has been published by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. since 1768, although the company has changed ownership seven times. The 2010 version of the 15th edition, ...

'' classification. Note that Sapir's classification was controversial at the time and it additionally was an original proposal (unusual for general encyclopedias). Sapir was part of a " lumper" movement in Native American language classification. Sapir himself writes of his classification: "A more far-reaching scheme than Powell's 891 classification suggestive but not demonstrable in all its features at the present time" (Sapir 1929: 139). Sapir's classifies all the languages in North America into only 6 families: Eskimo–Aleut, Algonkin–Wakashan, Na-Dene,

Penutian Penutian is a proposed grouping of language family, language families that includes many Native Americans in the United States, Native American languages of western North America, predominantly spoken at one time in British Columbia, Washington ( ...

, Hokan– Siouan, and Aztec–Tanoan. Sapir's classification (or something derivative) is still commonly used in general languages-of-the-world type surveys. (Note that the question marks that appear in Sapir's list below are present in the original article.) : "Proposed Classification of American Indian Languages North of Mexico (and Certain Languages of Mexico and Central America)"

Voegelin & Voegelin (1965): The "Consensus" of 1964

The Voegelin & Voegelin (1965) classification was the result of a conference of Americanist linguists held at Indiana University in 1964. This classification identifies 16 main genetic units. Chumashan, Comecrudan, and

Coahuiltecan The Coahuiltecan were various small, autonomous bands of Indigenous peoples of the Americas, Native Americans who inhabited the Rio Grande valley in what is now northeastern Mexico and southern Texas. The various Coahuiltecan groups were hunter ga ...

are included in Hokan with "reservations". Esselen is included in Hokan with "strong reservations".

and Zuni are included in

with reservations.

Campbell & Mithun (1979): The "Black Book"

Campbell & Mithun's 1979 classification is more conservative, since it insists on more rigorous demonstration of genetic relationship before grouping. Thus, many of the speculative phyla of previous authors are "split".

Goddard (1996), Campbell (1997), Mithun (1999)

(preliminary) Families # Algic ## Algonquian ##

Wiyot The Wiyot ( Wiyot: Wíyot, Chetco-Tolowa: Wee-'at xee-she or Wee-yan' Xee-she', Euchre Creek Tututni: Wii-yat-dv-ne – "Mad River People", Yurok: Weyet) are an indigenous people of California living near Humboldt Bay, California and a small ...

(> Ritwan?) ## Yurok (> Ritwan?) # Na-Dene ## Eyak-Athabaskan ### Eyak ### Athabaskan ## Tlingit # Caddoan (> Macro-Siouan?) # Chimakuan # Chinookan (>

?) # Chumashan húmash# Comecrudan # Coosan us(> Coast Penutian?) # Eskimo–Aleut ## Eskimoan ##

Aleut Aleuts ( ; (west) or (east) ) are the Indigenous people of the Aleutian Islands, which are located between the North Pacific Ocean and the Bering Sea. Both the Aleuts and the islands are politically divided between the US state of Alaska ...

= Unangan #

# Kalapuyan alapúyan# Kiowa–Tanoan # Maiduan #

# Palaihnihan (Achumawi–Atsugewi) # Pomoan # Sahaptian # Salishan # Shastan # Siouan–Catawban ## Siouan ## Catawban # Tsimshianic # Utian ##

Miwok The Miwok (also spelled Miwuk, Mi-Wuk, or Me-Wuk) are members of four linguistically related Native Americans in the United States, Native American groups indigenous to what is now Northern California, who traditionally spoke one of the Miwok lan ...

## Costanoan # Utaztecan ## Numic = Plateau ## Tübatulabal = Kern ##

Takic The Takic languages are a putative group of Uto-Aztecan languages historically spoken by a number of Indigenous peoples of California, Indigenous peoples of Southern California. Takic is grouped with the Tübatulabal language, Tubatulabal, Hopi la ...

= Southern California ##

Hopi The Hopi are Native Americans who primarily live in northeastern Arizona. The majority are enrolled in the Hopi Tribe of Arizona and live on the Hopi Reservation in northeastern Arizona; however, some Hopi people are enrolled in the Colorado ...

= Pueblo ## Tepiman = Pimic ## Taracahitic ## Tubar ## Corachol ## Aztecan # Wakashan ## Kwakiutlan ## Nootkan # Wintuan (> Coast Penutian?) # Yokutsan # Yuman–Cochimi ## Yuman ## Cochimi Isolates # Adai # Alsea lsi(> Coast Penutian?) # Atakapa (> Tunican?) #

(unclassifiable?) # Cayuse # Chimariko # Chitimacha (> Tunican?) # Coahuilteco # Cotoname = Carrizo de Camargo # Esselen # Haida # Karankawa # Karuk # Keres # Klamath-Modoc # Kootenai # Molala # Natchez # Salinan # Siuslaw (> Coast Penutian?) # Takelma #

# Tunica (> Tunican?) #

Wappo The Wappo (endonym: ''Micewal'') are an Indigenous people of northern California. Their traditional homelands are in Napa Valley, the south shore of Clear Lake, Alexander Valley, and Russian River valley. They are distantly related to the Yu ...

(> Yuki–Wappo) # Washo # Yana #

(> Siouan) # Yuki (> Yuki–Wappo) # Zuni Stocks * Yuki–Wappo, supported by Elmendorf (1981, 1997) The unity of Penutian languages outside Mexico is considered probable by many linguists: *

# Tsimshianic # Chinookan # Takelma # Kalapuya (not close to Takelma: Tarpent & Kendall 1998) # Maidun # Oregon Coast-Wintu (Whistler 1977, Golla 1997) ## Alsea ## Coosan ## Siuslaw ## Wintuan #

Plateau In geology and physical geography, a plateau (; ; : plateaus or plateaux), also called a high plain or a tableland, is an area of a highland consisting of flat terrain that is raised sharply above the surrounding area on at least one side. ...

## Sahaptian ## Klamath ## Molala ## Cayuse ? (poor data) # Yok-Utian ? ## Yana ## Yana Siouan–Yuchi "probable"; Macro-Siouan likely: * Macro-Siouan # Iroquoian–Caddoan ##

## Caddoan # Siouan–Yuchi ## Siouan–Catawban ##

Natchez–Muskogean most likely of the Gulf hypothesis * Natchez–Muskogean # Natchez #

Hokan: most promising proposals * Hokan # Karok # Chimariko # Shastan # Palaihnihan # Yana # Washo # Pomoan # Esselen # Salinan # Yuman–Cochimi # Seri "Unlikely" to be Hokan: : Chumashan :

: Karankawa Subtiaba–Tlapanec is likely part of Otomanguean (Rensch 1977, Oltrogge 1977). Aztec–Tanoan is "undemonstrated"; Mosan is a

Sprachbund A sprachbund (, from , 'language federation'), also known as a linguistic area, area of linguistic convergence, or diffusion area, is a group of languages that share areal features resulting from geographical proximity and language contact. Th ...

Mesoamerica

(Consensus conservative classification) Families *

(Other branches outside Mesoamerica. See North America) languages :# Corachol (Cora–Huichol) :# Aztecan (Nahua–Pochutec) * Totonac–Tepehua * Otomanguean :# Otopamean :# Popolocan– Mazatecan :# Subtiaba–Tlapanec :# Amuzgo :# Mixtecan :# Chatino– Zapotec :# Chinantec :# Chiapanec– Mangue (extinct) * Tequistlatec- Jicaque * Mixe–Zoque * Mayan * Misumalpan (Outside Mesoamerica proper. See South America) * Chibchan (Outside Mesoamerica proper. See South America) :# Paya Isolates * Purépecha * Cuitlatec (extinct) * Huave * Xinca (extinct) *

Lenca The Lenca,are an Indigenous people from present day southwest Honduras and eastern El Salvador in Central America. They historically spoke various dialects of the Lencan languages such as Chilanga, Putun (Potón), and Kotik, but today are nat ...

(extinct) Proposed stocks * Hokan (see North America) :# Tequistlatec- Jicaque * Macro-Mayan (

affiliation now considered doubtful.) :# Totonac–Tepehua :# Huave :# Mixe–Zoque :# Mayan * Macro-Chibchan :# Chibchan :# Misumalpan :# Paya (sometimes placed in Chibchan proper) :# Xinca :#

South America

Notable early classifications of classifications of indigenous South American language families include those by Filippo Salvatore Gilii (1780–84),Gilij, Filippo Salvatore. 1965. ''Ensayo de historia Americana''. Spanish translation by Antonio Tovar. (Fuentes para la Historia Colonial de Venezuela, Volumes 71–73.) Caracas: Biblioteca de la Academia Nacional de la Historia. First published as Saggio di storia americana; o sia, storia naturale, civile e sacra de regni, e delle provincie spagnuole di Terra-Ferma nell’ America Meridionale descritto dall’ abate F. S. Gilij. Rome: Perigio 780–1784 Lorenzo Hervás y Panduro (1784–87),Hervás y Panduro, Lorenzo. 1784–87. ''Idea dell’universo: che contiene la storia della vita dell’uomo, elementi cosmografici, viaggio estatico al mondo planetario, e storia de la terra e delle lingue''. Cesena: Biasini.Hervás y Panduro, Lorenzo. 1800–1805. ''Catálogo de las lenguas de las naciones conocidas y numeracion, division, y clases de estas segun la diversidad de sus idiomas y dialectos'', Volume I (1800): ''Lenguas y naciones Americanas''. Madrid: Administracion del Real Arbitrio de Beneficencia.

Daniel Garrison Brinton Daniel Garrison Brinton (May 13, 1837July 31, 1899) was an American archaeologist, ethnologist, historian, and surgeon. Biography Brinton was born in Thornbury Township, Chester County, Pennsylvania. After graduating from Yale University in 185 ...

(1891),Brinton, Daniel G. 1891. ''The American race''. New York: D. C. Hodges. Paul Rivet (1924),Rivet, Paul. 1924. Langues Américaines III: Langues de l’Amérique du Sud et des Antilles. In: Antoine Meillet and Marcel Cohen (ed.), ''Les Langues du Monde'', Volume 16, 639–712. Paris: Collection Linguistique. John Alden Mason (1950),Mason, J. Alden. 1950. The languages of South America. In: Julian Steward (ed.), ''Handbook of South American Indians'', Volume 6, 157–317. (

Smithsonian Institution The Smithsonian Institution ( ), or simply the Smithsonian, is a group of museums, Education center, education and Research institute, research centers, created by the Federal government of the United States, U.S. government "for the increase a ...

Bulletin 143.) Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. and

Čestmír Loukotka Čestmír Loukotka (12 November 1895 – 13 April 1966) was a Czechoslovakia, Czechoslovak linguist and ethnologist. His daughter was Jarmila Loukotková. Career Loukotka proposed a Classification of indigenous languages of the Americas#Lou ...

(1968). Other classifications include those of Jacinto Jijón y Caamaño (1940–45),Jijón y Caamaño, Jacinto. 1998. ''El Ecuador interandino y occidental antes de la conquista castellana''. Quito: Abya-Yala. First published Quito: Editorial Ecuatoriana 940–1945 Antonio Tovar (1961; 1984),Tovar, Antonio. 1961. ''Catálogo de las lenguas de América del Sur: enumeración, con indicaciones tipológicas, bibliografía y mapas''. Buenos Aires: Editorial Sudamericana.Tovar, Antonio and Consuelo Larrucea de Tovar. 1984. ''Catálogo de las lenguas de América del Sur''. Madrid: Gredos. and Jorge A. Suárez (1974).Suárez, Jorge. 1974. South American Indian languages. ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'', 15th edition, Macropaedia 17. 105–112.

''Glottolog'' 4.1 (2019)

'' 4.1 (2019) recognizes 44 independent families and 64 isolates in South America. ;South American languages families proposed in ''

'' 4.1 ;Families (44) # Arawakan (78) # Tupian (71) # Pano-Tacanan (45) # Quechuan (45) # Cariban (42) # Mayan (33) # Nuclear-Macro-Je (30) # Chibchan (27) # Tucanoan (26) # Chapacuran (12) # Chocoan (9) # Huitotoan (7) # Matacoan (7) # Arawan (6) # Barbacoan (6) # Nambiquaran (6) # Zaparoan (6) # Guahiboan (5) # Guaicuruan (5) # Lengua-Mascoy (5) # Yanomamic (5) # Aymaran (4) # Chicham (4) # Chonan (4) # Jodi-Saliban (4) # Kamakanan (4) # Naduhup (4) # Bororoan (3) # Cahuapanan (3) # Charruan (3) # Kawesqar (3) # Peba-Yagua (3) # Zamucoan (3) # Araucanian (2) # Boran (2) # Harakmbut (2) # Hibito-Cholon (2) # Huarpean (2) # Kakua-Nukak (2) # Katukinan (2) # Otomaco-Taparita (2) # Puri-Coroado (2) # Ticuna-Yuri (2) # Uru-Chipaya (2) ;Isolates (64) # Aewa # Aikanã # Andaqui # Andoque # Arutani # Atacame # Betoi-Jirara # Camsá # Candoshi-Shapra # Canichana # Cayubaba # Chiquitano # Chono # Cofán # Culli # Fulniô # Guachi # Guamo # Guató # Irántxe-Münkü # Itonama # Jirajaran # Kanoê # Kariri # Kunza # Kwaza # Leco # Lule # Máku # Matanawí # Mato Grosso Arára # Mochica # Mosetén-Chimané # Movima # Muniche # Mure # Omurano # Oti # Páez # Pankararú # Payagua # Pirahã # Puelche # Puinave # Pumé # Puquina # Ramanos # Sapé # Sechuran # Tallán # Taruma # Taushiro # Timote-Cuica # Tinigua # Trumai # Tuxá #

Urarina The Urarina are an indigenous people of the Peruvian Amazon Basin (Loreto (Department of Peru), Loreto) who inhabit the valleys of the Chambira, Urituyacu, and Corrientes Rivers. According to both archaeological and historical sources, they have ...

# Vilela # Waorani # Warao # Xukurú # Yámana # Yuracaré # Yurumanguí

Rivet (1924)

Paul Rivet (1924) lists 77 independent language families of South America.

Mason (1950)

Classification of South American languages by J. Alden Mason (1950): ; Chibchan * Western ** Talamanca **

Barbacoa Barbacoa or Asado en Barbacoa () in Mexico, refers to the local indigenous variation of the method of cooking in a pit or earth oven. It generally refers to slow-cooking meats or whole sheep, whole cows, whole beef heads, or whole goats in a ...

*** Pasto *** Cayapa-

Colorado Colorado is a U.S. state, state in the Western United States. It is one of the Mountain states, sharing the Four Corners region with Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah. It is also bordered by Wyoming to the north, Nebraska to the northeast, Kansas ...

** Guatuso ** Cuna * Pacific ** Isthmian (Guaymí) ** Colombian * Inter-Andine ** Páez ** Coconuco ** Popayanense * Eastern ** Cundinamarca ** Arhuaco **

Central America Central America is a subregion of North America. Its political boundaries are defined as bordering Mexico to the north, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean to the east, and the Pacific Ocean to the southwest. Central America is usually ...

** ? Andakí (Andaquí) ** ? Betoi group ;Languages probably of Chibchan affinities * Panzaleo * Cara, Caranki * Kijo (Quijo) * Misumalpan * Cofán (Kofane) ;Languages of doubtful Chibchan relationships * Coche (Mocoa) * Esmeralda *

Tairona Tairona or Tayrona was a Pre-Columbian cultures of Colombia, Pre-Columbian culture of Colombia, which consisted in a group of chiefdoms in the region of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in present-day Cesar Department, Cesar, Magdalena Department, Mag ...

, Chimila * Yurumanguí * Timote * Candoshi, Chirino, Murato * Cholón * Híbito * Copallén * Aconipa (Akonipa) ;Language families of central South America * Yunca-Puruhán ** Yunca ** Puruhá ** Cañari (Canyari) ** Atalán ** Sec (Sechura, Tallán) * Kechumaran ** Quechua ** Aymara * Chiquitoan * Macro-Guaicuruan ** Mataco-Macá *** Mataco *** Macá (Enimagá, Cochaboth) ** Guaicurú (Waicurú) * Lule-Vilelan ** Tonocoté, Matará, Guacará ; Arawakan * Chané, Chaná ;Languages of probable Arawakan affinities * Arauá group * Apolista (Lapachu) * Amuesha * Tucuna (Tikuna) * Tarumá * Tacana ;Languages of possible Arawakan relationships * Tuyuneri * Jirajara * Jívaro * Uru-Chipaya- Pukina ** Ochosuma ** Chango, Coast Uru ; Cariban ;Languages of probable Cariban affiliations * Chocó, Cariban of Colombia * Peba-Yagua ** Arda * Yuma * Palmella * Yuri (Juri) * Pimenteira ;Macro-Tupí-Guaranian * Tupí-Guaranian ** Yurimagua (Zurimagua) * Arikem * Miranyan (Boran) * Witotoan ** Nonuya ** Muenane ** Fitita ** Orejón ** Coeruna ** Andoke ** Resigero * Záparoan ** Omurano (Roamaina?) ** Sabela ** Canelo ** Awishira ;Northern tropical lowland independent families * Warrauan * Auakéan * Calianan * Macuan * Shirianán * Sálivan, Macu, Piaróa * Pamigua, Tinigua * Otomacan, Guamo (Guama), Yaruran * Guahiban * Puinavean (Macú) * Tucanoan (Betoyan) ** Coto * Cahuapanan ** Muniche * Panoan ** Chama languages ** Cashibo ** Mayoruna ** Itucale, Simacu,

** Aguano ** Chamicuro ;Southern tropical lowland independent families * Unclassified languages of Eastern Perú: Alon, Amasifuin, Carapacho, Cascoasoa, Chedua, Cholto, Chunanawa, Chusco, Cognomona, Chupacho, Huayana, Kikidcana (Quiquidcana), Moyo-pampa, Nindaso, Nomona, Pantahua, Payanso, Tepqui, Tingan, Tulumayo, Zapazo * Small "families" of Bolivia: Itonama, Canichana, Cayuvava, Movima, Moseten, Leco, Yuracare * Small languages of the Brazil-Bolivia border: Huari, Masáca, Capishaná, Puruborá, Mashubi, Kepikiriwat, Sanamaicá, Tuparí, Guaycarú, Aricapu, Yaputi, Aruashí, Canoa * Catukinan * Chapacuran: Wanyam (Huañam), Cabishí (Kabichi) * Mascoian * Zamucoan * Guatoan * Bororoan, Otuke ** Coraveca, Covareca ** Curucaneca, Curuminaca * Nambicuaran ** Cabishí * Muran ** Matanawí * Trumaian * Caraján * Caririan ;Macro-Ge * Ge * Caingang * Camacán, Mashacalí, Purí (Coroado) ** Camacán ** Mashacalí ** Purí (Coroado) * Patashó * Malalí * Coropó * Botocudo ;Other language families of eastern Brazil * Shavanté (Chavanté, Šavante) ** Otí ** Opayé ** Cucurá * Guaitacán * Small languages of the

Pernambuco Pernambuco ( , , ) is a States of Brazil, state of Brazil located in the Northeast Region, Brazil, Northeast region of the country. With an estimated population of 9.5 million people as of 2024, it is the List of Brazilian states by population, ...

region: Fulnió, Natú, Pancãrurú, Shocó, Shucurú, Tushá, Carapató, Payacú, Teremembé, Tarairiu (Ochucayana) ;Southernmost languages * Ataguitan ** Atacama ** Omawaca (Omahuaca) ** Diaguita (Calchaquí) * Charrua, Kerandí, Chaná, etc. * Allentiac (Huarpean) * Sanavirón, Comechingónan ** Sanavirón ** Comechingón * Araucanian ** Chono * Puelchean ** Het (Chechehet) * Chonan ( Tewelche, Tehuelche), Selkʼnam * Yahganan * Alacalufan

Loukotka (1968)

(1968) proposed a total of 117 indigenous language families (called ''stocks'' by Loukotka) and isolates of South America. ;Languages of Paleo-American tribes *A. Southern Division **1. '' Yámana'' **2. '' Alacaluf'' **3. Aksanás **4. '' Patagon'' **5. '' Gennaken'' **6. Chechehet **7. '' Sanaviron'' *B. Chaco Division **8. Guaicuru **9. Vilela **10. Mataco **11. Lengua **12. Zamuco **13. Chiquito **14. '' Gorgotoqui'' **Unclassified or unknown languages of the areas of Divisions A and B. *C. Division of Central Brazil **15. Charrua **16. Kaingán **17. '' Opaie'' **18.

Puri Puri, also known as Jagannath Puri, () is a coastal city and a Nagar Palika, municipality in the state of Odisha in eastern India. It is the district headquarters of Puri district and is situated on the Bay of Bengal, south of the state ca ...

**19. Mashakali **20. Botocudo **21. '' Baenan'' **22. Kamakan **23. Fulnio **24. Ge **25. '' Kukura'' (spurious) **26. '' Otí'' **27. Boróro **28. Karajá **Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of Division C. *D. Northeastern Division **29. '' Katembri'' **30. '' Tushá'' **31. '' Pankarurú'' **32. '' Chocó'' **33. '' Umán'' **34. '' Natú'' **35. Shukurú **36. Kiriri **37. Tarairiú **38. Gamela **Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of Division D. *E. Northwestern Division **39. Múra **40. '' Matanawí'' **41. '' Erikbaktsa'' **42. Nambikwára **43. '' Iranshe'' **44. Yabutí ;Languages of tropical forest tribes *A. North Central Division **45. Tupi **46.

Arawak The Arawak are a group of Indigenous peoples of northern South America and of the Caribbean. The term "Arawak" has been applied at various times to different Indigenous groups, from the Lokono of South America to the Taíno (Island Arawaks), w ...

**47. Otomac **48. Guamo **49. '' Taruma'' **50. Piaroa **51. Tinigua **52. '' Máku'' **53. '' Tucuna'' **54. Yagua **55. Kahuapana **56. Munichi **57. Cholona **58. Mayna **59. Murato **60. '' Auishiri'' **61. '' Itucale'' **62. Jíbaro **63. Sabela **64. Záparo **65. Chapacura **66. Huari **67. '' Capixana'' **68. '' Koaiá'' **69. '' Purubora'' **70. '' Trumai'' **71. '' Cayuvava'' **72. '' Mobima'' **73. '' Itonama'' **74. '' Canichana'' **Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of the North Central Division. *B. South Central Division **75. Pano **76. Tacana **77. '' Toyeri'' **78. '' Yuracare'' **79. Mosetene **80. '' Guató'' **Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of the South Central Division. *C. Languages of the Central Division **81. Tucano **82. '' Andoque'' **83. Uitoto **84. Bora **85. '' Yuri'' **86. Makú **87. Catuquina **88. Arawa **Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of the Central Division. *D. Northeastern Division **89. Karaib **90. Yanoama **91. Uarao **92. '' Auaké'' **93. '' Kaliána'' **Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of the North Eastern Division. ;Languages of Andean tribes *A. Northern Division **94.

Chibcha The Muisca (also called the Chibcha) are indigenous peoples in Colombia and were a Pre-Columbian cultures of Colombia, Pre-Columbian culture of the Altiplano Cundiboyacense that formed the Muisca Confederation before the Spanish colonizati ...

**95. Timote **96. Jirajara **97. Chocó **98. '' Idabaez'' **Unclassified or unknown division. *B. North Central Division **99. Yurimangui **100. '' Cofán'' **101. Sechura **102. Catacao **103. '' Culli'' **104. '' Tabancale'' **105. '' Copallén'' **106. Chimú *C. South Central Division **107. Quechua **108. Aymara **109. Puquina **110. Uro **111. Atacama **112. '' Leco'' **Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of the Ancient

Inca Empire The Inca Empire, officially known as the Realm of the Four Parts (, ), was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The administrative, political, and military center of the empire was in the city of Cusco. The History of the Incas, Inca ...

. *D. Southern Division **113.

Mapuche The Mapuche ( , ) also known as Araucanians are a group of Indigenous peoples of the Americas, Indigenous inhabitants of south-central Chile and southwestern Argentina, including parts of Patagonia. The collective term refers to a wide-ranging e ...

**114. Diaguit **115. Humahuaca **116. Lule **117.

Huarpe The Huarpes or Warpes are an Indigenous people of Argentina, living in the Cuyo region. Some scholars assume that in the Huarpe language, this word means "sandy ground," but according to ''Arte y Vocabulario de la lengua general del Reino de C ...

Kaufman (1990)

Families and isolates

Terrence Kaufman Terrence Kaufman (1937 – March 3, 2022) was an American linguist specializing in documentation of unwritten languages, lexicography, Mesoamerican historical linguistics and language contact phenomena. He was an emeritus professor of linguistic ...

's classification is meant to be a rather conservative genetic grouping of the languages of South America (and a few in Central America). He has 118 ''genetic units''. Kaufman believes for these 118 units "that there is little likelihood that any of the groups recognized here will be broken apart". Kaufman uses more specific terminology than only ''language family'', such as ''language area'', ''emergent area'', and ''language complex'', where he recognizes issues such as partial

mutual intelligibility In linguistics, mutual intelligibility is a relationship between different but related language varieties in which speakers of the different varieties can readily understand each other without prior familiarity or special effort. Mutual intelli ...

and

dialect continuum A dialect continuum or dialect chain is a series of Variety (linguistics), language varieties spoken across some geographical area such that neighboring varieties are Mutual intelligibility, mutually intelligible, but the differences accumulat ...

s. The list below collapses these into simply ''families''. Kaufman's list is numbered and grouped by "geolinguistic region". The list below is presented in alphabetic order. Kaufman uses an anglicized orthography for his genetic units, which is mostly used only by himself. His spellings have been retained below.

Stocks

In addition to his conservative list, Kaufman list several larger "stocks" which he evaluates. The names of the stocks are often obvious hyphenations of two members; for instance, the Páes-Barbakóa stock consists of the Páesan and Barbakóan families. If the composition is not obvious, it is indicated parenthetically. Kaufman puts question marks by Kechumara and Mosetén-Chon stocks. "Good" stocks: * Awaké–Kaliana (Arutani–Sape) * Chibcha–Misumalpa * Ezmeralda–Jaruro * Jurí–Tikuna * Kechumara ''(= Kechua + Haki)'' (good?) * Lule–Vilela * Mosetén–Chon (good?) * Páes–Barbakóa * Pano–Takana * Sechura–Katakao * Wamo–Chapakúra "Probable" stocks: * Macro-Je ''(= Chikitano + Boróroan + Aimoré + Rikbaktsá + Je + Jeikó + Kamakánan + Mashakalían + Purían + Fulnío + Karajá + Ofayé + Guató)'' * Mura–Matanawí "Promising" stocks: * Kaliánan ''(= Awaké + Kaliana + Maku)'' "Maybe" stocks: * Bora–Witoto * Hívaro–Kawapana * Kunsa–Kapishaná (now abandoned) * Pukina–Kolyawaya * Sáparo–Yawa

Clusters and networks

Kaufman's largest groupings are what he terms ''clusters'' and ''networks''. Clusters are equivalent to macro-families (or phyla or superfamilies). Networks are composed of clusters. Kaufman views all of these larger groupings to be hypothetical and his list is to be used as a means to identify which hypotheses most need testing.

Campbell (2012)

Lyle Campbell Lyle Richard Campbell (born October 22, 1942) is an American scholar and linguist known for his studies of indigenous American languages, especially those of Central America, and on historical linguistics in general. Campbell is professor emeri ...

(2024) proposed the following list of 47 uncontroversial indigenous language families and 53 isolates of South America – a total of 100 independent families and isolates. Language families with more than 6 languages are highlighted in bold. The remaining language families all have 6 languages or fewer. ;Families # Arawakan (Maipurean, Maipuran) (~65) – widespread # Cariban (~40) – Brazil, Venezuela, Colombia, etc. # Chapacuran (Txapakúran) (9) – Brazil, Bolivia # Chibchan (23) – Colombia, Venezuela, Panama, Costa Rica # Jêan (12) – Brazil # Pano–Takanan (~30) – Brazil, Peru, Bolivia # Makúan (Makú–Puinavean, Puinavean, Guaviaré–Japurá) (8) – Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela # Quechuan (23 ?) – Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina # Tukanoan (Tucanoan) (~20) – Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil # Tupían (~55) – Brazil, Paraguay, Bolivia, etc. # Arawan (Arahuan, Arauan, Arawán) (6) – Brazil, Peru # Aymaran (2) – Bolivia, Peru # Barbacoan (5) – Colombia, Ecuador # Bororoan (3) – Brazil # Cahuapanan (2) – Peru # Cañar–Puruhá (2; uncertain) – Ecuador # Charruan (3) – Uruguay, Argentina # Chipaya–Uru (3) – Bolivia # Chocoan (2–6) – Colombia, Panama # Cholonan (2) – Peru # Chonan (Chon) (3) – Argentina # Guaicuruan (Waykuruan) (5) – Argentina, Paraguay, Brazil # Guajiboan (4) – Colombia # Harákmbut–Katukinan (3; uncertain) – Peru, Brazil # Huarpean (Warpean) (2) – Argentina # Jabutían (2) – Brazil # Jirajaran (3) – Venezuela # Jivaroan (4 ?) – Peru, Ecuador # Kamakanan (5 ?) – Brazil # Karajá (2 ?) – Brazil # Karirian (Karirí) (4) – Brazil # Krenákan (Botocudoan, Aimoré) (3) – Brazil # Lule–Vilelan (2) – Argentina # Mascoyan (4) – Paraguay # Matacoan (4) – Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia # Maxakalían (3) – Brazil # Mosetenan (2) – Bolivia # Muran (4, only 1 living) – Brazil # Nambikwaran (5 ?) – Brazil # Qawasqaran (Kaweskaran, Alacalufan) (2–3) – Chile # Otomacoan (2) – Venezuela # Paezan (1–3; isolate ?) – Colombia # Purían (2) – Brazil # Sáliban (Sálivan) (3 ?) – Venezuela, Colombia # Sechura–Catacaoan (3) – Peru # Timotean (2) – Venezuela # Tikuna–Yuri – Peru, Colombia, Brazil # Tiniguan (2) – Colombia # Yaguan (3) – Peru # Witotoan (Huitotoan) (5) – Colombia, Peru # Yanomaman (4) – Venezuela, Brazil # Zamucoan (2) – Paraguay, Bolivia # Zaparoan (3) – Peru, Ecuador ;Isolates # Aikaná – Brazil # Andaquí – Colombia # Andoque (Andoke) – Colombia, Peru #

Atacameño The Atacama people, also called Atacameño, are an Indigenous people from the Atacama Desert and altiplano region in the north of Chile and Argentina and southern Bolivia, mainly the Antofagasta Region. According to the Argentinean Census in 2010 ...

(Cunza, Kunza, Atacama, Lipe) – Chile, Bolivia, Argentina # Awaké (Ahuaqué, Uruak) – Venezuela, Brazil # Baenan – Brazil # Betoi – Colombia (small family ?) # Camsá (Sibundoy, Coche) – Colombia # Candoshi (Candoxi, Maina, Shapra, Murato) – Peru # Canichana – Bolivia # Cayuvava (Cayuwaba, Cayubaba) – Bolivia # Chiquitano – Bolivia # Chono – Chile # Cofán (A’ingaé) – Colombia, Ecuador # Culle – Peru # Gamela – Brazil # Guachí – Brazil # Guató – Brazil # Irantxe (Iranche, Münkü) – Brazil # Itonama (Saramo, Machoto) – Bolivia, Brazil # Jeikó (Jeicó, Jaiko) – Brazil (Macro–Jêan ?) # Jotí (Yuwana) – Venezuela # Kaliana (Sapé, Caliana, Cariana, Chirichano) – Venezuela # Kapixaná (Kanoé) – Brazil # Koayá (Kwaza, Koaiá, Arara) – Brazil # Máku (Mako) – Brazil # Mapudungu (Mapudungun, Araucano, Mapuche, Maputongo) – Chile, Argentina # Matanauí – Brazil # Mochica (Yunga, Yunca, Chimú, Mochica, Muchic) – Peru # Movima – Bolivia # Munichi (Muniche, Munichino, Otanabe) – Peru # Natú (Peagaxinan) – Brazil # Ofayé (Opayé, Ofayé–Xavante) – Brazil (Macro–Jêan ?) # Omurano (Humurana, Numurana) – Peru # Otí – Brazil # Pankararú (Pancararu, Pancarurú, Brancararu) – Brazil # Payaguá – Paraguay # Puquina – Bolivia # Rikbaktsá (Aripaktsá, Eribatsa, Eripatsa, Canoeiro) – Brazil (Macro–Jêan ?) # Sabela (Huao, Auca, Huaorani, Auishiri) – Ecuador # Taruma (Taruamá) – Brazil, Guyana # Taushiro (Pinchi, Pinche) – Peru # Tequiraca (Tekiraka, Aushiri, Auishiri, Avishiri) – Peru # Trumai (Trumaí) – Brazil # Tuxá – Brazil #

(Simacu, Kachá, Itucale) – Peru # Wamoé (Huamoé, Huamoi, Uamé, Umã; Araticum, Atikum) – Brazil # Warao (Guarao, Warau, Guaruno) – Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela # Xokó – Brazil # Xukurú – Brazil # Yagan (Yaghan, Yamana, Yámana) – Chile # Yaruro (Pumé, Llaruro, Yaruru, Yuapín) – Venezuela # Yaté (Furniô, Fornió, Carnijó; Iatê) – Brazil # Yuracaré – Bolivia #Yurumangui language, Yurumangui – Colombia Campbell (2012) leaves out the classifications of these languages as uncertain. * Boran – Brazil, Colombia *'' Esmeralda'' – Ecuador *'' Guamo'' – Venezuela *''Leco language, Leko'' – Bolivia *'' Mure'' – Bolivia *'' Puinave'' – Colombia, Venezuela

Jolkesky (2016)

Jolkesky (2016) lists 43 language families and 66 language isolates (and/or unclassified languages) in South America – a total of 109 independent families and isolates. *† = extinct ;Families #Andoke-Urekena languages, Andoke-Urekena # Arawa #Barbakoa languages, Barbakoa #Bora-Muinane languages, Bora-Muinane #Chacha-Cholon-Hibito languages, Chacha-Cholon-Hibito #Chapakura-Wañam languages, Chapakura-Wañam # Charrua #

#Choko languages, Choko #Chon languages, Chon #Duho languages, Duho #Guahibo languages, Guahibo #Harakmbet-Katukina languages, Harakmbet-Katukina #Jaqi languages, Jaqi # Jirajara † #Jivaro languages, Jivaro #Karib languages, Karib #Kawapana languages, Kawapana #Kechua languages, Kechua #Lengua-Maskoy languages, Lengua-Maskoy #Macro-Arawak languages, Macro-Arawak #Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru languages, Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru #Macro-Jê languages, Macro-Jê #Mapudungun languages, Mapudungun #Moseten-Tsimane languages, Moseten-Tsimane #Mura-Matanawi languages, Mura-Matanawi #Nambikwara languages, Nambikwara #Otomako-Taparita languages, Otomako-Taparita † #Pano-Takana languages, Pano-Takana # Peba-Yagua #Puinave-Nadahup languages, Puinave-Nadahup #

† #Tallan languages, Tallan † #Timote-Kuika languages, Timote-Kuika #Tinigua-Pamigua languages, Tinigua-Pamigua #Tukano languages, Tukano # Tupi # Uru-Chipaya #Warpe languages, Warpe † #Witoto-Okaina languages, Witoto-Okaina #Yanomami languages, Yanomami #Zamuko languages, Zamuko #Zaparo languages, Zaparo ;Isolates and unclassified languages # Aikanã #Andaki language, Andaki † #Arara do Rio Branco language, Arara do Rio Branco # Arutani #Atakame language, Atakame † #Atikum language, Atikum † #Aushiri language, Aushiri † # Chono † # Guamo † #Guato language, Guato #Gününa Këna language, Gününa Këna #Iranche language, Iranche/Myky language, Myky # Itonama #Kakan language, Kakan † #Kamsa language, Kamsa #Kañari language, Kañari † #Kanichana language, Kanichana #Kanoe language, Kanoe #Kawesqar language, Kawesqar #Kayuvava language, Kayuvava #Kerandi language, Kerandi † #Kimbaya language, Kimbaya † #Kingnam language, Kingnam † #Kofan language, Kofan #Komechingon language, Komechingon † #Koraveka language, Koraveka † #Kueva language, Kueva † #Kulle language, Kulle † # Kunza † #Kuruminaka language, Kuruminaka † # Kwaza #Leco language, Leko # Lule † #Jukude language, Maku #Malibu language, Malibu † #Mochika language, Mochika † #Mokana language, Mokana † #Morike language, Morike † # Movima #Muzo-Kolima language, Muzo-Kolima † # Omurano # Oti † #Paez language, Paez #Panche language, Panche † #Pijao language, Pijao † #Puruha language, Puruha † # Sanaviron † #Sape language, Sape #Sechura language, Sechura † #Tarairiu language, Tarairiu † # Taruma # Taushiro #Tekiraka language, Tekiraka # Trumai #Tuxa language, Tuxa † #Umbra language, Umbra #

# Vilela # Waorani # Warao #Xukuru language, Xukuru † # Yagan # Yaruro #Yurakare language, Yurakare #Yurumangui language, Yurumangui † #Zenu language, Zenu † ;Creoles, pidgins, and secret languages #Kallawaya language, Kallawaya #Maskoy Pidgin language, Maskoy Pidgin #Media Lengua language, Media Lengua #Ndyuka-Tiriyo language, Ndyuka-Tiriyo

All of the Americas

Swadesh (1960 or earlier)

Morris Swadesh further consolidated Sapir's North American classification and expanded it to group all indigenous languages of the Americas in just 6 families, 5 of which were entirely based in the Americas. # Vasco-Dene languages included the Eskimo–Aleut, Na-Dene, Wakashan and Kutenai families along with most of the languages of Eurasia. # Macro-Hokan roughly comprised a combination of Sapir's Hokan–Siouan and Almosan families and expanded into Central America including the Jicaque language. # Macro-Mayan comprising Mayan along with Sapir's Penutian and Aztec-Tanoan families, the Otomanguean languages and various languages of Central and South America including the Chibchan languages, the Paezan languages and the Tucanoan languages. # Macro-Quechua comprising the Zuni language, the Purépecha language and various languages of South America including Quechua, the Aymara language, the Panoan languages and most of the various other languages of Patagonia and the Andes. # Macro-Carib, an almost entirely South American family including the Carib languages, the Macro-Je languages and the Jirajara languages, albeit including some Caribbean languages. # Macro-Arawak, a family primarily confined to South America and its component families included the Arawakan languages and the Tupian languages. However, it also was proposed to include the Taíno language in the Caribbean and the Timucua language in Florida.

Greenberg (1960, 1987)

Joseph Greenberg's classification in his 1987 book ''Joseph Greenberg#The languages of the Americas, Language in the Americas'' is best known for the highly controversial assertion that all North, Central and South American language families other than Eskimo–Aleut and Na-Dene including Haida, are part of an Amerind languages, Amerind macrofamily. This assertion of only three major American language macrofamilies is supported by DNA evidence, although the DNA evidence does not provide support for the details of his classification. # Amerind languages, Northern Amerind ## Almosan–Keresiouan ### Almosan languages, Almosan #### Algic ####

#### Mosan ##### Wakashan ##### Salish ##### Chimakuan ### Caddoan ### Keres languages, Keres ### Siouan ###

### California

#### Maidu languages, Maidu #### Miwok–Costanoan languages, Miwok–Costanoan #### Wintun languages, Wintun #### Yokuts languages, Yokuts ### Chinook languages, Chinook ### Mexican Penutian (=Macro-Mayan) #### Huave #### Mayan #### Mixe–Zoque #### Totonac languages, Totonac ### Oregon Penutian languages, Oregon Penutian ### Plateau Penutian languages, Plateau Penutian ###

### Yukian languages, Yukian ### Gulf languages, Gulf #### Atakapa #### Chitimacha ####

#### Natchez #### Tunica ### Zuni ## Hokan ### Hokan languages, Nuclear Hokan #### Hokan languages, Northern ##### Karok–Shasta language, Shasta ##### Yana ##### Pomo languages, Pomo #### Washo #### Esselen– Yuman #### Salinan– Seri #### Waicuri language, Waicuri #### Maratino #### Quinigua language, Quinigua #### Tequistlatec languages, Tequistlatec ###

####

#### Coahuiltecan languages, Nuclear Coahuiltecan #### Karankawa ### Subtiaba ### Jicaque languages, Jicaque ### Yurumangui language, Yurumangui # Central Amerind languages, Central Amerind ## Kiowa–Tanoan ## Otomanguean ##

# Chibchan–Paezan languages, Chibchan–Paezan ## Chibchan ### Chibchan languages, Nuclear Chibchan #### Chibchan languages, Antioquia #### Aruak language, Aruak ####

#### Cuna #### Guaymi language, Guaymi #### Malibu language, Malibu #### Misumalpan #### Motilon language, Motilon #### Rama language, Rama #### Talamanca ### Paya ### Purépecha ### Xinca ### Yanomam languages, Yanomam ### Yunca–Puruhan languages, Yunca–Puruhan ## Paezan ### Allentiac language, Allentiac ### Atacama ### Betoi languages, Betoi ### Chimu languages, Chimu ### Itonama ### Jirajara ### Mura languages, Mura ### Nuclear Paezan #### Andaqui ####

#### Choco languages, Choco #### Paez language, Paez ###

### Warrao language, Warrao # Andean (Greenberg (1960) joined Andean and Equatorial, but Greenberg (1987) did not) ## Aymara ## Itucale– Sabela ### Itucale ### Mayna language, Mayna ### Sabela ## Cahuapana–Zaparo ### Cahuapano languages, Cahuapano ### Zaparo languages, Zaparo ## Northern ### Catacao ### Cholona ### Culli ### Leco ### Sechura language, Sechura ## Quechua ## Southern ### Qawesqar language, Qawesqar ### Mapundungu language, Mapundungu ### Gennaken ### Patagon language (Peru), Patagon ### Yamana language, Yamana # Equatorial–Tucanoan ## Equatorial ### Macro-Arawakan languages, Macro-Arawakan #### Arawakan #### Guahibo languages, Guahibo #### Katembri #### Otomaco languages, Otomaco #### Tinigua ### Cayuvava ### Coche language, Coche ### Jivaro–Kandoshi languages, Jivaro–Kandoshi #### Cofan language, Cofan #### Esmeralda #### Jivaro languages, Jivaro #### Kandoshi language, Kandoshi #### Yaruro ### Kariri–Tupi #### Kariri languages, Kariri #### Tupian ### Piaroa language, Piaroa ### Taruma ### Timote ### Trumai ### Tusha language, Tusha ### Yuracare ### Zamucoan ## Tucanoan ### Auixiri language, Auixiri ### Canichana ### Capixana ### Catuquina language, Catuquina ### Gamella language, Gamella ### Huari ### Iranshe ### Kaliana–Maku languages, Kaliana–Maku #### Auake language, Auake #### Kaliana #### Jukude language, Maku ### Koaia language, Koaia ### Movima ### Muniche ### Nambikwara languages, Nambikwara ### Natu language, Natu ### Pankaruru language, Pankaruru ### Puinave ### Xukuruan languages, Shukura ### Ticuna–Yuri languages, Ticuna–Yuri #### Ticuna language, Ticuna #### Yuri ### Tucanoan ### Uman language, Uman # Je–Tupi–Carib, Ge–Pano–Carib ## Macro-Ge languages, Macro-Ge ### Bororo languages, Bororo ### Botocudo ### Caraja language, Caraja ### Chiquitano language, Chiquito ### Erikbatsa language, Erikbatsa ### Fulnio language, Fulnio ### Ge–Kaingang #### Ge #### Kaingang language, Kaingang ### Guato language, Guato ### Kamakan ### Mashakali ### Opaie ### Oti ###

### Yabuti languages, Yabuti ## Macro-Panoan languages, Macro-Panoan ### Charruan ### Lengua ### Lule–Vilela #### Lule #### Vilela ### Mataco–Guaicuru languages, Mataco–Guaicuru #### Guaicuru #### Mataco ### Moseten languages, Moseten ### Pano–Tacanan languages, Pano–Tacanan #### Panoan #### Tacanan languages, Tacanan ## Cariban languages, Macro-Carib ### Andoke ### Bora–Uitoto languages, Bora–Uitoto #### Boran languages, Boro #### Uitoto #### Carib languages, Carib #### Kukura #### Peba-Yagua languages, Yagua

Mixed languages

In ''American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America'',

describes various pidgins and trade languages spoken by the indigenous peoples of the Americas. Some of these mixed languages have not been documented and are known only by name. * Medny Aleut language, Medny Aleut (Copper Island Aleut) * Chinook Jargon * Broken Slavey (Slavey Jargon) * Loucheux Jargon * Michif (French Cree, Métis, Metchif) * Broken Oghibbeway (Broken Ojibwa) * Basque-Algonquian Pidgin (spoken by the Basque people, Basques, Mi'kmaq people, Micmacs, and Innu people, Montagnais in eastern Canada) * Delaware Jargon * Pidgin Massachusett * Jargonized Powhatan * Lingua Franca Creek language, Creek * Lingua Franca Apalachee language, Apalachee * Mobilian Jargon * Güegüence-Nicarao (formerly spoken in Nicaragua) * Ndjuka-Amerindian Pidgin, Carib Pidgin or Ndjuka-Amerindian Pidgin (Ndjuka-Trio) * Carib Pidgin-Arawak mixed language * Media Lengua * Catalangu * Callahuaya (Machaj-Juyai, Kallawaya) * Nheengatú or Lingua Geral Amazonica ("Lingua Boa," Lingua Brasílica, Lingua Geral do Norte) * Lingua Geral do Sul or Lingua Geral Paulista (Tupí Austral) * Labrador Eskimo Pidgin * Hudson Strait Pidgin Eskimo (spoken from 1750–1850) * Nootka Jargon (18th–19th centuries; later replaced by Chinook Jargon) * Trader Navajo * Yopará (Guaraní-Spanish pidgin) * Afro-Seminole Creole (variety of Gullah) * Haida Jargon * Kutenai Jargon * Guajiro-Spanish mixed language Lingua francas * Occaneechi language, Ocaneechi (spoken in Virginia and the Carolinas in early colonial times) * Tuscarora language * Plains sign language

Linguistic areas

Notes and references

Bibliography

* See:

External links

Native American Language Net
* *
Diachronic Atlas of Comparative Linguistics (DiACL)Languages of hunter-gatherers and their neighbors
The University of Texas at Austin
The Intercontinental Dictionary Series
{{DEFAULTSORT:Classification of the Indigenous languages of the Americas Indigenous languages of the Americas Language classification, Americas

North America

''Glottolog'' 4.1 (2019)

Gallatin (1836)

Gallatin (1848)

Powell's (1892) "Fifty-eight"

Rivet (1924)

Sapir (1929): ''Encyclopædia Britannica''

Voegelin & Voegelin (1965): The "Consensus" of 1964

Campbell & Mithun (1979): The "Black Book"

Goddard (1996), Campbell (1997), Mithun (1999)

Mesoamerica

South America

''Glottolog'' 4.1 (2019)

Rivet (1924)

Mason (1950)

Loukotka (1968)

Kaufman (1990)

Families and isolates

Stocks

Clusters and networks

Campbell (2012)

Jolkesky (2016)

All of the Americas

Swadesh (1960 or earlier)

Greenberg (1960, 1987)

Mixed languages

Linguistic areas

See also

Notes and references

Bibliography

External links