Referendums by country

A referendum (in some countries synonymous with plebiscite, or a vote on a ballot question) is a direct vote in which an entire electorate is asked to either accept or reject a particular proposal. This article summarises referendum laws and practice in various countries.

Summary table

Africa

Egypt

On 19 March 2011 a constitutional referendum was held in Egypt, following the Egyptian Revolution of 2011. The reforms made it easier for candidates to run for president, limited the number of presidential terms to two four-year periods, and ensured judicial monitoring of elections.

Eritrea

In April 1993 nearly 1 million voters in Eritrea (a quarter of the population), cast ballots to become "sovereign and independent" of Ethiopia. This vote was the result of thirty years of war by Eritreans during their War of Independence. The result was a vote for independence by 99.8% of the voters.

Kenya

Kenya has had three referendums.

Morocco

There have been several referendums in Morocco, most of which were related to the Moroccan constitution. Since becoming King, Mohammed VI has led many reforms that made Morocco an exception from all the other Arab countries. On February 20, 2011, thousands took to the streets of Rabat, Casablanca, Tangier and Marrakesh in peaceful protests demanding a new constitution, a change in government and an end to corruption. During a march on Hassan II Avenue in Rabat, demonstrators demanded a new constitution to bring more democracy to the country. They shouted slogans calling for economic opportunity, education reform, better health services, and help in coping with the rising cost of living.

On March 9, King Mohammed VI made a speech that was described as a "historical" speech in which he announced several reforms including a new constitution to the country.

In a televised speech on Friday, 17 June, King Mohammed VI announced a series of constitutional reforms, to be put to a national referendum on 1 July. The proposed reforms would give the prime minister and the parliament more executive authority, and would make Berber an official language in Morocco, together with Arabic. The proposal would empower the prime minister with the authority to appoint government officials and to dissolve the parliament - the powers previously held by the king. However, the king would remain the military commander-in-chief and would retain his position as the chair of the Council of Ministers and the Supreme Security Council, the primary bodies responsible for the security policy. A new constitutional provision would also confirm the king's role as the highest religious authority in the country.

Although most people were celebrating among the protesters after the King's speech, the leaders of the 20 February Movement rejected the proposals as insufficient and called for continuing protests on 19 June 2011. On 29 June 2011, the protesters called for a boycott of the referendum. The referendum was held on June 1, and almost all Moroccans said yes to it with a "98% yes" "2% No" turnout.

Asia

Bangladesh

* A constitutional referendum was held in Bangladesh on 15 September 1991. Voters were asked "Should or not the President assent to the Constitution (Twelfth Amendment) Bill, 1991 of the People's Republic of Bangladesh?" The amendments would lead to the reintroduction of parliamentary government, with the President becoming the constitutional head of state, but the Prime Minister the executive head. It also abolished the position of Vice-President and would see the President elected by Parliament. The result saw 83.6% vote in favour, with a turnout of 35.2%.

East Timor

East Timor, formerly governed by Indonesia, held a referendum on 30 August 1999, in which voters chose either to become a Special Autonomous Region within Indonesia, or for independence. 78.5% of voters opted for independence.

Hong Kong

Due to discontent towards the proposal of political reform made by the Hong Kong government, the Civic Party and the League of Social Democrats joined to carry out "Five Constituencies Referendum" in early 2010, by having one Legislative Councillor (from either one of the parties) in each constituency resigned, forcing the government to carry out a by-election, thus giving a chance for all voters to show their will towards universal suffrage and the abolition of functional constituencies. This is often called a "''de facto'' referendum".

The Basic Law of Hong Kong does not provide for official referendums, but the pan-democrats hope that by returning the resignees to the Legislative Council, on their manifesto of real political reform in Hong Kong and the abolition of functional constituencies,Fung, Fanny (19 January 2010), "Referendum bid is against Basic Law, minister says", ''South China Morning Post'', Retrieved on 20 January 2010. the election can be seen as a de facto referendum and an endorsement of these issues.

The original five pan-democrat Legislative Councillors were re-elected, the turnout was much lower than the expectation of the two parties, due to the suppression of pro-Beijing Camp.

India

The Constitution of India does not have a specific provision for or against referendum. Some of the referendums held in India are:
*1947 Sylhet referendum was held in Sylhet district on 6 July 1947 to decide whether the district would remain in Assam and join the newly formed country India or would join East Bengal (present day Bangladesh), a part of the newly formed country Pakistan. The referendum was in favor of joining East Bengal.
* 1947 North-West Frontier Province referendum was held in the North-West Frontier Province of British India in July 1947 to decide whether the province would join the Dominion of India or Pakistan. The referendum was in favor of joining Pakistan.
* 1967 Goa status referendum was held in the state of Goa, India, on 16 January 1967, to decide the future of the Union Territory of Goa.
*1975 Sikkimese monarchy referendum on 14th April 1975. It was approved by 97.55% of voters, and resulted in Sikkim becoming an Indian state.

Indonesia

Constitution of Indonesia does not mention referendums at all, and as such, referendums are not a part of Indonesian political practice. In 1985, the People's Consultative Assembly issued Act No. 5 of 1985 that officially recognized constitutional referendum as a legitimate political process in Indonesia, but revoked in 1999 by Act No. 6 of 1999. According to explanation given in Act No. 6 of 1999, referendum is not compatible with Indonesian doctrine of representative democracy, as on the fourth principles of the national ideology Pancasila, absence on mentions of referendums inside the national constitution also became another reason why the referendum law was revoked.

Indonesia had no nationwide referendum, but only regional one and concerning only on territorial changes. In 1969, Act of Free Choice (PEPERA) integrated Papua into Indonesia; despite the name reflecting a referendum, the process actually only involving around 1,000 representatives in a process of deliberation. An independence referendum in East Timor province took place in 1999, paving the way of East Timor province independence from Indonesia in 2002.

Iran

In 1979 and after the Islamic Revolution had toppled the Iranian monarchy, a referendum was held to choose the future governing system of the country. The question was a simple yes or no to the Islamic Republic, a system which combines direct representation with religious authority. The Islamic Republic was established after more than 98% of the population voted "Yes".
1989 Iranian constitutional referendum has also been held later, in which 97.57% voted 'yes'.

Iraq

The current Constitution of Iraq was approved by referendum on 15 October 2005, two years after the United States-led invasion. The constitution was designed to shift crucial decisions about government, the judiciary and human rights to a future national assembly. It was later modified to provide for the establishment of a committee by the parliament to be elected in December 2005 to consider changes to the constitution in 2006.

Malaysia

The Malaysian Constitution does not mention referendums at all. There have been no referendums in Malaysian history.

Pakistan

General Pervez Musharraf held a referendum in Pakistan on 30 April 2002 to legitimize his presidency and assure its continuance after the approaching restoration of democracy. He thus extended his term to five years after the October 2002 elections. The voter turnout was 80 percent by most estimates, amidst claims of irregularities. A few weeks later, Musharraf went on TV and apologized to the nation for "irregularities" in the referendum.

Philippines

The Constitution of the Philippines can only be amended or revised via a national plebiscite. Alteration of boundaries of autonomous regions, provinces, towns, cities and barangays (villages), including creation, merger and upgrading of new local government units from existing ones, are to be decided on local plebiscites amongst the affected places. A referendum is the final step in the approval of a people's initiative. All referendums are binding.

The present constitution was approved via a plebiscite in 1987. The last provincial-level plebiscite was for the division of Palawan province into three provinces in 2021, which was rejected.

Russia

The Russian Constitution of 1993 was adopted by a controversial referendum.

Popular referendum can be called by two millions registered voters, provided they do so from at least 42 separate regions of Russia within two months, with no more than 50,000 signatures collected in any single region. The question must first be approved by the Central Election Commission.

Singapore

According to the Constitution of Singapore, a referendum can be held in a few circumstances, including situations when a constitutional amendment passed by the Parliament is rejected by the President, or when the nation's sovereignty needs to be decided (''i.e.'', merger or incorporation into other countries). to date, the 1962 national referendum which decided the terms of a merger of Singapore into Malaysia. There were three choices: 1) To merge with Malaya, having autonomy in labour and education; 2) To merge with Malaya, having same status as the other states in Malaya; 3) To merge with Malaya, having terms similar to those of the Borneo territories. Option #1 won with 71% of the vote. Two years after the merger, Singapore's expulsion from Malaysia occurred on 9 August 1965 due to disagreements between the two political ideas.

Taiwan

The ''Referendum Act'' was promoted and introduced by the Democratic Progressive Party for years and then enacted by the Legislative Yuan in 2003. There had been six national referendums and two local referendums in Taiwan before several sections of the ''Referendum Act'' were revised to lower the threshold in December 2017. No national referendum had been approved until then. Following amendments to the law, ten more questions were asked at the national level during the 2018.

Thailand

On 4 September 2008, amidst hundreds of thousands of protesters demanding the government resign, Thailand's premier Samak Sundaravej's government approved the idea of a referendum to ask the Thai electorate if it wanted to keep the government or not.

Europe

Austria

The Austrian constitution defines two types of referendums on the federal level: binding referendum and non-binding referendum. Binding referendum is mandatory if the President should be removed from office before the end of his term, and in case of comprehensive change of the Federal Constitution. Binding referendum is facultative (not mandatory) in case of non-comprehensive changes in the Federal Constitution.
There was only one binding referendum in post-1945 Austria: European Union membership referendum.

The National Council has the power to call on a non-binding referendum on matters of great importance. There were two such referendums in post-1945 Austria: nuclear power referendum in 1978, and conscription referendum in 2013.

Belgium

Binding referendums in Belgium are not legally possible because of the constitutional principle that the country's powers are exercised by the nation and not by the people. Consequently, Belgium is a representative democracy, almost without any form of direct democracy.

Non-binding referendums on the municipal and provincial level are allowed. Non-binding referendums on the regional level are also allowed by law but the implementation decisions are lacking. This way government makes it impossible to make use of it.

Bulgaria

Five nationwide referendums have been held in Bulgaria since it gained its De Facto independence in 1878:
* On 19 November 1922 the question was if criminals from the three previous wars were to be prosecuted;
* On 8 September 1946 the question was if Bulgaria was to remain a monarchy or to become a republic;
* On 16 May 1971 the nation's approval of a new constitution was asked;
* On 27 January 2013 the question was if Bulgaria should develop its nuclear power by building a new nuclear power plant.
* On 6 November 2016 a three question referendum was held alongside the presidential elections.
Several regional referendums have been held as well.

Croatia

Referendums in Croatia can be called by:
* The Croatian Parliament
* The President of Croatia
* The population
The institution of a referendum is regulated by article 87. of the constitution of Croatia. Referendums can be called on any issue falling within the competence of the Croatian Parliament or on any other issue which the President of Croatia considers to be important for the independence, unity and existence of the Republic.

Since amendments to the constitution in 2001, the Parliament is obligated by constitution to call a referendum if signatures of 10% of registered voters in the Republic of Croatia are collected. The time frame for collecting the signatures is defined by the law on referendums, and it is 15 days.

Cyprus

Constitution of Cyprus has no mention of referendum (as of 2013). The only referendum to take place in independent Cyprus was a referendum on the Annan Plan.

Czech Republic

There are no provisions concerning referendums in the Constitution of the Czech Republic, except for "referendum concerning the accession of the Czech Republic to the European Union". Therefore, the only referendum ever held in the Czech Republic at the national level was Czech European Union membership referendum in 2003.

It is possible to hold a referendum at regional and municipal levels.

Denmark

In Denmark, after a law has been passed by parliament, one third of the members can demand a referendum. This does not apply to money bills or expropriation. A law that transfers sovereignty to an international organisation must be subjected to a referendum unless five-sixths of the MPs vote for it. In both cases, to defeat the law the no votes must not only outnumber the yes votes, they must also number at least 30% of the electorate. Since all referendums have had much more than 60% turnout, no bill has yet passed due to lack of interest.

In practice, referendums have been held every time new treaties of the European Union have been approved, even when more than five-sixths can be found. Recently, the Danish government was highly criticized when it did not hold a referendum regarding the controversial Lisbon treaty.

The Constitution of Denmark can be changed only after a referendum. To pass, the yes votes must not only outnumber the no votes, they must also number at least 40% of the electorate.

The present location of the border with Germany was determined by a referendum in 1920 after the German capitulation. See Schleswig.

Estonia

The Constitution of Estonia gives the Parliament of Estonia the power to submit a bill or other national issue to a binding referendum. If a bill which is submitted to a referendum does not receive a majority of votes in favour, the President of the Republic shall declare extraordinary elections to the Parliament.

There are some issues which cannot be submitted to the referendum: issues regarding the budget, taxation, financial obligations of the state, ratification and denunciation of international treaties, the declaration or termination of a state of emergency, or national defence.

Some parts of the Constitution can be amended only by a referendum, while the rest of Constitution can be amended either by a referendum or by other means.

A referendum was called by the Parliament of Estonia on two occasions since its independence from USSR was restored:
* a referendum on a new constitution and citizenship in 1992
* Estonian European Union membership referendum in 2003
Also, there was a referendum on Estonian independence in 1991 while Estonian SSR was still a part of the USSR.

Finland

The Constitution of Finland allows only for a non-binding referendum called on by the Parliament. If 50,000 Finnish citizens sign an initiative (for an act or a referendum), the Parliament has to discuss it, but the initiative is not binding.

As of 2013 there have been only two referendums in Finland:
* Finnish prohibition referendum in 1931
* Finnish European Union membership referendum in 1994.

France

Both Napoleon I (in power (1799-1815) and Napoleon III (in power 1848-1870) used plebiscites (rigged or otherwise: 1800, 1802, 1804, 1815, 1851, 1852, 1870) to support their political ascendancy.

The practice of referendums for tough decisions appeared with Charles De Gaulle's Fifth Republic, in order to overcome the Parliament. A referendum can be called by the President for constitutional changes, treaty ratification, laws concerning the administration or the territory. The political risks involved made the practice rare. Most constitutional revisions went through the super-majority of Parliament. Therefore, a procedure of popular initiative, backed by a handful of MPs, is being put in place.

Germany

Following World War II, West Germany was founded originally with only minor elements of direct democracy. At the federal level, there are only two mandatory constitutional referendum types. One type is for enacting a new constitution. Changes to the constitution do not require a public vote and there is no provision for an initiative for a constitutional amendment. There has never been a referendum of this type, although there was an argument in that direction during German reunification. The other type requires a regional public vote in case of restructuring the Bundesländer i.e. States (''Neugliederung des Bundesgebietes'', "New Arrangement of the Federal Territory") which led to a number of effectless referendums to create or recreate states or change the territory of a state. In addition there was a referendum on the merger of Baden and Württemberg into Baden-Württemberg in 1951 (accepted) and a referendum on the merger of Berlin and Brandenburg into Berlin-Brandenburg in 1996 (rejected).

Originally, only some of the Bundesländer (federated states) had provisions for a general binding referendum (''Volksentscheid'', "people's decision") on popular initiatives (''Volksbegehren'', "people's request"), with Hesse and Bavaria also having a mandatory binding referendum on changes to the state constitution. Over the years all states have changed their constitutions to allow various types of statewide and local referendums. In all states, there is now a general right for referendums on statewide popular initiatives, which was used in Hamburg to push the state government to pass a law on a facultative binding state referendum in 2007. Most states have a form of non-binding ballot question (''Volksbefragung'', "people's inquiry") which has rarely been used - the most important of these had been the 1955 Saar Statute referendum