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Shinto () is a
religion Religion is usually defined as a social- cultural system of designated behaviors and practices, morals, beliefs, worldviews, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics, or organizations, that generally relates humanity to supernatural, ...
from
Japan Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
. Classified as an
East Asian religion In the study of comparative religion, the East Asian religions or Taoic religions, form a subset of the Eastern religions. This group includes Chinese religion overall, which further includes Ancestral Worship, Chinese folk religion, Confuciani ...
by scholars of religion, its practitioners often regard it as Japan's
indigenous religion Indigenous religions is a category used in the study of religion to demarcate the religious belief systems of communities described as being "indigenous". This category is often juxtaposed against others such as the "world religions" and "new re ...
and as a
nature religion A nature religion is a religious movement that believes nature and the natural world is an embodiment of divinity, sacredness or spiritual power. Beyer 1998. p. 11. Nature religions include indigenous religions practiced in various parts of th ...
. Scholars sometimes call its practitioners ''Shintoists'', although adherents rarely use that term themselves. There is no central authority in control of Shinto, with much diversity of belief and practice evident among practitioners. A
polytheistic Polytheism is the belief in multiple deities, which are usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses, along with their own religious sects and rituals. Polytheism is a type of theism. Within theism, it contrasts with monotheism, the ...
and
animistic Animism (from Latin: ' meaning 'breath, spirit, life') is the belief that objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct spiritual essence. Potentially, animism perceives all things—animals, plants, rocks, rivers, weather systems, hum ...
religion, Shinto revolves around supernatural entities called the . The are believed to inhabit all things, including forces of nature and prominent landscape locations. The are worshiped at household shrines, family shrines, and ''jinja'' public shrines. The latter are staffed by priests, known as , who oversee offerings of food and drink to the specific enshrined at that location. This is done to cultivate harmony between humans and and to solicit the latter's blessing. Other common rituals include the dances,
rites of passage A rite of passage is a ceremony or ritual of the passage which occurs when an individual leaves one group to enter another. It involves a significant change of status in society. In cultural anthropology the term is the Anglicisation of ''rite ...
, and seasonal festivals. Public shrines facilitate forms of
divination Divination (from Latin ''divinare'', 'to foresee, to foretell, to predict, to prophesy') is the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of an occultic, standardized process or ritual. Used in various forms throughout histor ...
and supply religious objects, such as
amulet An amulet, also known as a good luck charm or phylactery, is an object believed to confer protection upon its possessor. The word "amulet" comes from the Latin word amuletum, which Pliny's ''Natural History'' describes as "an object that protects ...
s, to the religion's adherents. Shinto places a major conceptual focus on ensuring purity, largely by cleaning practices such as ritual washing and bathing, especially before worship. Little emphasis is placed on specific moral codes or particular afterlife beliefs, although the dead are deemed capable of becoming . The religion has no single creator or specific doctrine, and instead exists in a diverse range of local and regional forms. Although historians debate at what point it is suitable to refer to Shinto as a distinct religion, veneration has been traced back to Japan's
Yayoi period The started at the beginning of the Neolithic in Japan, continued through the Bronze Age, and towards its end crossed into the Iron Age. Since the 1980s, scholars have argued that a period previously classified as a transition from the Jōmon p ...
(300 BCE to 300 CE).
Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
entered Japan at the end of the
Kofun period The is an era in the history of Japan from about 300 to 538 AD (the date of the introduction of Buddhism), following the Yayoi period. The Kofun and the subsequent Asuka periods are sometimes collectively called the Yamato period. This period is ...
(300 to 538 CE) and spread rapidly. Religious syncretization made worship and Buddhism functionally inseparable, a process called ''
shinbutsu-shūgō ''Shinbutsu-shūgō'' (, "syncretism of kami and buddhas"), also called Shinbutsu shū (, "god buddha school") Shinbutsu-konkō (, "jumbling up" or "contamination of kami and buddhas"), is the syncretism of Shinto and Buddhism that was Japan's o ...
''. The came to be viewed as part of
Buddhist cosmology Buddhist cosmology describes the planes and realms in which beings can be reborn. The spatial cosmology consists of a vertical cosmology, the various planes of beings, into which beings are reborn due to their merits and development; and a hori ...
and were increasingly depicted anthropomorphically. The earliest written tradition regarding worship was recorded in the 8th-century ''
Kojiki The , also sometimes read as or , is an early Japanese chronicle of myths, legends, hymns, genealogies, oral traditions, and semi-historical accounts down to 641 concerning the origin of the Japanese archipelago, the , and the Japanese imperia ...
'' and '' Nihon Shoki''. In ensuing centuries, was adopted by Japan's Imperial household. During the
Meiji era The is an era of Japanese history that extended from October 23, 1868 to July 30, 1912. The Meiji era was the first half of the Empire of Japan, when the Japanese people moved from being an isolated feudal society at risk of colonization b ...
(1868 to 1912), Japan's
nationalist Nationalism is an idea and movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the state. As a movement, nationalism tends to promote the interests of a particular nation (as in a group of people), Smith, Anthony. ''Nationalism: The ...
leadership expelled Buddhist influence from worship and formed
State Shinto was Imperial Japan's ideological use of the Japanese folk religion and traditions of Shinto. The state exercised control of shrine finances and training regimes for priests to strongly encourage Shinto practices that emphasized the Emperor as ...
, which some historians regard as the origin of Shinto as a distinct religion. Shrines came under growing government influence, and citizens were encouraged to worship the
emperor An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereignty, sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), ...
as a . With the formation of the
Japanese Empire The also known as the Japanese Empire or Imperial Japan, was a historical nation-state and great power that existed from the Meiji Restoration in 1868 until the enactment of the post-World War II 1947 constitution and subsequent forma ...
in the early 20th century, Shinto was exported to other areas of East Asia. Following Japan's defeat in
World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
, Shinto was formally separated from the state. Shinto is primarily found in Japan, where there are around 100,000 public shrines, although practitioners are also found abroad. Numerically, it is Japan's largest religion, the second being Buddhism. Most of the country's population takes part in both Shinto and Buddhist activities, especially festivals, reflecting a common view in
Japanese culture The culture of Japan has changed greatly over the millennia, from the country's prehistoric Jōmon period, to its contemporary modern culture, which absorbs influences from Asia and other regions of the world. Historical overview The ance ...
that the beliefs and practices of different religions need not be exclusive. Aspects of Shinto have been incorporated into various Japanese new religious movements.


Definition

There is no universally agreed definition of Shinto. However, the authors Joseph Cali and John Dougill stated that if there was "one single, broad definition of Shinto" that could be put forward, it would be that "Shinto is a belief in ", the supernatural entities at the centre of the religion. The Japanologist
Helen Hardacre Helen Hardacre (born May 20, 1949) is an American Japanologist. She is the Reischauer Institute Professor of Japanese Religions and Society at the Departement of East Asian Languages and Civilization, Harvard University. Biography Hardacre was bo ...
stated that "Shinto encompasses doctrines, institutions, ritual, and communal life based on worship", while the scholar of religion Inoue Nobutaka observed the term "Shinto" was "often used" in "reference to worship and related theologies, rituals and practices". Various scholars have referred to practitioners of Shinto as ''Shintoists'', although this term has no direct translation in the
Japanese language is spoken natively by about 128 million people, primarily by Japanese people and primarily in Japan, the only country where it is the national language. Japanese belongs to the Japonic or Japanese- Ryukyuan language family. There have been ma ...
. Scholars have debated at what point in history it is legitimate to start talking about Shinto as a specific phenomenon. The scholar of religion
Ninian Smart Roderick Ninian Smart (6 May 1927 – 29 January 2001) was a Scottish writer and university educator. He was a pioneer in the field of secular religious studies. In 1967 he established the first department of religious studies in the United Ki ...
suggested that one could "speak of the religion of Japan, which lived symbiotically with organized Buddhism, and only later was institutionalized as Shinto." While several institutions and practices now associated with Shinto existed in Japan by the 8th century, various scholars have argued that Shinto as a distinct religion was essentially "invented" during the 19th century, in Japan's
Meiji era The is an era of Japanese history that extended from October 23, 1868 to July 30, 1912. The Meiji era was the first half of the Empire of Japan, when the Japanese people moved from being an isolated feudal society at risk of colonization b ...
. The scholar of religion Brian Bocking stressed that, especially when dealing with periods before the Meiji era, the term ''Shinto'' should "be approached with caution". Inoue Nobutaka stated that "Shinto cannot be considered as a single religious system that existed from the ancient to the modern period", while the historian
Kuroda Toshio was a Japanese people, Japanese academic, historian and university professor. A specialist in medieval Japanese history and in the history of Japanese thought, he greatly influenced Japanese historiography with several innovative and controversia ...
noted that "before modern times Shinto did not exist as an independent religion".


Categorisation

Many scholars describe Shinto as a
religion Religion is usually defined as a social- cultural system of designated behaviors and practices, morals, beliefs, worldviews, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics, or organizations, that generally relates humanity to supernatural, ...
, a term first translated into Japanese as ''shūkyō'' around the time of the
Meiji Restoration The , referred to at the time as the , and also known as the Meiji Renovation, Revolution, Regeneration, Reform, or Renewal, was a political event that restored practical imperial rule to Japan in 1868 under Emperor Meiji. Although there were ...
. Some practitioners instead view Shinto as a "way", thus characterising it more as custom or
tradition A tradition is a belief or behavior (folk custom) passed down within a group or society with symbolic meaning or special significance with origins in the past. A component of cultural expressions and folklore, common examples include holidays or ...
, partly as an attempt to circumvent the modern
separation of religion and state The separation of church and state is a philosophical and jurisprudential concept for defining political distance in the relationship between religious organizations and the state. Conceptually, the term refers to the creation of a secular sta ...
and restore Shinto's historical links with the Japanese state. Moreover, religion as a concept arose in Europe and many of the connotations that the term has in
Western culture Leonardo da Vinci's ''Vitruvian Man''. Based on the correlations of ideal Body proportions">human proportions with geometry described by the ancient Roman architect Vitruvius in Book III of his treatise ''De architectura''. image:Plato Pio-Cle ...
"do not readily apply" to Shinto. Unlike religions familiar in Western countries, such as
Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...
and
Islam Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic Monotheism#Islam, monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God in Islam, God (or ...
, Shinto has no single founder, nor any single canonical text. Western religions tend to stress exclusivity, but in Japan, it has long been considered acceptable to practice different religious traditions simultaneously. Japanese religion is therefore highly pluralistic. Shinto is often cited alongside
Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
as one of Japan's two main religions, and the two often differ in focus, with Buddhism emphasising the idea of transcending the cosmos, which it regards as being replete with suffering, while Shinto focuses on adapting to life's pragmatic requirements. Shinto has integrated elements from religions imported from mainland Asia, such as Buddhism,
Confucianism Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, a way of governing, or ...
,
Taoism Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of Philosophy, philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of China, Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmo ...
, and Chinese divination practices, and shares features like its polytheism with other
East Asian religions In the study of comparative religion, the East Asian religions or Taoic religions, form a subset of the Eastern religions. This group includes Chinese religion overall, which further includes Ancestral Worship, Chinese folk religion, Confuciani ...
. Scholars of religion have debated how to classify Shinto. Inoue considered it part of "the family of East-Asian religions". The philosopher Stuart D. B. Picken suggested that Shinto be classed as a
world religion World religions is a category used in the study of religion to demarcate the five—and in some cases more—largest and most internationally widespread religious movements. Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are always inclu ...
, while the historian
H. Byron Earhart H. Byron Earhart (born 1935) is an American historian, Ph.D, and author, especially about Japanese religions. Life and studies He was born on January 7, 1935, in Aledo, Illinois; son of Kenneth Harry and Mary (Haack) Earhart. His father enlist ...
called it a "major religion". Shinto is also often described as an
indigenous religion Indigenous religions is a category used in the study of religion to demarcate the religious belief systems of communities described as being "indigenous". This category is often juxtaposed against others such as the "world religions" and "new re ...
, although this generates debates over the different definitions of "indigenous" in the Japanese context. The notion of Shinto as Japan's "indigenous religion" stemmed from the growth of modern nationalism between the
Edo Edo ( ja, , , "bay-entrance" or "estuary"), also romanized as Jedo, Yedo or Yeddo, is the former name of Tokyo. Edo, formerly a ''jōkamachi'' (castle town) centered on Edo Castle located in Musashi Province, became the ''de facto'' capital of ...
and Meiji periods; this view promoted the idea that Shinto's origins were prehistoric and that it represented something like the "underlying will of Japanese culture". The prominent Shinto theologian Sokyo Ono, for instance, said worship was "an expression" of the Japanese "native racial faith which arose in the mystic days of remote antiquity" and that it was "as indigenous as the people that brought the Japanese nation into existence". Many scholars regard this classification as inaccurate. Earhart noted that Shinto, in having absorbed much Chinese and Buddhist influence, was "too complex to be labelled simply s anindigenous religion". In the early 21st century it became increasingly common for practitioners to call Shinto a
nature religion A nature religion is a religious movement that believes nature and the natural world is an embodiment of divinity, sacredness or spiritual power. Beyer 1998. p. 11. Nature religions include indigenous religions practiced in various parts of th ...
, which critics saw as a strategy to disassociate the tradition from controversial issues surrounding militarism and imperialism. Shinto displays substantial local variation; the anthropologist John K. Nelson noted it was "not a unified, monolithic entity that has a single center and system all its own". Different types of Shinto have been identified. "Shrine Shinto" refers to the practices centred around shrines, and "Domestic Shinto" to the ways in which are venerated in the home. Some scholars have used the term "Folk Shinto" to designate localised Shinto practices, or practices outside of an institutionalised setting. In various eras of the past, there was also a "
State Shinto was Imperial Japan's ideological use of the Japanese folk religion and traditions of Shinto. The state exercised control of shrine finances and training regimes for priests to strongly encourage Shinto practices that emphasized the Emperor as ...
", in which Shinto beliefs and practices were closely interlinked with the Japanese state. In representing "a portmanteau term" for many varied traditions across Japan, the term "Shinto" is similar to the term "
Hinduism Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
", used to describe varied traditions across South Asia.


Etymology

The term ''Shinto'' is often translated into English as "the way of the ", although its meaning has varied throughout Japanese history. Other terms are sometimes used synonymously with "Shinto"; these include ' (, "the way of the "), ' (, also written or , "the way of the from time immemorial"), ' (, "the ancient way"), ' (, "the great way"), and ' (, "the imperial way"). The term ''Shinto'' derives from the combination of two Chinese characters: '' shen'' (), which means "spirit," and ''
dao Dao, Dão or DAO may refer to: * Tao (Chinese: "The Way" 道), a philosophical concept * Dao (Chinese sword) (刀), a type of Chinese sword * Dao (Naga sword), a weapon and a tool of Naga people People and language * Yao people, a minority ethnic ...
'' (), which means "way", "road" or "path". "Shendao" ( zh, t=神道, p=shéndào, l=the Way of the Gods) was a term already used in the ''
Yijing The ''I Ching'' or ''Yi Jing'' (, ), usually translated ''Book of Changes'' or ''Classic of Changes'', is an ancient Chinese divination text that is among the oldest of the Chinese classics. Originally a divination manual in the Western Zhou ...
'' referring to the divine order of nature. Around the time of the spread of
Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
in the
Han dynasty The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a warr ...
(206 BC – 220 AD), it was used to distinguish indigenous Chinese religions from the imported religion.
Ge Hong Ge Hong (; b. 283 – d. 343 or 364), courtesy name Zhichuan (稚川), was a Chinese linguist, Taoist practitioner, philosopher, physician, politician, and writer during the Eastern Jin dynasty. He was the author of '' Essays on Chinese Characte ...
used it in his ''
Baopuzi The ''Baopuzi'' () is a literary work written by Ge Hong (also transliterated as Ko Hung) (), 283–343, a scholar during the turbulent Jin dynasty. ''Baopuzi'' is divided into two main sections, the esoteric ''Neipian'' () "Inner Chapters" an ...
'' as a synonym for
Taoism Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of Philosophy, philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of China, Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmo ...
. The
Chinese Chinese can refer to: * Something related to China * Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity **''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation ** List of ethnic groups in China, people of va ...
term ''Shendao'' was originally adopted into Japanese as ''Jindō''; this was possibly first used as a Buddhist term to refer to non-Buddhist deities. Among the earliest known appearances of the term ''Shinto'' in Japan is in the 8th-century text, '' Nihon Shoki''. Here, it may be a generic term for popular belief, or alternatively reference Taoism, as many Taoist practices had recently been imported from mainland Asia. In these early Japanese uses, the word ''Shinto'' did not apply to a distinct religious tradition nor to anything uniquely Japanese; the 11th century '' Konjaku monogatarishui'' for instance refers to a woman in China practicing ''Shinto'', and also to people in India worshipping , indicating these terms were being used to describe religions outside Japan itself. In medieval Japan, -worship was generally seen as being part of
Japanese Buddhism Buddhism has been practiced in Japan since about the 6th century CE. Japanese Buddhism () created many new Buddhist schools, and some schools are original to Japan and some are derived from Chinese Buddhist schools. Japanese Buddhism has had a ...
, with the themselves often interpreted as
Buddhas In Buddhism, Buddha (; Pali, Sanskrit: 𑀩𑀼𑀤𑁆𑀥, बुद्ध), "awakened one", is a title for those who are awake, and have attained nirvana and Buddhahood through their own efforts and insight, without a teacher to point out ...
. At this point, the term ''Shinto'' increasingly referred to "the authority, power, or activity of a , being a , or, in short, the state or attributes of a ." It appears in this form in texts such as ' and '' Shintōshū'' tales. In the '' Japanese Portuguese Dictionary'' of 1603, ''Shinto'' is defined as referring to " or matters pertaining to ." The term ''Shinto'' became common in the 15th century. During the late Edo period, the scholars began using the term ''Shinto'' to describe what they believed was an ancient, enduring and indigenous Japanese tradition that predated Buddhism; they argued that ''Shinto'' should be used to distinguish worship from traditions like Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism. This use of the term ''Shinto'' became increasingly popular from the 18th century. The term ''Shinto'' has been commonly used only since the early 20th century, when it superseded the term ('great religion') as the name for the Japanese state religion.


Beliefs


Shinto is
polytheistic Polytheism is the belief in multiple deities, which are usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses, along with their own religious sects and rituals. Polytheism is a type of theism. Within theism, it contrasts with monotheism, the ...
, involving the veneration of many deities known as , or sometimes as . In Japanese, no distinction is made here between singular and plural, and hence the term refers both to individual and the collective group of . Although lacking a direct English translation, the term has sometimes been rendered as "god" or "spirit". The historian of religion
Joseph Kitagawa Joseph Mitsuo Kitagawa (March 8, 1915 – October 7, 1992) was an eminent Japanese American scholar in religious studies. He was professor emeritus and dean of the University of Chicago Divinity School. He is considered one of the founders of th ...
deemed these English translations "quite unsatisfactory and misleading", and various scholars urge against translating into English. In Japanese, it is often said that there are eight million , a term which connotes an infinite number, and Shinto practitioners believe that they are present everywhere. They are not regarded as
omnipotent Omnipotence is the quality of having unlimited power. Monotheistic religions generally attribute omnipotence only to the deity of their faith. In the monotheistic religious philosophy of Abrahamic religions, omnipotence is often listed as one of ...
,
omniscient Omniscience () is the capacity to know everything. In Hinduism, Sikhism and the Abrahamic religions, this is an attribute of God. In Jainism, omniscience is an attribute that any individual can eventually attain. In Buddhism, there are diffe ...
, or necessarily
immortal Immortality is the ability to live forever, or eternal life. Immortal or Immortality may also refer to: Film * ''The Immortals'' (1995 film), an American crime film * ''Immortality'', an alternate title for the 1998 British film '' The Wisdom of ...
. The term is "conceptually fluid", being "vague and imprecise". In Japanese it is often applied to the power of phenomena that inspire a sense of wonder and awe in the beholder. Kitagawa referred to this as "the nature", stating that he thought it "somewhat analogous" to the Western ideas of the
numinous Numinous () is a term derived from the Latin ''numen'', meaning "arousing spiritual or religious emotion; mysterious or awe-inspiring."Collins English Dictionary -7th ed. - 2005 The term was given its present sense by the German theologian and ph ...
and the
sacred Sacred describes something that is dedicated or set apart for the service or worship of a deity; is considered worthy of spiritual respect or devotion; or inspires awe or reverence among believers. The property is often ascribed to objects (a ...
. are seen to inhabit both the living and the dead, organic and inorganic matter, and natural disasters like earthquakes, droughts, and plagues; their presence is seen in natural forces such as the wind, rain, fire, and sunshine. Accordingly, Nelson commented that Shinto regards "the ''actual phenomena'' of the world itself" as being "divine". This perspective has been characterised as being
animistic Animism (from Latin: ' meaning 'breath, spirit, life') is the belief that objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct spiritual essence. Potentially, animism perceives all things—animals, plants, rocks, rivers, weather systems, hum ...
. In Japan, have been venerated since prehistory. During the
Yayoi period The started at the beginning of the Neolithic in Japan, continued through the Bronze Age, and towards its end crossed into the Iron Age. Since the 1980s, scholars have argued that a period previously classified as a transition from the Jōmon p ...
they were regarded as being formless and invisible, later coming to be depicted anthropomorphically under Buddhist influence. Now, statues of the are known as . are usually associated with a specific place, often a prominent landscape feature such as a waterfall, mountain, large rock, or distinctive tree. Physical objects or places in which the are believed to have a presence are termed ; objects inhabited by the that are placed in the shrine are known as . Objects commonly chosen for this purpose include mirrors, swords, stones, beads, and inscribed tablets. These are concealed from the view of visitors, and may be hidden inside boxes so that even the priests do not know what they look like. are deemed capable of both benevolent and destructive deeds; if warnings about good conduct are ignored, the can mete out punishment, often illness or sudden death, called . Some , referred to as the or , are regarded as malevolent and destructive. Offerings and prayers are given to the to gain their blessings and to dissuade them from destructive actions. Shinto seeks to cultivate and ensure a harmonious relationship between humans and the and thus with the natural world. More localised may be subject to feelings of intimacy and familiarity from members of the local community that are not directed towards more widespread like Amaterasu. The of a particular community is referred to it as their , while that of a particular house is the . are not deemed
metaphysically Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that studies the fundamental nature of reality, the first principles of being, identity and change, space and time, causality, necessity, and possibility. It includes questions about the nature of consci ...
different from humanity, with it being possible for humans to become . Dead humans are sometimes venerated as , being regarded as protector or ancestral figures. One of the most prominent examples is that of the
Emperor Ōjin , also known as (alternatively spelled 譽田別命, 誉田別命, 品陀和気命, 譽田分命, 誉田別尊, 品陀別命) or , was the 15th (possibly legendary) Emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dat ...
, who on his death was enshrined as the
Hachiman In Japanese religion, ''Yahata'' (八幡神, ancient Shinto pronunciation) formerly in Shinto and later commonly known as Hachiman (八幡神, Japanese Buddhist pronunciation) is the syncretic divinity of archery and war, incorporating elements f ...
, believed to be a protector of Japan and a of war. In Japanese culture, ancestors can be viewed as a form of . In Western Japan, the term is used to describe the enshrined of a village founder. In some cases, living human beings were also viewed as ; these were called or . In the State Shinto system of the Meiji era, the emperor of Japan was declared to be a , while several Shinto sects have also viewed their leaders as living . Although some are venerated only in a single location, others have shrines across many areas. Hachiman for instance has around 25,000 shrines dedicated to him, while Inari has 40,000. The act of establishing a new shrine to a who already has one is called ("dividing the spirit"). As part of this, the is invited to enter a new place, with the instalment ceremony known as a . The new, subsidiary shrine is known as a . Individual are not believed to have their power diminished by their residence in multiple locations, and there is no limit on the number of places a can be enshrined. In some periods, fees were charged for the right to enshrine a particular in a new place. Shrines are not necessarily always designed as permanent structures. Many have messengers, known as or , that generally take animal forms. Inari's messenger, for example, is a fox (''
kitsune In Japanese folklore, , are foxes that possess paranormal abilities that increase as they get older and wiser. According to ''yōkai'' folklore, all foxes have the ability to shapeshift into human form. While some folktales speak of employing t ...
''), while Hachiman's is a dove. Shinto cosmology also includes spirits who cause malevolent acts, , a category including , , , , and . Japanese folklore also incorporates belief in the or , unquiet or vengeful spirits, particularly of those who died violently and without appropriate funerary rites. These are believed to inflict suffering on the living, meaning that they must be pacified, usually through Buddhist rites but sometimes through enshrining them as a . Other Japanese supernatural figures include the , animal-like creatures who can take human form.


Cosmogony

Although the narratives differ in detail, the origin of the and of Japan itself are recounted in two 8th-century texts, ''
Kojiki The , also sometimes read as or , is an early Japanese chronicle of myths, legends, hymns, genealogies, oral traditions, and semi-historical accounts down to 641 concerning the origin of the Japanese archipelago, the , and the Japanese imperia ...
'' and ''Nihon Shoki''. Drawing heavily on Chinese influence, these texts were commissioned by ruling elites to legitimize and consolidate their rule. Although never of great importance to Japanese religious life, in the early 20th century the government proclaimed that their accounts were factual. The ''Kojiki'' recounts that the universe started with , the separation of light and pure elements (, "heaven") from heavy elements (, "earth"). Three then appeared:
Amenominakanushi Ame-no-Minakanushi (アメノミナカヌシ, lit. "Lord of the August Center of Heaven") is a deity (''kami'') in Japanese mythology, portrayed in the ''Kojiki'' and the '' Nihon Shoki'' as the very first or one of the first deities who manifes ...
, Takamimusuhi no Mikoto, and Kamimusuhi no Mikoto. Other followed, including a brother and sister,
Izanagi Izanagi (イザナギ/伊邪那岐/伊弉諾) or Izanaki (イザナキ), formally known as , is the creator deity (''kami are the deities, divinities, spirits, phenomena or "holy powers", that are venerated in the Shinto religion. They can b ...
and
Izanami , formally known as , is the creator deity of both creation and death in Japanese mythology, as well as the Shinto mother goddess. She and her brother-husband Izanagi are the last of the seven generations of primordial deities that manifest ...
. The instructed Izanagi and Izanami to create land on earth. To this end, the siblings stirred the briny sea with a jewelled spear, from which
Onogoro Island Onogoroshima (''Kojiki'': ''Onogoro-shima''; '' Nihon Shoki'': ''Onogoro-jima'') is an important island in Shinto. ''Onogoro'' literally means "''muddy sea has the ability to bind rocks and stones accumulated to form a bridge''". Shinto account ...
was formed. Izanagi and Izanami then descended to Earth, where the latter gave birth to further . One of these was a fire , whose birth killed Izanami. Izanagi descended to to retrieve his sister, but there he saw her body putrefying. Embarrassed to be seen in this state, she chased him out of , and he closed its entrance with a boulder. Izanagi bathed in the sea to rid himself from the pollution brought about by witnessing Izanami's putrefaction. Through this act, further emerged from his body:
Amaterasu Amaterasu, also known as Amaterasu Ōmikami () or Ōhirume no Muchi no Kami (), is the goddess of the sun in Japanese mythology. One of the major deities (''kami'') of Shinto, she is also portrayed in Japan's earliest literary texts, the ''Kojik ...
(the sun ) was born from his left eye,
Tsukuyomi , or simply or , is the moon god in Japanese mythology and the Shinto religion. The name "Tsukuyomi" is a compound of the Old Japanese words and . The '' Nihon Shoki'' mentions this name spelled as , but this ''yumi'' is likely a variation i ...
(the moon ) from his right eye, and
Susanoo __FORCETOC__ Susanoo (; historical orthography: , ) is a in Japanese mythology. The younger brother of Amaterasu, goddess of the sun and mythical ancestress of the Japanese imperial line, he is a multifaceted deity with contradictory chara ...
(the storm ) from his nose. Susanoo behaved in a destructive manner, to escape him Amaterasu hid herself within a cave, plunging the earth into darkness. The other eventually succeeded in coaxing her out. Susanoo was then banished to earth, where he married and had children. According to the ''Kojiki'', Amaterasu then sent her grandson,
Ninigi is a deity in Japanese mythology. Grandson of the sun goddess Amaterasu, Ninigi is regarded according to Japanese mythology as the great-grandfather of Japan’s first emperor, Emperor Jimmu. The three sacred treasures brought with Ninigi from ...
, to rule Japan, giving him curved beads, a mirror, and a sword: the symbols of Japanese imperial authority. Amaterasu remains probably Japan's most venerated .


Cosmology and afterlife

In Shinto, the creative principle permeating all life is known as , and is associated with its own . Within traditional Japanese thought, there is no concept of an overarching duality between good and evil. The concept of encompasses misfortune, unhappiness, and disaster, although it does not correspond precisely with the Western concept of evil. There is no
eschatology Eschatology (; ) concerns expectations of the end of the present age, human history, or of the world itself. The end of the world or end times is predicted by several world religions (both Abrahamic and non-Abrahamic), which teach that negati ...
in Shinto. Texts such as the ''Kojiki'' and ''Nihon Shoki'' portray multiple realms in Shinto cosmology. These present a universe divided into three parts: the Plain of High Heaven (), where the live; the Phenomenal or Manifested World (), where humans dwell; and the Nether World (), where unclean spirits reside. The mythological texts nevertheless do not draw firm demarcations between these realms. Modern Shinto places greater emphasis on this life than on any afterlife, although does espouse belief in a human spirit or soul, the or , which contains four aspects. While indigenous ideas about an afterlife were probably well-developed prior to Buddhism's arrival, contemporary Japanese people often adopt Buddhist afterlife beliefs. Mythological stories like the ''Kojiki'' describe or as a realm of the dead, although this plays no role in modern Shinto. Modern Shinto ideas about the afterlife largely revolve around the idea that the spirit survives bodily death and continues to assist the living. After 33 years, it then becomes part of the family . These ancestral spirits are sometimes thought to reside in the mountains, from where they descend to take part in agricultural events. Shinto's afterlife beliefs also include the , restless spirits who died in bad circumstances and often seek revenge.


Purity and impurity

A key theme in Shinto is the avoidance of ''
kegare is the Japanese term for a state of pollution and defilement, important particularly in Shinto as a religious term. Typical causes of ''kegare'' are the contact with any form of death, childbirth (for both parents), disease, and menstruation, an ...
'' ("pollution" or "impurity"), while ensuring ''
harae or ( or ) is the general term for ritual purification in Shinto. is one of four essential elements involved in a Shinto ceremony. The purpose is the purification of pollution or sins () and uncleanness ().(Norbeck, 1952) These concepts include ...
'' ("purity"). In Japanese thought, humans are seen as fundamentally pure. ''Kegare'' is therefore seen as being a temporary condition that can be corrected through achieving ''harae''. Rites of purification are conducted so as to restore an individual to "spiritual" health and render them useful to society. This notion of purity is present in many facets of Japanese culture, such as the focus it places on bathing. Purification is for instance regarded as important in preparation for the planting season, while performers of
noh is a major form of classical Japanese dance-drama that has been performed since the 14th century. Developed by Kan'ami and his son Zeami, it is the oldest major theatre art that is still regularly performed today. Although the terms Noh and ' ...
theatre undergo a purification rite before they carry out their performances. Among the things regarded as particular pollutants in Shinto are death, disease, witchcraft, the flaying alive of an animal, incest, bestiality, excrement, and blood associated with either menstruation or childbirth. To avoid ''kegare'', priests and other practitioners may engage in abstinence and avoid various activities prior to a festival or ritual. Various words, termed ''imi-kotoba'', are also regarded as taboo, and people avoid speaking them when at a shrine; these include ''shi'' (death), ''byō'' (illness), and ''shishi'' (meat). A purification ceremony known as ''misogi'' involves the use of fresh water, salt water, or salt to remove ''kegare''. Full immersion in the sea is often regarded as the most ancient and efficacious form of purification. This act links with the mythological tale in which Izanagi immersed himself in the sea to purify himself after discovering his deceased wife; it was from this act that other kami sprang from his body. An alternative is immersion beneath a waterfall. Salt is often regarded as a purifying substance; some Shinto practitioners will for instance sprinkle salt on themselves after a funeral, while those running restaurants may put a small pile of salt outside before business commences each day. Fire, also, is perceived as a source of purification. The ''yaku-barai'' is a form of harae designed to prevent misfortune, while the ''oharae'', or "ceremony of great purification", is often used for end-of-year purification rites, and is conducted twice a year at many shrines. Before the Meiji period, rites of purification were generally performed by
onmyōji was one of the official positions belonging to the of the Ministry of the Center under the ritsuryō system in ancient Japan, and was assigned as a technical officer in charge of divination and geomorphology based on the theory of the yin-a ...
, a type of diviner whose practices derived from the Chinese
yin and yang Yin and yang ( and ) is a Chinese philosophy, Chinese philosophical concept that describes opposite but interconnected forces. In Chinese cosmology, the universe creates itself out of a primary chaos of material energy, organized into the c ...
philosophy.


''Kannagara'', morality, and ethics

Shinto incorporates morality tales and myths but no codified ethical doctrine, and thus no "unified, systematized code of behaviour". An ethical system nevertheless arises from its practice, with emphasis placed on sincerity (''makoto''), honesty (''tadashii''), hard work (''tsui-shin''), and thanksgiving (''kansha'') directed towards the ''kami''. ''Shojiki'' is regarded as a virtue, encompassing honesty, uprightness, veracity, and frankness. Shinto sometimes includes reference to four virtues known as the ''akaki kiyoki kokoro'' or ''sei-mei-shin'', meaning "purity and cheerfulness of heart", which are linked to the state of ''harae''. Attitudes to sex and fertility tend to be forthright in Shinto. Shinto's flexibility regarding morality and ethics has been a source of frequent criticism, especially from those arguing that the religion can readily become a pawn for those wishing to use it to legitimise their authority and power. In Shinto, ''kannagara'' ("way of the kami") is the law of the natural order, with ''wa'' ("benign harmony") being inherent in all things. Disrupting ''wa'' is deemed bad, contributing to it is thought good; as such, subordination of the individual to the larger social unit has long been a characteristic of the religion. Throughout Japanese history, the notion of ''saisei-itchi'', or the union of religious authority and political authority, has long been prominent. In the modern world, Shinto has tended toward conservatism, as well as nationalism, an association that results in various Japanese
civil liberties Civil liberties are guarantees and freedoms that governments commit not to abridge, either by constitution, legislation, or judicial interpretation, without due process. Though the scope of the term differs between countries, civil liberties may ...
groups and neighboring countries regarding Shinto suspiciously. Particularly controversial has been the
Yasukuni Shrine is a Shinto shrine located in Chiyoda, Tokyo. It was founded by Emperor Meiji in June 1869 and commemorates those who died in service of Empire of Japan, Japan, from the Boshin War of 1868–1869, to the two Sino-Japanese Wars, First Sino-Japane ...
in Tokyo, devoted to Japan's war dead. In 1979 it enshrined 14 men who had been declared Class-A defendants at the 1946
Tokyo War Crimes Trials The International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE), also known as the Tokyo Trial or the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal, was a military trial convened on April 29, 1946 to Criminal procedure, try leaders of the Empire of Japan for crimes ag ...
, generating domestic and international condemnation, particularly from China and Korea. Shinto priests face ethical conundrums. In the 1980s, for instance, priests at the Suwa Shrine in
Nagasaki is the capital and the largest city of Nagasaki Prefecture on the island of Kyushu in Japan. It became the sole port used for trade with the Portuguese and Dutch during the 16th through 19th centuries. The Hidden Christian Sites in the ...
debated whether to invite the crew of a U.S. Navy vessel docked at the port city to their festival celebrations given the sensitivities surrounding the 1945 U.S. use of the atomic bomb on the city. In other cases, priests have opposed construction projects on shrine-owned land; at
Kaminoseki is a town located in Kumage District, Yamaguchi Prefecture, Japan. As of 2022, the town has an estimated population of 2,193 and a density of . The total area is . Geography Islands * Iwaishima * Yashima * Nagashima Neighbouring munic ...
in the early 2000s, a priest was pressured to resign after opposing the sale of shrine lands to build a
nuclear power plant A nuclear power plant (NPP) is a thermal power station in which the heat source is a nuclear reactor. As is typical of thermal power stations, heat is used to generate steam that drives a steam turbine connected to a electric generator, generato ...
. In the 21st century, Shinto has increasingly been portrayed as a nature-centred spirituality with
environmentalist An environmentalist is a person who is concerned with and/or advocates for the protection of the environment. An environmentalist can be considered a supporter of the goals of the environmental movement, "a political and ethical movement that se ...
credentials; several shrines have collaborated with local environmentalist campaigns, while an international interfaith conference on environmental sustainability was held at the Ise shrine in 2014. Critical commentators have characterised the presentation of Shinto as an environmentalist movement as a rhetorical ploy rather than a concerted effort by Shinto institutions to become environmentally sustainable.


Practice

Shinto focuses on ritual behavior rather than doctrine. The philosophers James W. Boyd and Ron G. Williams stated that Shinto is "first and foremost a ritual tradition", while Picken observed that "Shinto is interested not in ''credenda'' but in ''agenda'', not in things that should be believed but in things that should be done." The scholar of religion Clark B. Offner stated that Shinto's focus was on "maintaining communal, ceremonial traditions for the purpose of human (communal) well-being". It is often difficult to distinguish Shinto practices from Japanese customs more broadly, with Picken observing that the "worldview of Shinto" provided the "principal source of self-understanding within the Japanese way of life". Nelson stated that "Shinto-based orientations and values lie at the core of Japanese culture, society, and character".


Shrines

Public spaces in which the kami are worshipped are often known under the generic term '' jinja'' ("kami-place"); this term applies to the location rather than to a specific building. ''Jinja'' is usually translated as "shrine" in English, although in earlier literature was sometimes translated as "temple", a term now more commonly reserved for Japan's Buddhist structures. There are around 100,000 public shrines in Japan; about 80,000 are affiliated with the Association of Shinto Shrines, with another 20,000 being unaffiliated. They are found all over the country, from isolated rural areas to dense metropolitan ones. More specific terms are sometimes used for certain shrines depending on their function; some of the grand shrines with imperial associations are termed ''jingū'', those devoted to the war dead are termed ''shokonsha'', and those linked to mountains deemed to be inhabited by kami are ''yama-miya''. Jinja typically consist of complexes of multiple buildings, with the architectural styles of shrines having largely developed by the
Heian period The is the last division of classical Japanese history, running from 794 to 1185. It followed the Nara period, beginning when the 50th emperor, Emperor Kanmu, moved the capital of Japan to Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto). means "peace" in Japanese. ...
. The inner sanctuary in which the kami lives is the ''
honden In Shinto shrine architecture, the , also called , or sometimes as in Ise Shrine's case, is the most sacred building at a Shinto shrine, intended purely for the use of the enshrined ''kami'', usually symbolized by a mirror or sometimes by a sta ...
''. Inside the honden may be stored material belonging to the kami; known as ''shinpo'', this can include artworks, clothing, weapons, musical instruments, bells, and mirrors. Typically, worshippers carry out their acts outside of the honden. Near the honden can sometimes be found a subsidiary shrine, the ''bekkū'', to another kami; the kami inhabiting this shrine is not necessarily perceived as being inferior to that in the honden. At some places, halls of worship have been erected, termed ''
haiden Haiden may refer to: *A Gewürztraminer wine * Haiden (Shinto), the hall of worship of a Shinto shrine See also * Heiden (disambiguation) {{disambig ...
''. On a lower level can be found the hall of offerings, known as a '' heiden''. Together, the building housing the honden, haiden, and heiden is called a ''hongū''. In some shrines, there is a separate building in which to conduct additional ceremonies, such as weddings, known as a ''gishikiden'', or a specific building in which the ''kagura'' dance is performed, known as the ''kagura-den''. Collectively, the central buildings of a shrine are known as the ''shaden'', while its precincts are known as the ''keidaichi'' or ''shin'en''. This precinct is surrounded by the ''tamagaki'' fence, with entry via a ''shinmon'' gate, which can be closed at night. Shrine entrances are marked by a two-post gateway with either one or two crossbeams atop it, known as ''
torii A is a traditional Japanese gate most commonly found at the entrance of or within a Shinto shrine, where it symbolically marks the transition from the mundane to the sacred. The presence of a ''torii'' at the entrance is usually the simplest ...
''. The exact details of these torii varies and there are at least twenty different styles. These are regarded as demarcating the area where the kami resides; passing under them is often viewed as a form of purification. More broadly, torii are internationally recognised symbols of Japan. Their architectural form is distinctly Japanese, although the decision to paint most of them in
vermillion Vermilion (sometimes vermillion) is a color, color family, and pigment most often made, since antiquity until the 19th century, from the powdered mineral cinnabar (a form of mercury sulfide, which is toxic) and its corresponding color. It is ...
reflects a Chinese influence dating from the
Nara period The of the history of Japan covers the years from CE 710 to 794. Empress Genmei established the capital of Heijō-kyō (present-day Nara). Except for a five-year period (740–745), when the capital was briefly moved again, it remained the cap ...
. Also set at the entrances to many shrines are ''
komainu , often called lion-dogs in English, are statue pairs of lion-like creatures either guarding the entrance or the ''honden'', or inner shrine of many Japanese Shinto shrines or kept inside the inner shrine itself, where they are not visible to the ...
'', statues of lion or dog like animals perceived to scare off malevolent spirits; typically these will come as a pair, one with its mouth open, the other with its mouth closed. Shrines are often set within gardens or wooded groves called ''chinju no mori'' ("forest of the tutelary kami"), which vary in size from just a few trees to sizeable areas of woodland. Large lanterns, known as ''
tōrō are a type of traditional East Asian lantern made of stone, wood, or metal. Originating in China, stone lanterns spread to Japan, Korea and Vietnam, though they are most commonly found in both China – extant in Buddhist temples and traditional ...
'', are often found within these precincts. Shrines often have an office, known as a ''shamusho'', a ''saikan'' where priests undergo forms of abstinence and purification prior to conducting rituals, and other buildings such as a priests' quarters and a storehouse. Various kiosks often sell amulets to visitors. Since the late 1940s, shrines have had to be financially self-sufficient, relying on the donations of worshippers and visitors. These funds are used to pay the wages of the priests, to finance the upkeep of the buildings, to cover the shrine's membership fees of various regional and national Shinto groups, and to contribute to disaster relief funds. In Shinto, it is seen as important that the places in which kami are venerated be kept clean and not neglected. Through to the Edo period, it was common for kami shrines to be demolished and rebuilt at a nearby location in order to remove any pollutants and ensure purity. This has continued into recent times at certain sites, such as the Ise Grand Shrine, which is moved to an adjacent site every two decades. Separate shrines can also be merged in a process known as ''jinja gappei'', while the act of transferring the kami from one building to another is called ''sengu''. Shrines may have legends about their foundation, which are known as ''en-gi''. These sometimes also record miracles associated with the shrine. From the Heian period on, the ''en-gi'' were often retold on picture scrolls known as ''
emakimono or is an illustrated horizontal narration system of painted handscrolls that dates back to Nara-period (710–794 CE) Japan. Initially copying their much older Chinese counterparts in style, during the succeeding Heian (794–1185) and Kamak ...
''.


Priesthood and ''miko''

Shrines may be cared for by priests, by local communities, or by families on whose property the shrine is found. Shinto priests are known in Japanese as , meaning "proprietor of ", or alternatively as or . Many kannushi take on the role in a line of hereditary succession traced down specific families. In contemporary Japan, there are two main training universities for those wishing to become , at
Kokugakuin University Kokugakuin University (國學院大學; ''Kokugakuin Daigaku'', abbreviated as 國學大 ''Kokugakudai'' or 國大 ''Kokudai'') is a private university, whose main office is in Tokyo's Shibuya district. The academic programs and research include ...
in Tokyo and at
Kogakkan University is a private university at Ise, Mie, Japan. The predecessor of the school was founded in 1882, and it was chartered as a university in 1940. Kogakkan University is one of only two universities in Japan to offer a Shinto studies program, whose gra ...
in
Mie Prefecture is a prefecture of Japan located in the Kansai region of Honshu. Mie Prefecture has a population of 1,781,948 () and has a geographic area of . Mie Prefecture is bordered by Gifu Prefecture to the north, Shiga Prefecture and Kyoto Prefecture to ...
. Priests can rise through the ranks over the course of their careers. The number of priests at a particular shrine can vary; some shrines can have dozens, and others have none, instead being administered by local lay volunteers. Some priests administer to multiple small shrines, sometimes over ten. Priestly costume is largely based on the clothes worn at the imperial court during the Heian period. It includes a tall, rounded hat known as an , and black lacquered wooden clogs known as . The outer garment worn by a priest, usually colored black, red, or light blue, is the , or the . A white silk version of the , used for formal occasions, is known as the . Another priestly robe is the , which is modelled on Heian-style hunting garments. Also part of standard priestly attire is a fan, while during rituals, priests carry a flat piece of wood known as a . This costume is generally more ornate than the sombre garments worn by Japanese Buddhist monks. The chief priest at a shrine is the . Larger shrines may also have an assistant head priest, the . As with teachers, instructors, and Buddhist clergy, Shinto priests are often referred to as by lay practitioners. Historically, there were female priests although they were largely pushed out of their positions in 1868. During the Second World War, women were again allowed to become priests to fill the void caused by large numbers of men being enlisted in the military. By the late 1990s, around 90% of priests were male, 10% female, contributing to accusations that Shinto discriminates against women. Priests are free to marry and have children. At smaller shrines, priests often have other full-time jobs, and serve only as priests during special occasions. Before certain major festivals, priests may undergo a period of abstinence from sexual relations. Some of those involved in festivals also abstain from a range of other things, such as consuming tea, coffee, or alcohol, immediately prior to the events. The priests are assisted by , sometimes referred to as "shrine-maidens" in English. These are typically unmarried, although not necessarily virgins. In many cases they are the daughters of a priest or a practitioner. They are subordinate to the priests in the shrine hierarchy. Their most important role is in the dance, known as . receive only a small salary but gain respect from members of the local community and learn skills such as cooking, calligraphy, painting, and etiquette which can benefit them when later searching for employment or a marriage partner. They generally do not live at the shrines. Sometimes they fill other roles, such as being secretaries in the shrine offices or clerks at the information desks, or as waitresses at the feasts. They also assist in ceremonial rites.


Visits to shrines

Visits to the shrine are termed , or . Some individuals visit the shrines daily, often on their morning route to work; they typically take only a few minutes. Usually, a worshipper will approach the honden, placing a monetary offering in a box and then ringing a bell to call the 's attention. Then, they bow, clap, and stand while silently offering a prayer. The clapping is known as or ; the prayers or supplications as . This individual worship is known as . More broadly, ritual prayers to the are called , while the coins offered are . At the shrine, individuals offering prayers are not necessarily praying to a specific . A worshipper may not know the name of a residing at the shrine nor how many are believed to dwell there. Unlike in certain other religions, Shinto shrines do not have weekly services that practitioners are expected to attend. Some Shinto practitioners do not offer their prayers to the directly, but rather request that a priest offer them on their behalf; these prayers are known as ''kitō''. Many individuals approach the asking for pragmatic requests. Requests for rain, known as ("rain-soliciting") have been found across Japan, with Inari a popular choice for such requests. Other prayers reflect more contemporary concerns. For instance, people may ask that the priest approaches the so as to purify their car in the hope that this will prevent it from being involved in an accident; the ''kotsu anzen harai'' ("purification for road safety"). Similarly, transport companies often request purification rites for new buses or airplanes which are about to go into service. Before a building is constructed, it is common for either private individuals or the construction company to employ a Shinto priest to come to the land being developed and perform the , or earth sanctification ritual. This purifies the site and asks the to bless it. People often ask the to help offset inauspicious events that may affect them. For instance, in Japanese culture, the age 33 is seen as being unlucky for women and the age 42 for men, and thus people can ask the to offset any ill-fortune associated with being this age. Certain directions can also be seen as being inauspicious for certain people at certain times and thus people can approach the asking them to offset this problem if they have to travel in one of these unlucky directions.
Pilgrimage A pilgrimage is a journey, often into an unknown or foreign place, where a person goes in search of new or expanded meaning about their self, others, nature, or a higher good, through the experience. It can lead to a personal transformation, aft ...
has long been important in Japanese religion, with pilgrimages to Shinto shrines called . A round of pilgrimages, whereby individuals visit a series of shrines and other sacred sites that are part of an established circuit, is known as a . An individual leading these pilgrims, is sometimes termed a . For many centuries, people have also visited the shrines for primarily cultural and recreational reasons, as opposed to spiritual ones. Many of the shrines are recognised as sites of historical importance and some are classified as
UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture. It ...
World Heritage Sites A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area with legal protection by an international convention administered by the UNESCO, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). World Heritage Sites are designated by UNES ...
. Shrines such as
Shimogamo Jinja is an important Shinto sanctuary in the Shimogamo district of Kyoto city's Sakyō ward. Its formal name is . It is one of the oldest Shinto shrines in Japan and is one of the seventeen Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto which have been designate ...
and
Fushimi Inari Taisha is the head shrine of the ''kami'' Inari, located in Fushimi-ku, Kyoto, Kyoto Prefecture, Japan. The shrine sits at the base of a mountain also named Inari which is above sea level, and includes trails up the mountain to many smaller shrines ...
in Kyoto,
Meiji Jingū , is a Shinto shrine in Shibuya, Tokyo, that is dedicated to the deified spirits of Emperor Meiji and his wife, Empress Shōken. The shrine does not contain the emperor's grave, which is located at Fushimi-ku, Kyoto#Sights, Fushimi-momoyama, sout ...
in Tokyo, and
Atsuta Jingū is a Shinto shrine traditionally believed to have been established during the reign of Emperor Keikō (71-130) located in Atsuta-ku, Nagoya, Aichi Prefecture in Japan. The shrine is familiarly known as ''Atsuta-Sama'' (Venerable Atsuta) or si ...
in Nagoya are among Japan's most popular tourist sites. Many shrines have a unique rubber-stamp seal which visitors can get printed into their or stamp book, demonstrating the different shrines they have visited.


''Harae'' and ''hōbei''

Shinto rituals begin with a process of purification, or . Using fresh water or salt water, this is known as . At shrines, this entails sprinkling this water onto the face and hands, a procedure known as , using a font known as a . Another form of purification at the start of a Shinto rite entails waving a white paper streamer or wand known as the . When not in use, the is usually kept in a stand. The priest waves the horizontally over a person or object being purified in a movement known as ("left-right-left"). Sometimes, instead of a , the purification is carried out with an , a branch of evergreen to which strips of paper have been attached. The waving of the is often followed by an additional act of purification, the , in which the priest sprinkles water, salt, or brine over those assembled from a wooden box called the or . The acts of purification accomplished, petitions known as are spoken to the . This is followed by an appearance by the , who commence in a slow circular motion before the main altar. Offerings are then presented to the by being placed on a table. This act is known as ; the offerings themselves as or . Historically, the offerings given the included food, cloth, swords, and horses. In the contemporary period, lay worshippers usually give gifts of money to the while priests generally offer them food, drink, and sprigs of the sacred tree.
Animal sacrifice Animal sacrifice is the ritual killing and offering of one or more animals, usually as part of a religious ritual or to appease or maintain favour with a deity. Animal sacrifices were common throughout Europe and the Ancient Near East until the spr ...
s are not considered appropriate offerings, as the shedding of blood is seen as a polluting act that necessitates purification. The offerings presented are sometimes simple and sometimes more elaborate; at the Grand Shrine of Ise, for instance, 100 styles of food are laid out as offerings. The choice of offerings will often be tailored to the specific and occasion. Offerings of food and drink are specifically termed .
Sake Sake, also spelled saké ( ; also referred to as Japanese rice wine), is an alcoholic beverage of Japanese origin made by fermenting rice that has been polished to remove the bran. Despite the name ''Japanese rice wine'', sake, and indee ...
, or rice wine, is a very common offering to the . After the offerings have been given, people often sip rice wine known as . Drinking the wine is seen as a form of communion with the . On important occasions, a feast is then held, known as , inside a banquet hall attached to the shrine complex. The are believed to enjoy music. One style of music performed at shrines is . Instruments used include three reeds (, , and ), the , and the "three drums" (, , and ). Other musical styles performed at shrines can have a more limited focus. At shrines such as
Ōharano Shrine is a Shinto shrine located in Nishikyō-ku, Kyoto Prefecture, Japan. Ōharano is dedicated to the Fujiwara tutelary kami, Amenokoyane, who was said to have assisted in the founding of the state. History The shrine became the object of Imperi ...
in Kyoto, ("eastern entertainment") music is performed on April 8. Also in Kyoto, various festivals make use of the style of music and dance, which originated from rice-planting songs. During rituals, people visiting the shrine are expected to sit in the style, with their legs tucked beneath their bottom. To avoid cramps, individuals who hold this position for a lengthy period of time may periodically move their legs and flex their heels.


Home shrines

Having seen their popularity increase in the Meiji era, many Shinto practitioners also have a family shrine, or ("kami shelf"), in their home. These usually consist of shelves placed at an elevated position in the living room. can also be found in workplaces, restaurants, shops, and ocean-going ships. Some public shrines sell entire . Along with the , many Japanese households also have , Buddhist altars enshrining the ancestors of the family; ancestral reverence remains an important aspect of Japanese religious tradition. In the rare instances where Japanese individuals are given a Shinto funeral rather than a Buddhist one, a , , or shrine may be erected in the home in place of a . This will be typically placed below the and include symbols of the resident ancestral spirit, for instance a mirror or a scroll. often enshrine the kami of a nearby public shrine as well as a tutelary kami associated with the house's occupants or their profession. They can be decorated with miniature torii and and include amulets obtained from public shrines. They often contain a stand on which to place offerings; daily offerings of rice, salt, and water are placed there, with sake and other items also offered on special days. These domestic rituals often take place early in the morning, and prior to conducting them, practitioners often bathe, rinse their mouth, or wash their hands as a form of purification. Household Shinto can focus attention on the , who are perceived to be ancestral to the or extended kinship group. A small shrine for the ancestors of a household are known as . Small village shrines containing the tutelary kami of an extended family are known as . In addition to the temple shrines and the household shrines, Shinto also features small wayside shrines known as . Other open spaces used for the worship of kami are , an area surrounded by sacred rocks.


Ema, divination, and amulets

A common feature of Shinto shrines is the provision of , small wooden plaques onto which practitioners will write a wish or desire that they would like to see fulfilled. The practitioner's message is written on one side of the plaque, while on the other is usually a printed picture or pattern related to the shrine itself. are provided both at Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples in Japan; unlike most amulets, which are taken away from the shrine, the are typically left there as a message for the resident . Those administering the shrine will then often burn all of the collected at new year. Divination is the focus of many Shinto rituals, with various forms of divination used by its practitioners, some introduced from China. Among the ancient forms of divination found in Japan are and . Several forms of divination entailing
archery Archery is the sport, practice, or skill of using a bow to shoot arrows.Paterson ''Encyclopaedia of Archery'' p. 17 The word comes from the Latin ''arcus'', meaning bow. Historically, archery has been used for hunting and combat. In m ...
are also practiced in Shintō, known as , , and . Kitagawa stated that there could be "no doubt" that various types of "shamanic diviners" played a role in early Japanese religion. A form of divination previously common in Japan was or , which often used tortoise shells; it is still used in some places. A form of divination that is popular at Shinto shrines are the . These are small slips of paper which are obtained from the shrine (for a donation) and which are then read to reveal a prediction for the future. Those who receive a bad prediction often then tie the to a nearby tree or frame set up for the purpose. This act is seen as rejecting the prediction, a process called , and thus avoiding the misfortune it predicted. The use of
amulet An amulet, also known as a good luck charm or phylactery, is an object believed to confer protection upon its possessor. The word "amulet" comes from the Latin word amuletum, which Pliny's ''Natural History'' describes as "an object that protects ...
s are widely sanctioned and popular in Japan. These may be made of paper, wood, cloth, metal, or plastic. act as amulets to keep off misfortune and also serve as talismans to bring benefits and good luck. They typically comprise a tapering piece of wood onto which the name of the shrine and its enshrined are written or printed. The is then wrapped inside white paper and tied up with a colored thread. are provided both at Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples. Another type of amulet provided at shrines and temples are the , which are traditionally small, brightly colored drawstring bags with the name of the shrine written on it. and are sometimes placed within a charm bag known as a , typically worn by small children. At new year, many shrines sell (an "evil-destroying arrows"), which people can purchase and keep in their home over the coming year to bring good luck. A is a round, paper doll of the Indian monk,
Bodhidharma Bodhidharma was a semi-legendary Buddhist monk who lived during the 5th or 6th century CE. He is traditionally credited as the transmitter of Chan Buddhism to China, and regarded as its first Chinese patriarch. According to a 17th century apo ...
. The recipient makes a wish and paints one eye; when the goal is accomplished, the recipient paints the other eye. While this is a Buddhist practice, darumas can be found at shrines, as well. These dolls are very common. Other protective items include , which are earthenware bells that are used to pray for good fortune. These bells are usually in the shapes of the zodiacal animals. are paper dogs that are used to induce and to bless good births. Collectively, these talismans through which home to manipulate events and influence spirits, as well as related mantras and rites for the same purpose, are known as .


''Kagura''

describes the music and dance performed for the ; the term may have originally derived from ("seat of the "). Throughout Japanese history, dance has played an important culture role and in Shinto it is regarded as having the capacity to pacify . There is a
mythological Myth is a folklore genre consisting of narratives that play a fundamental role in a society, such as foundational tales or origin myths. Since "myth" is widely used to imply that a story is not objectively true, the identification of a narrat ...
tale of how dance came into existence. According to the ''Kojiki'' and the ''Nihon Shoki'',
Ame-no-Uzume is the goddess of dawn, mirth, meditation, revelry and the arts in the Shinto religion of Japan, and the wife of fellow-god Sarutahiko Ōkami. She famously relates to the tale of the missing sun deity, Amaterasu Omikami. Her name can also be p ...
performed a dance to entice Amaterasu out of the cave in which she had hidden herself. There are two broad types of kagura. One is Imperial kagura, also known as . This style was developed in the imperial court and is still performed on imperial grounds every December. It is also performed at the Imperial harvest festival and at major shrines such as Ise,
Kamo The name Kamo may refer to the following: Places Japan (Note: ''kamo'' ( 鴨), is the common word for ''duck'' in Japanese, but the following names do not necessarily mean ''duck'' and are not necessarily written with that character.) * Kamo, N ...
, and Iwashimizu Hachiman-gū. It is performed by singers and musicians using wooden clappers, a , a flute, and a six-stringed zither. The other main type is , descended from and performed at shrines across Japan. Depending on the style, it is performed by or by actors wearing masks to portray various mythological figures. These actors are accompanied by a band using flutes and drums. There are also other, regional types of kagura.


Festivals

Public festivals are commonly termed , although this term has varied meanings—"festival," "worship," "celebration," "rite," or "prayer"—and no direct translation into English. Picken suggested that the festival was "the central act of Shinto worship" because Shinto was a "community- and family-based" religion. Most mark the seasons of the agricultural year and involve offerings being directed to the in thanks. According to a traditional
lunar calendar A lunar calendar is a calendar based on the monthly cycles of the Moon's phases (synodic months, lunations), in contrast to solar calendars, whose annual cycles are based only directly on the solar year. The most commonly used calendar, the Gre ...
, Shinto shrines should hold their festival celebrations on or "clear" days", the days of the new, full, and half moons. Other days, known as , were generally avoided for festivities. However, since the late 20th century, many shrines have held their festival celebrations on the Saturday or Sunday closest to the date so that fewer individuals will be working and will be able to attend. Each town or village often has its own festival, centred on a local shrine. For instance, the
Aoi Matsuri The , or "Hollyhock Festival", (although commonly, but mistakenly identified as "hollyhock", the "aoi" actually belongs to the birthwort family and translates as "wild ginger"—Asarum, as correctly pointed in the Wikipedia article on the Tokug ...
festival, held on 15 May to pray for an abundant grain harvest, takes place at shrines in
Kyoto Kyoto (; Japanese: , ''Kyōto'' ), officially , is the capital city of Kyoto Prefecture in Japan. Located in the Kansai region on the island of Honshu, Kyoto forms a part of the Keihanshin metropolitan area along with Osaka and Kobe. , the ci ...
, while the Chichibu Yo-Matsuri takes place on 2–3 December in
Chichibu is a city located in Saitama Prefecture, Japan. , the city had an estimated population of 61,159 in 26,380 households and a population density of . The total area of the city is . Geography Chichibu is in the westernmost part of Saitama. Unli ...
. Spring festivals are called and often incorporate prayers for a good harvest. They sometimes involve ceremonies, in which rice is ritually planted. Summer festivals are termed and are usually focused on protecting the crops against pests and other threats. Autumn festivals are known as and primarily focus on thanking the for the rice or other harvest. The , or festival of new rice, is held across many Shinto shrines on 23 November. The emperor also conducts a ceremony to mark this festival, at which he presents the first fruits of the harvest to the at midnight. Winter festivals, called often feature on welcoming in the spring, expelling evil, and calling in good influences for the future. There is little difference between winter festivals and specific new year festivals. The season of the new year is called . On the last day of the year (31 December), , practitioners usually clean their household shrines in preparation for New Year's Day (1 January), . Many people visit public shrines to celebrate new year; this "first visit" of the year is known as or . There, they buy amulets and talismans to bring them good fortune over the coming year. To celebrate this festival, many Japanese put up rope known as on their homes and places of business. Some also put up ("gateway pine"), an arrangement of pine branches, plum tree, and bamboo sticks. Also displayed are , which are smaller and more colourful; their purpose is to keep away misfortune and attract good fortune. In many places, new year celebrations incorporate ("naked festivals") in which men dressed only in a loincloth engage in a particular activity, such as fighting over a specific object or immersing themselves in a river. A common feature of festivals are processions or parades known as . These can be raucous, with many participants being drunk; Breen and Teeuwen characterised them as having a "carnivalesque atmosphere". They are often understood as having a regenerative effect on both the participants and the community. During these processions, the travel in portable shrines known as . In various cases the undergo ("going down to the beach"), a process by which they are carried to the sea shore and sometimes into the sea, either by bearers or a boat. For instance, in the Okunchi festival held in the southwestern city of
Nagasaki is the capital and the largest city of Nagasaki Prefecture on the island of Kyushu in Japan. It became the sole port used for trade with the Portuguese and Dutch during the 16th through 19th centuries. The Hidden Christian Sites in the ...
, the of the Suwa Shrine are paraded down to Ohato, where they are placed in a shrine there for several days before being paraded back to Suwa. These sort of celebrations are often organized largely by members of the local community rather than by the priests themselves.


Rites of passage

The formal recognition of events is given great importance in Japanese culture. A common ritual, the , entails a child's first visit to a Shinto shrine. A tradition holds that, if a boy he should be brought to the shrine on the thirty-second day after birth, and if a girl she should be brought on the thirty-third day. Historically, the child was commonly brought to the shrine not by the mother, who was considered impure after birth, but by another female relative; since the late 20th century it has been more common for the mother to do so. Another rite of passage, the or , is a coming of age ritual marking the transition to adulthood and occurs when an individual is around twenty. Wedding ceremonies are often carried out at Shinto shrines; these are called ("a wedding before the "). Prior to the Meiji period, weddings were commonly performed in the home, although shrines now regard them as an important source of income. In Japan, funerals tend to take place at Buddhist temples and involve cremation, with Shinto funerals being rare. Bocking noted that most Japanese people are "still 'born Shinto' yet 'die Buddhist'." In Shinto thought, contact with death is seen as imparting impurity (); the period following this contact is known as and is associated with various taboos. In cases when dead humans are enshrined as , the physical remains of the dead are not stored at the shrine. Although not common, there have been examples of funerals conducted through Shinto rites. The earliest examples are known from the mid-17th century; these occurred in certain areas of Japan and had the support of the local authorities. Following the Meiji Restoration, in 1868 the government recognised specifically Shinto funerals for Shinto priests. Five years later, this was extended to cover the entire Japanese population. Despite this Meiji promotion of Shinto funerals, the majority of the population continued to have Buddhist funeral rites. In recent decades, Shinto funerals have usually been reserved for Shinto priests and for members of certain Shinto sects. After
cremation Cremation is a method of Disposal of human corpses, final disposition of a Cadaver, dead body through Combustion, burning. Cremation may serve as a funeral or post-funeral rite and as an alternative to burial. In some countries, including India ...
, the normal funerary process in Japan, the ashes of a priest may be interred near to the shrine, but not inside its precincts. Ancestral reverence remains an important part of Japanese religious custom. The invocation of the dead, and especially the war dead, is known as . Various rites reference this. For instance, at the largely Buddhist festival of
Bon ''Bon'', also spelled Bön () and also known as Yungdrung Bon (, "eternal Bon"), is a Tibetan religious tradition with many similarities to Tibetan Buddhism and also many unique features.Samuel 2012, pp. 220-221. Bon initially developed in t ...
, the souls of the ancestors are believed to visit the living, and are then sent away in a ritual called , by which lanterns are inserted into small boats, often made of paper, and placed in a river to float downstream.


Spirit mediumship and healing

Shinto practitioners believe that the ''kami'' can possess a human being and then speak through them, a process known as . Several new religious movements drawing upon Shinto, such as
Tenrikyo is a Japanese new religion which is neither strictly monotheistic nor pantheistic, originating from the teachings of a 19th-century woman named Nakayama Miki, known to her followers as "Oyasama". Followers of Tenrikyo believe that God of Origin, ...
and
Oomoto ''Chōseiden'' in Ayabe , also known as , is a religion founded in 1892 by Deguchi Nao (1836–1918), often categorised as a new Japanese religion originated from Shinto. The spiritual leaders of the movement have always been women within t ...
, were founded by individuals claiming to be guided by a possessing kami. The is an
oracle An oracle is a person or agency considered to provide wise and insightful counsel or prophetic predictions, most notably including precognition of the future, inspired by deities. As such, it is a form of divination. Description The word '' ...
that is passed from the via the medium. The and are blind women who train to become
spiritual mediums Spiritual is the adjective for Spirit (vital essence), spirit. Spiritual may also refer to: Religion *Spirituality, a concern with matters of the spirit **Spiritual attack, an attack by Satan and his demons on a Christian **Spiritual body, a Chr ...
, traditionally in Japan's northern Tohoku region. train under other from childhood, memorialising sacred texts and prayers, fasting, and undertaking acts of severe asceticism, through which they are believed to cultivate supernatural powers. In an initiation ceremony, a kami is believed to possess the young woman, and the two are then ritually "married". After this, the kami becomes her tutelary spirit and she will henceforth be able to call upon it, and a range of other spirits, in the future. Through contacting these spirits, she is able to convey their messages to the living. usually carry out their rituals independent of the shrine system. Japanese culture also includes spiritual healers known as whose work involves invoking both kami and Buddhas.


History


Early development

Earhart commented that Shinto ultimately "emerged from the beliefs and practices of prehistoric Japan", although Kitagawa noted that it was questionable whether prehistoric Japanese religions could be accurately termed "early Shinto". It was the
Yayoi period The started at the beginning of the Neolithic in Japan, continued through the Bronze Age, and towards its end crossed into the Iron Age. Since the 1980s, scholars have argued that a period previously classified as a transition from the Jōmon p ...
of Japanese prehistory which first left traces of material and iconography prefiguring that later included in Shinto. were worshipped at various landscape features during this period; at this point, their worship consisted largely of beseeching and placating them, with little evidence that they were viewed as compassionate entities.
Archaeological Archaeology or archeology is the scientific study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, sites, and cultural landscap ...
evidence suggests that bronze bells, bronze weapons, and metal mirrors played an important role in -based ritual during the
Yayoi period The started at the beginning of the Neolithic in Japan, continued through the Bronze Age, and towards its end crossed into the Iron Age. Since the 1980s, scholars have argued that a period previously classified as a transition from the Jōmon p ...
. In this early period, Japan was not a unified state; by the
Kofun period The is an era in the history of Japan from about 300 to 538 AD (the date of the introduction of Buddhism), following the Yayoi period. The Kofun and the subsequent Asuka periods are sometimes collectively called the Yamato period. This period is ...
it was divided among (clans), each with their own tutelary , the . Korean migration during the Kofun period brought Confucianism and Buddhism to Japan. Buddhism had a particular impact on the cults. Migrant groups and Japanese who increasingly aligned with these foreign influences built Buddhist temples in various parts of the Japanese islands. Several rival clans who were more hostile to these foreign influences began adapting the shrines of their to more closely resemble the new Buddhist structures. In the late 5th century, the
Yamato clan The , also known as , was an immigrant clan active in Japan since the Kofun period (250–538), according to the history of Japan laid out in the '' Nihon Shoki''. The name ''fuhito'' comes from their occupation as scribes. They were descended fro ...
leader Yūryaku declared himself '' daiō'' ("great king") and established hegemony over much of Japan. From the early 6th century CE, the style of ritual favored by the
Yamato was originally the area around today's Sakurai City in Nara Prefecture of Japan, which became Yamato Province and by extension a name for the whole of Japan. Yamato is also the dynastic name of the ruling Imperial House of Japan. Japanese his ...
began spreading to other shrines around Japan as the Yamato extended their territorial influence. Buddhism was also growing. According to the ''Nihon Shoki'', in 587
Emperor Yōmei was the 31st Emperor of Japan,Imperial Household Agency (''Kunaichō'') 用明天皇 (31)/ref> according to the traditional order of succession. Yōmei's reign spanned the years from 585 until his death in 587. Traditional narrative He was call ...
converted to Buddhism and under his sponsorship Buddhism spread. In the mid-7th century, a legal code called was adopted to establish a Chinese-style centralised government. As part of this, the
Jingikan The , also known as the Department of Shinto Affairs, Department of Rites, Department of Worship, as well as Council of Divinities, was a Japanese Imperial bureaucracy established in the 8th century, as part of the ''ritsuryō'' reforms. It was fi ...
("Council of ") was created to conduct rites of state and coordinate provincial ritual with that in the capital. This was done according to a code of law called the ''Jingiryō'', itself modelled on the Chinese ''
Book of Rites The ''Book of Rites'', also known as the ''Liji'', is a collection of texts describing the social forms, administration, and ceremonial rites of the Zhou dynasty as they were understood in the Warring States and the early Han periods. The ''Book o ...
''. The Jingikan was located in the palace precincts and maintained a register of shrines and priests. An annual calendar of state rites were introduced to help unify Japan through worship. These legally mandated rites were outlined in the
Yōrō Code The was one iteration of several codes or governing rules compiled in early Nara period in Classical Japan. It was compiled in 718, the second year of the Yōrō regnal era by Fujiwara no Fuhito et al., but not promulgated until 757 under the ...
of 718, and expanded in the ''Jogan Gishiki'' of circa 872 and the ''
Engi Shiki The is a Japanese book about laws and customs. The major part of the writing was completed in 927. Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005)"''Engi-shiki''"in ''Japan Encyclopedia'', p. 178. History In 905, Emperor Daigo ordered the compilation of the ...
'' of 927. Under the Jingikan, some shrines were designated as ("official shrines") and given specific privileges and responsibilities. Hardacre saw the Jingikan as "the institutional origin of Shinto". In the early 8th century, the Emperor
Tenmu was the 40th emperor of Japan, Imperial Household Agency (''Kunaichō'') 天武天皇 (40) retrieved 2013-8-22. according to the traditional order of succession. Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1959). ''The Imperial House of Japan'', p. 53. Tenmu's r ...
commissioned a compilation of the legends and genealogies of Japan's clans, resulting in the completion of the ''Kojiki'' in 712. Designed to legitimate the ruling dynasty, this text created a fixed version of various stories previously circulating in oral tradition. The ''Kojiki'' omits any reference to Buddhism, in part because it sought to ignore foreign influences and emphasise a narrative stressing indigenous elements of Japanese culture. Several years later, the ''Nihon shoki'' was written. Unlike the ''Kojiki'', this made various references to Buddhism, and was aimed at a foreign audience. Both of these texts sought to establish the imperial clan's descent from the sun Amaterasu, although there were many differences in the cosmogonic narrative they provided. Quickly, the ''Nihon shoki'' eclipsed the ''Kojiki'' in terms of its influence. Other texts written at this time also drew on oral traditions regarding the . The '' Sendari kuji hongi'' for example was probably composed by the
Mononobe The was a Japanese aristocratic kin group (''uji'') of the Kofun period, known for its military opposition to the Soga clan. The Mononobe were opposed to the spread of Buddhism, partly on religious grounds, claiming that the local deities wo ...
clan while the '' Kogoshui'' was probably put together for the Imbe clan, and in both cases they were designed to highlight the divine origins of these respective lineages. A government order in 713 called on each region to produce ''
fudoki are ancient reports on provincial culture, geography, and oral tradition presented to the reigning monarchs of Japan, also known as local gazetteers. They contain agricultural, geographical, and historical records as well as mythology and ...
'', records of local geography, products, and stories, with the latter revealing more traditions about the which were present at this time. From the 8th century, worship and Buddhism were thoroughly intertwined in Japanese society. While the emperor and court performed Buddhist rites, they also performed others to honor the . Tenmu for example appointed a virginal imperial princess to serve as the , a form of priestess, at the Ise Shrine on his behalf, a tradition continued by subsequent emperors. From the 8th century onward up until the
Meiji era The is an era of Japanese history that extended from October 23, 1868 to July 30, 1912. The Meiji era was the first half of the Empire of Japan, when the Japanese people moved from being an isolated feudal society at risk of colonization b ...
, the were incorporated into a Buddhist cosmology in various ways. One view is that the realised that like all other life-forms, they too were trapped in the cycle of samsara (rebirth) and that to escape this they had to follow Buddhist teachings. Alternative approaches viewed the as benevolent entities who protected Buddhism, or that the were themselves
Buddhas In Buddhism, Buddha (; Pali, Sanskrit: 𑀩𑀼𑀤𑁆𑀥, बुद्ध), "awakened one", is a title for those who are awake, and have attained nirvana and Buddhahood through their own efforts and insight, without a teacher to point out ...
, or beings who had achieved enlightenment. In this, they could be either , the pure spirits of the Buddhas, or , transformations of the Buddhas in their attempt to help all sentient beings.


Nara period

This period hosted many changes to the country, government, and religion. The capital is moved again to
Heijō-kyō was the Capital of Japan during most of the Nara period, from 710 to 740 and again from 745 to 784. The imperial palace is a listed UNESCO World Heritage together with other places in the city of Nara (cf. Historic Monuments of Ancient ...
(modern-day
Nara The National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) is an " independent federal agency of the United States government within the executive branch", charged with the preservation and documentation of government and historical records. It i ...
), in AD 710 by
Empress Genmei , also known as Empress Genmyō, was the 43rd monarch of Japan, Imperial Household Agency (''Kunaichō'') 元明天皇 (43) retrieved August 22, 2013. according to the traditional order of succession. Genmei's reign spanned the years 707 throug ...
due to the death of the emperor. This practice was necessary due to the Shinto belief in the impurity of death and the need to avoid this pollution. However, this practice of moving the capital due to "death impurity" is then abolished by the
Taihō Code The was an administrative reorganisation enacted in 703 in Japan, at the end of the Asuka period. It was historically one of the . It was compiled at the direction of Prince Osakabe, Fujiwara no Fuhito and Awata no Mahito. Nussbaum, Louis-Fr ...
and rise in Buddhist influence. The establishment of the imperial city in partnership with Taihō Code is important to Shinto as the office of the Shinto rites becomes more powerful in assimilating local clan shrines into the imperial fold. New shrines are built and assimilated each time the city is moved. All of the grand shrines are regulated under Taihō and are required to account for incomes, priests, and practices due to their national contributions.


Meiji era and the Empire of Japan

Breen and Teeuwen characterise the period between 1868 and 1915, during the Meiji era, as being the "formative years" of modern Shinto. It is in this period that various scholars have argued that Shinto was essentially "invented". Fridell argues that scholars call the period from 1868 to 1945 the "State Shinto period" because, "during these decades, Shinto elements came under a great deal of overt state influence and control as the Japanese government systematically utilized shrine worship as a major force for mobilizing imperial loyalties on behalf of modern nation-building." However, the government had already been treating shrines as an extension of government before Meiji; see for example the
Tenpō Reforms The were an array of economic policies introduced between 1841 and 1843 by the Tokugawa shogunate in Japan. These reforms were efforts to resolve perceived problems in military, economic, agricultural, financial and religious systems. The changes ...
. Moreover, according to the scholar Jason Ānanda Josephson, It is inaccurate to describe shrines as constituting a "state religion" or a "theocracy" during this period since they had neither organization, nor doctrine, and were uninterested in conversion.Josephson, Jason Ānanda (2012). ''The Invention of Religion in Japan''. University of Chicago Press. p. 133. . The
Meiji Restoration The , referred to at the time as the , and also known as the Meiji Renovation, Revolution, Regeneration, Reform, or Renewal, was a political event that restored practical imperial rule to Japan in 1868 under Emperor Meiji. Although there were ...
of 1868 was fuelled by a renewal of Confucian ethics and imperial patriotism among Japan's ruling class. Among these reformers, Buddhism was seen as a corrupting influence that had undermined what they envisioned as Japan's original purity and greatness. They wanted to place a renewed emphasis on worship as an indigenous form of ritual, an attitude that was also fuelled by anxieties about Western expansionism and fear that Christianity would take hold in Japan. In 1868, all shrine priests were placed under the authority of the new
Jingikan The , also known as the Department of Shinto Affairs, Department of Rites, Department of Worship, as well as Council of Divinities, was a Japanese Imperial bureaucracy established in the 8th century, as part of the ''ritsuryō'' reforms. It was fi ...
, or Council of Kami Affairs. A project of forcibly separating worship from Buddhism was implemented, with Buddhist monks, deities, buildings, and rituals banned from shrines. Much Buddhist material was destroyed. In 1871, a new hierarchy of shrines was introduced, with imperial and national shrines at the top. Hereditary priesthoods were abolished and a new state-sanctioned system for appointing priests was introduced. In 1872, the Jingikan was replaced with the Kyobusho, or Ministry of Edification. This coordinated a campaign whereby ("national evangelists") were sent through the country to promote Japan's "Great Teaching," which included respect for the and obedience to the emperor. This campaign was discontinued in 1884. In 1906, thousands of village shrines were merged so that most small communities had only a single shrine, where rites in honor of the emperor could be held. Shinto effectively became the state cult, one promoted with growing zeal in the build-up to the Second World War. In 1882, the Meiji government designated 13 religious movements that were neither Buddhist nor Christian to be forms of "
Sect Shinto Sect Shinto () refers to several independent organized Shinto groups that were excluded by law in 1882 from government-run State Shinto. These independent groups may have more developed belief systems than mainstream Shrine Shinto which focuses m ...
". The number and name of the sects given this formal designation varied; often they merged ideas with Shinto from Buddhism, Christian, Confucian, Daoist, and Western esoteric traditions. In the Meiji period, many local traditions died out and were replaced by nationally standardised practices encouraged from Tokyo.


Post-war

During the U.S. occupation, a new Japanese constitution was drawn up. This enshrined
freedom of religion Freedom of religion or religious liberty is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or community, in public or private, to manifest religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship, and observance. It also includes the freedom ...
and separated religion from the state, a measure designed to eradicate State Shinto. The emperor declared that he was not a ; Shinto rituals performed by the imperial family became their own private affair. This disestablishment ended government subsidies to shrines and gave them renewed freedom to organise their own affairs. In 1946 many shrines formed a voluntary organisation, the
Association of Shinto Shrines The is a religious administrative organisation that oversees about 80,000 Shinto shrines in Japan. These shrines take the Ise Grand Shrine as the foundation of their belief. It is the largest Shrine Shinto organization in existence. Description ...
(). In 1956 the association issued a creedal statement, the ("general characteristics of a life lived in reverence of the "), to summarise what they regarded as Shinto's principles. By the late 1990s around 80% of Japan's Shinto shrines were part of this association. In the post-war decades, many Japanese blamed Shinto for encouraging the militarism which had led to defeat and occupation. Others remained nostalgic for State Shinto, and concerns were repeatedly expressed that sectors of Japanese society were conspiring to restore it. Various legal debates revolved around the involvement of public officials in Shinto. In 1965, for instance, the city of Tsu, Mie Prefecture paid four Shinto priests to purify the site where the municipal athletic hall was to be built. Critics brought the case to court, claiming it contravened the constitutional separation of religion and state; in 1971 the high court ruled that the city administration's act had been unconstitutional, although this was overturned by the
Supreme Court A supreme court is the highest court within the hierarchy of courts in most legal jurisdictions. Other descriptions for such courts include court of last resort, apex court, and high (or final) court of appeal. Broadly speaking, the decisions of ...
in 1977. During the post-war period, Shinto themes often blended into Japanese
new religious movement A new religious movement (NRM), also known as alternative spirituality or a new religion, is a religious or spiritual group that has modern origins and is peripheral to its society's dominant religious culture. NRMs can be novel in origin or th ...
s. Of the Sect Shinto groups,
Tenrikyo is a Japanese new religion which is neither strictly monotheistic nor pantheistic, originating from the teachings of a 19th-century woman named Nakayama Miki, known to her followers as "Oyasama". Followers of Tenrikyo believe that God of Origin, ...
was probably the most successful, although in 1970 it repudiated its Shinto identity. Shinto perspectives also influenced popular culture. The film director
Hayao Miyazaki is a Japanese animator, director, producer, screenwriter, author, and manga artist. A co-founder of Studio Ghibli, he has attained international acclaim as a masterful storyteller and creator of Japanese animated feature films, and is widel ...
of
Studio Ghibli is a Japanese animation studio headquartered in Koganei, Tokyo."Studio Ghibli Collection - Madman Entertainment". ''Studio Ghibli Collection - Madman Entertainment''. Retrieved 2020-12-14. It is best known for its animated feature films, and ha ...
for instance acknowledged Shinto influences on his films such as ''
Spirited Away is a 2001 Japanese animated fantasy film written and directed by Hayao Miyazaki, animated by Studio Ghibli for Tokuma Shoten, Nippon Television Network, Dentsu, Buena Vista Home Entertainment, Tohokushinsha Film, and Mitsubishi and distribut ...
''. Shinto also spread abroad through both emigration and conversion by non-Japanese. The
Tsubaki Grand Shrine is a Shinto shrine in the Yamamoto neighborhood of the city of Suzuka in Mie Prefecture, Japan. It is one of the two shrines which claim the title of ''ichinomiya'' of former Ise Province. The main festival of the shrine is held annually on Oc ...
in Suzuka, Mie Prefecture, was the first to establish a branch abroad: the
Tsubaki Grand Shrine of America Tsubaki Grand Shrine of America, also sometimes known as Tsubaki America Jinja or in Japanese as , is the first Shinto shrine built in the mainland United States after World War II. It was erected in 1986 in Stockton, California, and moved to its ...
, initially located in California and then moved to
Granite Falls, Washington Granite Falls is a city in Snohomish County, Washington, United States. It is located between the Pilchuck and Stillaguamish rivers in the western foothills of the Cascade Range, northeast of Lake Stevens and Marysville. The city is named for a ...
. During the 20th century, most academic research on Shinto was conducted by Shinto theologians, often priests, bringing accusations that it often blurred theology with historical analysis. From the 1980s onward, there was a renewed academic interest in Shinto both in Japan and abroad.


Demographics

Most Japanese participate in several religious traditions, with Breen and Teeuwen noting that, "with few exceptions", it is not possible to differentiate between Shintoists and Buddhists in Japan. The main exceptions are members of minority religious groups, including Christianity, which promote exclusivist worldviews. Determining the proportions of the country's population who engage in Shinto activity is hindered by the fact that, if asked, Japanese people will often say "I have no religion". Many Japanese avoid the term "religion", in part because they dislike the connotations of the word which most closely matches it in the Japanese language, . The latter term derives from ("sect") and ("doctrine"). Official statistics show Shinto to be Japan's largest religion, with over 80 percent of its population engaging in Shinto activities. Conversely, in questionnaires only a small minority of Japanese describe themselves as "Shintoists." This indicates that a far larger number of people engage in Shinto activities than cite Shinto as their religious identity. There are no formal rituals to become a practitioner of "folk Shinto". Thus, "Shinto membership" is often estimated counting only those who do join organised Shinto sects. Shinto has about 81,000 shrines and about 85,000 priests in the country. According to surveys carried out in 2006Dentsu Communication Institute, Japan Research Center:
Sixty Countries' Values Databook
' (世界60カ国価値観データブック).
and 2008, less than 40% of the population of Japan identifies with an organised religion: around 35% are
Buddhists Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
, 30% to 40% are members of Shinto sects and derived religions. In 2008, 26% of the participants reported often visiting Shinto shrines, while only 16.2% expressed belief in the existence of in general. Shinto is primarily found in Japan, although has spread abroad through imperial conquest and emigration. outside Japan are termed ("overseas shrines"), a term coined by Ogasawara Shōzō. When the Japanese Empire collapsed in the 1940s, there were over 600 within its conquered territories, many of which were later disbanded. Japanese migrants have also established in countries like Brazil, while Shinto's lack of doctrinal focus has attracted interest from non-Japanese; in the United States, for example,
European Americans European Americans (also referred to as Euro-Americans) are Americans of European ancestry. This term includes people who are descended from the first European settlers in the United States as well as people who are descended from more recent Eu ...
have played a significant role in introducing Shinto.


See also

*
Dōsojin is a generic name for a type of Shinto ''kami'' popularly worshipped in Kantō and neighboring areas in Japan where, as tutelary deities of borders and paths, they are believed to protect travellers, pilgrims, villages, and individuals in "transit ...
* Hari-Kuyo *
Iwakura (Shinto) refers to the belief in rocks as Yorishiro containing Kami in ancient Shinto. It also refers to the rock itself, which is the object of worship. Overview Nature worship (spirit worship, animism), which has existed in Japan since ancient time ...
– rock formation where a
kami are the deities, divinities, spirits, phenomena or "holy powers", that are venerated in the Shinto religion. They can be elements of the landscape, forces of nature, or beings and the qualities that these beings express; they can also be the sp ...
is invited to descend *
Kodama (spirit) Kodama (, or ) are spirits in Japanese folklore that inhabit trees. The term is also used to denote a tree in which a kodama supposedly resides. The phenomenon known as yamabiko, when sounds make a delayed echoing effect in mountains and val ...
*
List of Japanese deities This is a list of divinities native to Japanese beliefs and religious traditions. Many of these are from Shinto, while others were imported via Buddhism or Taoism and were "integrated" into Japanese mythology and folklore. Major kami * Amateras ...
*
Raijin , also known as , , , and Kamowakeikazuchi-no-kami is a god of lightning, thunder and storms in Japanese mythology and the Shinto religion. He is typically depicted with fierce and aggressive facial expressions, standing atop a cloud, beatin ...
*
Ryukyuan religion The Ryukyuan religion (琉球信仰), Ryūkyū Shintō (琉球神道), Nirai Kanai Shinkō (ニライカナイ信仰), or Utaki Shinkō (御嶽信仰) is the indigenous belief system of the Ryukyu Islands. While specific legends and traditions ...
(Ryukyu Shinto) *
Shide (Shinto) are zigzag-shaped paper streamers, often seen attached to or , and used in Shinto rituals in Japan. A popular ritual is using a , or "lightning wand", named for the zig-zag paper that adorns the wand. A similar wand, used by for purificatio ...
*
Shinto in popular culture Shinto is frequently a theme in Japanese popular culture, including film, manga, anime, and video games. Shinto religion is at the core of Japanese culture and history and as such greatly affects the outcome of pop culture in modern Japan. Som ...
* Shinto architecture *
Shinto in Taiwan Shinto in Taiwan has its origins in the beginning of the 50-year Taiwan under Japanese rule, Japanese colonial rule of Taiwan in 1895 when the Empire of Japan brought their state religion, Shinto, to the island. The Taiwanese people, Taiwanese we ...
*
Shinto music Shinto music is the ceremonial and festive music of , the indigenous religion of Japan. Its origin myth is the erotic dance of Ame-no-Uzume-no-Mikoto which lured Amaterasu from her cave. Kagura or 'entertainment of the gods' includes music, ...
*
Twenty-Two Shrines The of Japan is one ranking system for Shinto shrines. The system was established during the Heian period and formed part of the government's systematization of Shinto during the emergence of a general anti-Chinese sentiment and the suppression o ...
*
Nyonin Kinsei Nyonin Kinsei is a general term for a type of society custom against women that is found in Japan. In particular, it refers to customs that prohibit women from entering sacred places (shrines, temples, sacred sites, ritual sites, etc.). In this se ...
Women in Shinto *
Yōsei is a Japanese word that is generally synonymous with the English term . Today, this word usually refers to spirits from Western legends, but occasionally it may also denote a creature from native Japanese folklore. For example, according to an ...


References


Citations


Sources

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *


Further reading

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Victoria Bestor,
Theodore C. Bestor Theodore C. Bestor (August 7, 1951 – July 1, 2021) was a professor of anthropology and Japanese studies at Harvard University. He was the president of the Association for Asian Studies in 2012. In 2018, he resigned as director from the Reisch ...
, Akiko Yamagata. ''Routledge Handbook of Japanese Culture and Society''. Routledge, 2011. ,


External links

*
Jinja Honcho – English
– The Official Japanese Organization of 80,000 Shinto Shrines
Kokugakuin University Encyclopedia of Shinto
and its Japanes
Shinto Jinja Database

Tsubaki Grand Shrine of America
– Tsubaki Grand Shrine of America: Jinja Shinto in North America, branch of Tsubaki Grand Shrine in Mie Japan

– Heian Shrine in Kyoto City was built in 1895 in commemoration of the 1100th anniversary of the move of Japanese Capital from Nara to Kyoto in 794

– Meiji Jingu Shrine in Yoyogi, Tokyo, commemorates Emperor Taisho and his wife Empress Shoken

– A shrine for the honoring of Japanese War Dead (English)
Shoin-Jinja
– Shoin Shrine in Tokyo enshrines Yoshida Shoin, a spiritual leader of Meiji Restoration

– A Tokyo Shrine with and English site—Shrine for Ameno-tajikaraono-mikoto and Sugawara Michizane {{Authority control Animism East Asian religions History of religion in Japan Panentheism Pantheism Polytheism Religion in Japan Spirituality Japanese folk religion