On 24 February 2022, in a major escalation of the

Russo-Ukrainian War The Russo-Ukrainian War; uk, російсько-українська війна, rosiisko-ukrainska viina. has been ongoing between Russia (alongside Russian separatist forces in Donbas, Russian separatists in Ukraine) and Ukraine since Feb ...

, which began in 2014. The

invasion An invasion is a military offensive in which large numbers of combatants of one geopolitical entity aggressively enter territory owned by another such entity, generally with the objective of either: conquering; liberating or re-establishing con ...

has resulted in tens of thousands of deaths on both sides. It has caused Europe's largest refugee crisis since

World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...

. An estimated 8 million Ukrainians were displaced within their country by late May and 7.8 million fled the country by 8 November 2022, while Russia, within five weeks of the invasion, experienced its greatest emigration since the 1917

October Revolution The October Revolution,. officially known as the Great October Socialist Revolution. in the Soviet Union, also known as the Bolshevik Revolution, was a revolution in Russia led by the Bolshevik Party of Vladimir Lenin that was a key moment ...

. Following the 2014 Ukrainian Revolution, Russia annexed Crimea, and Russian-backed paramilitaries seized part of the

Donbas The Donbas or Donbass (, ; uk, Донба́с ; russian: Донба́сс ) is a historical, cultural, and economic region in eastern Ukraine. Parts of the Donbas are controlled by Russian separatist groups as a result of the Russo-Ukrai ...

region of south-eastern Ukraine, which consists of

Luhansk Luhansk (, ; uk, Луганськ, ), also known as Lugansk (, ; russian: Луганск, ), is a city in what is internationally recognised as Ukraine, although it is administered by Russia as capital of the Luhansk People's Republic (LPR). A ...

and

Donetsk Donetsk ( , ; uk, Донецьк, translit=Donets'k ; russian: Донецк ), formerly known as Aleksandrovka, Yuzivka (or Hughesovka), Stalin and Stalino (see also: Names of European cities in different languages (C–D), cities' alternat ...

oblast An oblast (; ; Cyrillic (in most languages, including Russian and Ukrainian): , Bulgarian: ) is a type of administrative division of Belarus, Bulgaria, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, and Ukraine, as well as the Soviet Union and the Kingdom of ...

s, sparking a regional war. In March 2021, Russia began a large military build-up along its border with Ukraine, eventually amassing up to 190,000 troops and their equipment. Despite the build-up, denials of plans to invade or attack Ukraine were issued by various Russian government officials up to the day before the invasion. On 21 February 2022, Russia recognised the

Donetsk People's Republic The Donetsk People's Republic ( rus, Донецкая Народная Республика, Donetskaya Narodnaya Respublika, dɐˈnʲetskəjə nɐˈrodnəjə rʲɪˈspublʲɪkə; abbreviated as DPR or DNR, rus, ДНР) is a Territorial ...

and the

Luhansk People's Republic The Luhansk or Lugansk People's Republic (russian: Луга́нская Наро́дная Респу́блика, Luganskaya Narodnaya Respublika, ; abbreviated as LPR or LNR, rus, ЛНР) is a disputed entity created by Russian-backed ...

, two self-proclaimed breakaway

quasi-state A quasi-state (some times referred to as state-like entity or proto-state) is a political entity that does not represent a fully institutionalised or autonomous sovereign state. The precise definition of ''quasi-state'' in political literature f ...

s in the Donbas. The next day, the

Federation Council of Russia The Federation Council (russian: Сове́т Федера́ции – ''Soviet Federatsii'', common abbreviation: Совфед – ''Sovfed''), or Senate (officially, starting from July 1, 2020) ( ru , Сенат , translit = Senat), is th ...

authorised the use of military force and Russian troops entered both territories. The invasion began on the morning of 24 February 2022, when Russian president

Vladimir Putin Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin; (born 7 October 1952) is a Russian politician and former intelligence officer who holds the office of president of Russia. Putin has served continuously as president or prime minister since 1999: as prime min ...

announced a "special military operation" aiming for the "

demilitarisation Demilitarisation or demilitarization may mean the reduction of state armed forces; it is the opposite of militarisation in many respects. For instance, the demilitarisation of Northern Ireland entailed the reduction of British security and military ...

" and "

denazification Denazification (german: link=yes, Entnazifizierung) was an Allied initiative to rid German and Austrian society, culture, press, economy, judiciary, and politics of the Nazi ideology following the Second World War. It was carried out by remov ...

" of Ukraine. In his address, Putin espoused

irredentist Irredentism is usually understood as a desire that one state annexes a territory of a neighboring state. This desire is motivated by ethnic reasons (because the population of the territory is ethnically similar to the population of the parent sta ...

views, challenged Ukraine's

right to statehood The right to exist is said to be an attribute of nations. According to an essay by the 19th-century French philosopher Ernest Renan, a state has the right to exist when individuals are willing to sacrifice their own interests for the communit ...

, and falsely

claimed "Claimed" is the eleventh episode of the The Walking Dead (season 4), fourth season of the Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction, post-apocalyptic Horror fiction, horror television series ''The Walking Dead (TV series), The Walking Dead'', wh ...

Ukraine was governed by

neo-Nazis Neo-Nazism comprises the post–World War II militant, social, and political movements that seek to revive and reinstate Nazi ideology. Neo-Nazis employ their ideology to promote hatred and racial supremacy (often white supremacy), attack ...

who persecuted the ethnic Russian minority. Minutes later, Russian strikes and a large ground invasion were launched on a northern front from

Belarus Belarus,, , ; alternatively and formerly known as Byelorussia (from Russian ). officially the Republic of Belarus,; rus, Республика Беларусь, Respublika Belarus. is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe. It is bordered by R ...

towards

Kyiv Kyiv, also spelled Kiev, is the capital and most populous city of Ukraine. It is in north-central Ukraine along the Dnieper, Dnieper River. As of 1 January 2021, its population was 2,962,180, making Kyiv the List of European cities by populat ...

, a north-eastern front towards

Crimea Crimea, crh, Къырым, Qırım, grc, Κιμμερία / Ταυρική, translit=Kimmería / Taurikḗ ( ) is a peninsula in Ukraine, on the northern coast of the Black Sea, that has been occupied by Russia since 2014. It has a pop ...

, and a south-eastern front from

and

. Ukrainian president

Volodymyr Zelenskyy Volodymyr Oleksandrovych Zelenskyy, ; russian: Владимир Александрович Зеленский, Vladimir Aleksandrovich Zelenskyy, (born 25 January 1978; also transliterated as Zelensky or Zelenskiy) is a Ukrainian politicia ...

enacted

martial law Martial law is the imposition of direct military control of normal civil functions or suspension of civil law by a government, especially in response to an emergency where civil forces are overwhelmed, or in an occupied territory. Use Marti ...

and a

general mobilisation Mobilization is the act of assembling and readying military troops and supplies for war. The word ''mobilization'' was first used in a military context in the 1850s to describe the preparation of the Prussian Army. Mobilization theories and t ...

. Russian troops retreated from the northern front by April. On the southern and south-eastern fronts, Russia captured

Kherson Kherson (, ) is a port city of Ukraine Ukraine ( uk, Україна, Ukraïna, ) is a country in Eastern Europe. It is the second-largest European country after Russia, which it borders to the east and northeast. Ukraine covers appr ...

in March and then

Mariupol Mariupol (, ; uk, Маріу́поль ; russian: Мариу́поль) is a city in Donetsk Oblast, Ukraine. It is situated on the northern coast (Pryazovia) of the Sea of Azov, at the mouth of the Kalmius River. Prior to the 2022 Russian i ...

in May after a

siege A siege is a military blockade of a city, or fortress, with the intent of conquering by attrition warfare, attrition, or a well-prepared assault. This derives from la, sedere, lit=to sit. Siege warfare is a form of constant, low-intensity con ...

. On 18 April, Russia launched a renewed attack on the Donbas region. Russian forces continued to bomb both military and civilian targets far from the frontline, including electrical and water systems. In late 2022, Ukrainian forces launched counteroffensives in the south and in the east. Soon after, Russia announced the illegal annexation of four partially occupied oblasts. In November, Ukraine retook the city of Kherson. The invasion has received widespread international condemnation. The

United Nations General Assembly The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA or GA; french: link=no, Assemblée générale, AG) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN), serving as the main deliberative, policymaking, and representative organ of the UN. Curr ...

passed a resolution condemning the invasion and demanding a full withdrawal of Russian forces. The

International Court of Justice The International Court of Justice (ICJ; french: Cour internationale de justice, links=no; ), sometimes known as the World Court, is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN). It settles disputes between states in accordanc ...

ordered Russia to suspend military operations and the

Council of Europe The Council of Europe (CoE; french: Conseil de l'Europe, ) is an international organisation founded in the wake of World War II to uphold European Convention on Human Rights, human rights, democracy and the Law in Europe, rule of law in Europe. ...

expelled Russia. Many countries imposed sanctions on Russia, as well as on its ally

, which have affected the economies of Russia and the world, and provided humanitarian and military aid to Ukraine, totaling over $80 billion from 40 countries as of August 2022. Protests occurred around the world; those in Russia were met with mass arrests and increased

media censorship Censorship is the suppression of speech, public communication, or other information. This may be done on the basis that such material is considered objectionable, harmful, sensitive, or "inconvenient". Censorship can be conducted by governments ...

, including a ban on the words "war" and "invasion". Over 1,000 companies have pulled out of Russia and Belarus in response to the invasion. The

International Criminal Court The International Criminal Court (ICC or ICCt) is an intergovernmental organization and international tribunal seated in The Hague, Netherlands. It is the first and only permanent international court with jurisdiction to prosecute individuals ...

has opened an investigation into

crimes against humanity Crimes against humanity are widespread or systemic acts committed by or on behalf of a ''de facto'' authority, usually a state, that grossly violate human rights. Unlike war crimes, crimes against humanity do not have to take place within the ...

in Ukraine since 2013, including war crimes in the 2022 invasion.

Background

After the

Soviet Union The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen national ...

(USSR) dissolved in 1991, the newly independent republics of Ukraine and Russia maintained ties. Ukraine agreed in 1994 to sign the

Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, commonly known as the Non-Proliferation Treaty or NPT, is an international treaty whose objective is to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to promote cooperation ...

and dismantle the

nuclear weapons in Ukraine Ukraine, an important republic of the former Union of Socialist Soviet Republics (USSR) from 1922–91, once held the possession of the Soviet nuclear weapons and its delivery mechanism on its territory. Together with Russia, Ukraine held the ...

left by the USSR. In return, Russia, the United Kingdom (UK), and the United States (US) agreed in the

Budapest Memorandum The Budapest Memorandum on Security Assurances comprises three substantially identical political agreements signed at the OSCE conference in Budapest, Hungary, on 5 December 1994, to provide security assurances by its signatories relating to the ...

to uphold the territorial integrity of Ukraine. In 1999, Russia signed the

Charter for European Security The 1999 Istanbul Summit was the 6th Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) summit and was held in Istanbul, Turkey from November 18 until November 19, resulting in the adoption of the Istanbul Summit Declaration and the sign ...

, which "reaffirm dthe inherent right of each and every participating state to be free to choose or change its security arrangements, including treaties of alliance". After the Soviet Union collapsed, several former

Eastern Bloc The Eastern Bloc, also known as the Communist Bloc and the Soviet Bloc, was the group of socialist states of Central and Eastern Europe, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Africa, and Latin America under the influence of the Soviet Union that existed du ...

countries joined

NATO The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO, ; french: Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique nord, ), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance between 30 member states – 28 European and two No ...

, partly due to regional security threats such as the

1993 Russian constitutional crisis The 1993 Russian constitutional crisis, also known as the 1993 October Coup, Black October, the Shooting of the White House or Ukaz 1400, was a political stand-off and a constitutional crisis between the Russian president Boris Yeltsin and t ...

, the War in Abkhazia (1992–1993) and the

First Chechen War The First Chechen War, also known as the First Chechen Campaign,, rmed conflict in the Chechen Republic and on bordering territories of the Russian FederationФедеральный закон № 5-ФЗ от 12 января 1995 (в реда� ...

(1994–1996). Russian leaders claimed

Western powers The Western world, also known as the West, primarily refers to the various nations and states in the regions of Europe, North America, and Oceania.

had pledged that NATO would not expand eastward, although this is disputed. At the

2008 Bucharest summit The 2008 Bucharest Summit or the 20th NATO Summit was a NATO summit organized in the Palace of the Parliament, Bucharest, Romania on 2 – 4 April 2008.

, Ukraine and

Georgia Georgia most commonly refers to: * Georgia (country), a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia * Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the Southeast United States Georgia may also refer to: Places Historical states and entities * Related to the ...

sought to join NATO. The response among existing members was divided, with Western European countries concerned about antagonising Russia. NATO ultimately refused to offer Ukraine and Georgia membership, but also issued a statement agreeing that "these countries will become members of NATO". Vladimir Putin voiced strong opposition to the NATO membership bids, and Russian foreign minister

Sergei Lavrov Sergey Viktorovich Lavrov (russian: Сергей Викторович Лавров, ; born 21 March 1950) is a Russian diplomat and politician who has served as the Foreign Minister of Russia since 2004. Lavrov served as the Permanent Represe ...

said Russia would do everything it could to prevent their admittance. Map of Ukraine with Cities

In November 2013, Ukrainian president

Viktor Yanukovych Viktor Fedorovych Yanukovych ( uk, Віктор Федорович Янукович, ; ; born 9 July 1950) is a former politician who served as the fourth president of Ukraine from 2010 until he was removed from office in the Revolution of Di ...

refused to sign an

association agreement A European Union Association Agreement or simply Association Agreement (AA) is a treaty between the European Union (EU), its Member States and a non-EU country that creates a framework for co-operation between them. Areas frequently covered by su ...

with the

European Union The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of member states that are located primarily in Europe. The union has a total area of and an estimated total population of about 447million. The EU has often been des ...

(EU), overruling the

Verkhovna Rada The Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine ( uk, Верхо́вна Ра́да Украї́ни, translit=, Verkhovna Rada Ukrainy, translation=Supreme Council of Ukraine, Ukrainian abbreviation ''ВРУ''), often simply Verkhovna Rada or just Rada, is the ...

and instead choosing closer ties with the Russian-led

Eurasian Economic Union The Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU or EEU)EAEU is the acronym used on thorganisation's website However, many media outlets use the acronym EEU. is an economic union of some post-Soviet states located in Eurasia. The Treaty on the Eurasian Econo ...

. Russia had put pressure on Ukraine to reject the agreement. This triggered a wave of pro-EU protests known as

Euromaidan Euromaidan (; uk, Євромайдан, translit=Yevromaidan, lit=Euro Square, ), or the Maidan Uprising, was a wave of Political demonstration, demonstrations and civil unrest in Ukraine, which began on 21 November 2013 with large protes ...

, culminating in the removal of Yanukovych in February 2014 and subsequent pro-Russian unrest in eastern and southern parts of Ukraine. Russian soldiers without insignia took control of strategic positions and infrastructure in the Ukrainian territory of Crimea, and seized the Crimean Parliament. In March, Russia organized a controversial referendum and annexed Crimea. This was followed by the outbreak of the

war in Donbas War is an intense armed conflict between states, governments, societies, or paramilitary groups such as mercenaries, insurgents, and militias. It is generally characterized by extreme violence, destruction, and mortality, using regular o ...

, which began in April 2014 with the formation of two Russia-backed separatist

s: the

and the

. Russian troops were involved in the conflict. The

Minsk agreements The Minsk agreements were a series of international agreements which sought to end the Donbas war fought between armed Russian separatist groups and Armed Forces of Ukraine, with Russian regular forces playing a central part. The first, known ...

signed in September 2014 and February 2015 were a bid to stop the fighting, but ceasefires repeatedly failed. A dispute emerged over the role of Russia:

Normandy Format The Normandy Format (french: Format Normandie), also known as the Normandy contact group, is a grouping of states who met in an effort to resolve the War in Donbas and the wider Russo-Ukrainian War. The four countries who make up the group—Germa ...

members France, Germany, and Ukraine saw Minsk as an agreement between Russia and Ukraine, whereas Russia insisted Ukraine should negotiate directly with the two

separatist Separatism is the advocacy of cultural, ethnic, tribal, religious, racial, governmental or gender separation from the larger group. As with secession, separatism conventionally refers to full political separation. Groups simply seeking greate ...

republics. In 2021, Putin refused offers from Zelenskyy to hold high-level talks, and the Russian government subsequently endorsed an article by former president

Dmitry Medvedev Dmitry Anatolyevich Medvedev ( rus, links=no, Дмитрий Анатольевич Медведев, p=ˈdmʲitrʲɪj ɐnɐˈtolʲjɪvʲɪtɕ mʲɪdˈvʲedʲɪf; born 14 September 1965) is a Russian politician who has been serving as the dep ...

arguing it was pointless to deal with Ukraine while it remained a "vassal" of the US. The annexation of Crimea led to a new wave of Russian nationalism, with much of the Russian neo-imperial movement aspiring to annex more Ukrainian land, including the unrecognized

Novorossiya Novorossiya, literally "New Russia", is a historical name, used during the era of the Russian Empire for an administrative area that would later become the southern mainland of Ukraine: the region immediately north of the Black Sea and Crimea. ...

. Analyst

Vladimir Socor Vladimir Socor (born 3 August 1945 in BucharestVladimir Socor - Curriculum Vitae
...

argued that Putin's 2014 speech after the annexation of Crimea was a ''de facto'' "manifesto of Greater-Russia Irredentism". In July 2021, Putin published an essay titled "

On the Historical Unity of Russians and Ukrainians "On the Historical Unity of Russians and Ukrainians" (russian: Об историческом единстве русских и украинцев, Ob istoricheskom yedinstve russkikh i ukraintsev, uk, Про історичну єдність � ...

", reaffirming that Russians and Ukrainians were " one people". American historian

Timothy Snyder Timothy David Snyder (born August 18, 1969) is an American historian specializing in the modern history of Central and Eastern Europe. He is the Richard C. Levin Professor of History at Yale University and a permanent fellow at the Institute f ...

described Putin's ideas as

imperialism Imperialism is the state policy, practice, or advocacy of extending power and dominion, especially by direct territorial acquisition or by gaining political and economic control of other areas, often through employing hard power (economic and ...

. British journalist Edward Lucas described it as

historical revisionism In historiography, historical revisionism is the reinterpretation of a historical account. It usually involves challenging the orthodox (established, accepted or traditional) views held by professional scholars about a historical event or times ...

. Other observers have noted that the Russian leadership has a distorted view of modern Ukraine and its history.

Prelude and declaration of military operations

In March and April 2021, Russia began a major military build-up near the Russo-Ukrainian border. A second build-up followed from October 2021 to February 2022, in both Russia and Belarus. Members of the Russian government repeatedly denied having plans to invade or attack Ukraine; including government spokesman

Dmitry Peskov Dmitry Sergeyevich Peskov ( rus, Дмитрий Сергеевич Песков, p=pʲɪˈskof; born 17 October 1967) is a Russian diplomat and the press secretary for Russian President Vladimir Putin.Sergei Ryabkov Sergei Alexeyevich Ryabkov (russian: Сергей Алексеевич Рябков) (born 8 July 1960) is a Russian politician, currently serving as the Deputy Foreign Minister of the Russian Federation since 2008. Early life and education Rya ...

on 19 January 2022, Russian ambassador to the US

Anatoly Antonov Anatoly Ivanovich Antonov (born 15 May 1955) is a Russian military officer and diplomat who is currently the Ambassador of Russia to the United States, formally replacing Sergey Kislyak on 21 August 2017 by Decree of the President of Russia, ...

on 20 February 2022, and Russian ambassador to the Czech Republic Alexander Zmeevsky on 23 February 2022. Putin's chief national security adviser,

Nikolai Patrushev Nikolai Platonovich Patrushev (russian: Никола́й Плато́нович Па́трушев; born 11 July 1951) is a Russian politician, security officer and intelligence officer who has served as the secretary of the Security Council of ...

, believed that the West had been in an undeclared war with Russia for years. Russia's updated

national security National security, or national defence, is the security and defence of a sovereign state, including its citizens, economy, and institutions, which is regarded as a duty of government. Originally conceived as protection against military atta ...

strategy, published in May 2021, said that Russia may use "forceful methods" to "thwart or avert unfriendly actions that threaten the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the Russian Federation". Sources say the decision to invade Ukraine was made by Putin and a small group of

war hawk In politics, a war hawk, or simply hawk, is someone who favors war or continuing to escalate an existing conflict as opposed to other solutions. War hawks are the opposite of doves. The terms are derived by analogy with the birds of the same name ...

s in Putin's inner circle, including Patrushev and

minister of defence A defence minister or minister of defence is a Cabinet (government), cabinet official position in charge of a ministry of defense, which regulates the armed forces in sovereign states. The role of a defence minister varies considerably from coun ...

Sergei Shoigu Sergei Kuzhugetovich Shoigu, ; tyv, Сергей Күжүгет оглу Шойгу, translit=Sergey Kyzhyget oglu Shoygu, . (russian: Сергей Кужугетович Шойгу; born 21 May 1955) is a Russian politician who has served as ...

. During the second build-up, Russia demanded that the US and NATO enter into a legally binding arrangement preventing Ukraine from ever joining NATO, and remove multinational forces from NATO's Eastern European member states. Russia threatened an unspecified military response if NATO followed an "aggressive line". These demands were widely seen as non-viable; new NATO members in

Central and Eastern Europe Central and Eastern Europe is a term encompassing the countries in the Baltics, Central Europe, Eastern Europe and Southeast Europe (mostly the Balkans), usually meaning former communist states from the Eastern Bloc and Warsaw Pact in Europe. ...

had joined the alliance because they preferred the safety and economic opportunities offered by NATO and the EU, and their governments sought protection from Russian irredentism. A formal treaty to prevent Ukraine from joining NATO would contravene the treaty's " open door" policy, despite NATO's unenthusiastic response to Ukrainian requests to join.

Emmanuel Macron Emmanuel Macron (; born 21 December 1977) is a French politician who has served as President of France since 2017. ''Ex officio'', he is also one of the two Co-Princes of Andorra. Prior to his presidency, Macron served as Minister of Econ ...

and

Olaf Scholz Olaf Scholz (; born ) is a German politician who has served as the chancellor of Germany since 8 December 2021. A member of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, Social Democratic Party (SPD), he previously served as Vice Chancellor of German ...

made respective efforts to prevent the war in February. Macron met with Putin but failed to convince him not to go forward with the attack. Scholz warned Putin about heavy sanctions that would be imposed should he invade Ukraine. Scholz, in trying to negotiate a settlement, also told Zelenskyy to renounce aspirations to join NATO and declare neutrality; however, Zelenskyy said Putin could not be trusted to uphold such an agreement. On 24 February, before 5:00 a.m. Kyiv time, Putin announced a "special military operation" in the country and "effectively declared war on Ukraine." In his speech, Putin said he had no plans to occupy Ukrainian territory and that he supported the right of the Ukrainian people to

self-determination The right of a people to self-determination is a cardinal principle in modern international law (commonly regarded as a ''jus cogens'' rule), binding, as such, on the United Nations as authoritative interpretation of the Charter's norms. It stat ...

. He said the purpose of the "operation" was to "protect the people" in the predominantly Russian-speaking region of Donbas who he falsely claimed that "for eight years now, adbeen facing humiliation and genocide perpetrated by the Kyiv regime". Putin said that Russia sought for the "demilitarisation and denazification" of Ukraine. Within minutes of Putin's announcement, explosions were reported in Kyiv,

Kharkiv Kharkiv ( uk, wikt:Харків, Ха́рків, ), also known as Kharkov (russian: Харькoв, ), is the second-largest List of cities in Ukraine, city and List of hromadas of Ukraine, municipality in Ukraine.Odesa Odesa (also spelled Odessa) is the third most populous city and municipality in Ukraine and a major seaport and transport hub located in the south-west of the country, on the northwestern shore of the Black Sea. The city is also the administrative ...

, and the Donbas region. An alleged leaked report from within the FSB claimed that the intelligence agency was not aware of Putin's plan to invade Ukraine. Immediately following the attack, Zelenskyy declared

martial law in Ukraine The legal basis for the introduction of martial law in Ukraine ( uk, Воєнний стан в Україні) is the Constitution of Ukraine, the Law of Ukraine "On the legal status of martial law" (No. 389-VIII from May 12, 2015) and presidentia ...

. The same evening, he ordered a

of all Ukrainian males between 18 and 60 years old who were prohibited from leaving the country. Russian troops entered Ukraine from the north in Belarus (towards Kyiv); from the north-east in Russia (towards Kharkiv); from the east in the Donetsk People's Republic and the Luhansk People's Republic; and from the south in Crimea. Russian equipment and vehicles were marked with a white ''Z'' military symbol (a non-

Cyrillic letter , bg, кирилица , mk, кирилица , russian: кириллица , sr, ћирилица, uk, кирилиця , fam1 = Egyptian hieroglyphs , fam2 = Proto-Sinaitic , fam3 = Phoenician , fam4 = G ...

), believed to be a measure to prevent

friendly fire In military terminology, friendly fire or fratricide is an attack by belligerent or neutral forces on friendly troops while attempting to attack enemy/hostile targets. Examples include misidentifying the target as hostile, cross-fire while eng ...

Invasion and resistance

The invasion began at dawn of 24 February, with infantry divisions and armoured and air support in Eastern Ukraine, and dozens of missile attacks across both Eastern Ukraine and Western Ukraine. The first fighting took place in Luhansk Oblast near Milove village on the border with Russia at 3:40 am Kyiv time. The main infantry and tank attacks were launched in four spearhead incursions, creating a northern front launched towards Kyiv, a southern front originating in Crimea, a south-eastern front launched at the cities of Luhansk and Donbas, and an eastern front. Dozens of missile strikes across Ukraine reached as far west as

Lviv Lviv ( uk, Львів) is the largest city in western Ukraine, and the seventh-largest in Ukraine, with a population of . It serves as the administrative centre of Lviv Oblast and Lviv Raion, and is one of the main cultural centres of Ukraine ...

Wagner Group The Wagner Group (russian: Группа Вагнера, Gruppa Vagnera), also known as PMC Wagner ( «Вагнер», ChVK «Vagner»; ), is a Russian paramilitary organization. It is variously described as a private military company (PMC), a ...

mercenaries and Chechen forces reportedly made several attempts to assassinate Volodymyr Zelenskyy. The Ukrainian government said these efforts were thwarted by anti-war officials in Russia's

Federal Security Service The Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation (FSB) RF; rus, Федеральная служба безопасности Российской Федерации (ФСБ России), Federal'naya sluzhba bezopasnosti Rossiyskoy Feder ...

(FSB), who shared intelligence of the plans. The Russian invasion was unexpectedly met by fierce Ukrainian resistance. In Kyiv, Russia failed to take the city as its attacks were repulsed at the suburbs during the battles of

Irpin Irpin ( uk, Ірпі́нь, ) is a Hero City of Ukraine located on the Irpin River in Bucha Raion, Kyiv Oblast (province) right next to the city of Kyiv in northern Ukraine. Irpin hosts the administration of Irpin urban hromada, one of the hroma ...

Hostomel Hostomel ( uk, Гостомель, ) is a city in Bucha Raion, Kyiv Oblast, northwest of the capital city of Kyiv. It hosts the administration of Hostomel settlement hromada, one of the hromadas of Ukraine. The population of the settlement is app ...

and Bucha. The Russian army tried to encircle the capital but Ukrainian forces managed to hold ground and put to effective use Western arms, including Javelin anti-tank missiles and Stinger anti-aircraft missiles, stretching thin Russian supply lines and stalling the offensive. On 9 March, a column of Russian tanks and armoured vehicles was ambushed in Brovary, suffered heavy losses and was forced to retreat. On the northern front, the Russian army adopted siege tactics to the key cities of Chernihiv, Sumy and Kharkiv but failed to capture them due to stiff resistance and logistical setbacks. On the southern front, Russian forces captured the major city of

on 2 March. In

Mykolaiv Oblast Mykolaiv Oblast ( uk, Микола́ївська о́бласть, translit=Mykoláyivsʹka óblastʹ, ), also referred to as Mykolaivshchyna ( uk, Микола́ївщина, Mykoláivshchyna, ) is an oblast (province) of Ukraine. The administra ...

, it advanced as far as

Voznesensk Voznesensk ( uk, Вознесенськ, ; russian: Вознесенск) is a city in Mykolaiv Oblast (region) of Ukraine and the administrative center of Voznesensk Raion (district). It hosts the administration of the Voznesensk urban hromada ...

but was repelled to south of Mykolaiv. On 25 March, the

Russian Defence Ministry The Ministry of Defence of the Russian Federation (russian: Министерство обороны Российской Федерации, Минобороны России, informally abbreviated as МО, МО РФ or Minoboron) is the govern ...

said the first stage of the "military operation" in Ukraine was "generally complete", that the Ukrainian military forces had suffered serious losses, and the Russian military would now concentrate on the "liberation of

". The "first stage" of the invasion was conducted on four fronts including one towards western

from Belarus, conducted by the Russian

Eastern Military District The Eastern Military District (Russian: Восточный военный округ) is a military district of Russia. It is one of the five military districts of the Russian Armed Forces, with its jurisdiction within the Far Eastern Federal ...

, comprising the 29th,

35th Military units *35th Fighter Wing, an air combat unit of the United States Air Force *35th Infantry Division (United States), a formation of the National Guard since World War I *35th Infantry Regiment (United States), a regiment created on 1 July 1 ...

, and 36th Combined Arms Armies. A second axis deployed towards eastern Kyiv from Russia by the

Central Military District The Central Military District (Russian: Центральный военный округ) is a military district of Russia. It is one of the five military districts of the Russian Armed Forces, with its jurisdiction primarily within the c ...

(north-eastern front), comprised the

41st Combined Arms Army The 41st Combined Arms Army (russian: 41-я общевойсковая армия) is a field army of the Russian Ground Forces, currently part of the Central Military District. Originally, it was formed in 1942 as part of the Soviet Red Army, dur ...

and 2nd Guards Combined Arms Army. A third axis deployed towards

Kharkiv Kharkiv ( uk, wikt:Харків, Ха́рків, ), also known as Kharkov (russian: Харькoв, ), is the second-largest List of cities in Ukraine, city and List of hromadas of Ukraine, municipality in Ukraine.Western Military District The Western Military District (russian: Западный военный округ, Zapadnyy voyennyy okrug) is a Military districts of Russia, military district of Russia. It is one of the five military districts of the Russian Armed Forces, ...

(eastern front), with the

1st Guards Tank Army The 1st Guards Tank Army () is a tank Field army, army of the Russian Ground Forces. The army traces its heritage back to the 1st Tank Army, formed twice in July 1942 and in January 1943 and converted into the 1st Guards Tank Army in January 1 ...

and 20th Combined Arms Army. A fourth, southern, front originating in occupied Crimea and Russia's Rostov oblast with an eastern axis towards

Odesa Odesa (also spelled Odessa) is the third most populous city and municipality in Ukraine and a major seaport and transport hub located in the south-west of the country, on the northwestern shore of the Black Sea. The city is also the administrative ...

and a western area of operations toward

was opened by the

Southern Military District 200px, Headquarters of the district at 53 Pushkinskaya Street / 43 Budenovsky avenue, Rostov-on-Don The Southern Military District (Russian: Южный военный округ) is a military district of Russia. It is one of the five military ...

, including the 58th, 49th, and 8th Combined Arms Army, the latter also commanding the 1st and 2nd Army Corps of the

Russian separatist forces in Donbas The Donetsk People's Militia and Luhansk People's Militia (formerly also called Russian separatist forces in Donbas) are pro-Russian paramilitaries in the Donbas region of eastern Ukraine, which have been fighting the Armed Forces of Ukraine in ...

. By 7 April, Russian troops deployed to the northern front by the Russian Eastern Military District pulled back from the Kyiv offensive, apparently to resupply and then redeploy to the Donbas region to reinforce the renewed invasion of south-eastern Ukraine. The north-eastern front, including the

, was similarly withdrawn for resupply and redeployment to south-eastern Ukraine. By 8 April, General Alexander Dvornikov was placed in charge of military operations during the invasion. On 18 April, retired Lieutenant General

Douglas Lute Lt. Gen. Douglas Edward Lute (born November 3, 1952) is a retired United States Army lieutenant general and public servant who served as the United States Permanent Representative to NATO from 2013 to 2017. He was nominated for the post by Preside ...

, the former US ambassador to NATO, reported in a ''

PBS NewsHour ''PBS NewsHour'' is an American evening television news program broadcast on over 350 PBS The Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) is an American public broadcaster and non-commercial, free-to-air television network based in Arlington, Virg ...

'' interview that Russia had repositioned its troops to initiate a new assault on Eastern Ukraine which would be limited to Russia's original deployment of 150,000 to 190,000 troops for the invasion, though the troops were being well supplied from adequate weapon stockpiles in Russia. For Lute, this contrasted sharply with the vast size of the Ukrainian conscription of all-male Ukrainian citizens between 16 and 60 years of age, but without adequate weapons in Ukraine's highly limited stockpiles of weapons. On 26 April, delegates of the US and 40 allied nations met at

Ramstein Air Base Ramstein Air Base or Ramstein AB is a United States Air Force base in Rhineland-Palatinate, a state in southwestern Germany. It serves as headquarters for the United States Air Forces in Europe – Air Forces Africa (USAFE-AFAFRICA) and also ...

in Germany to discuss forming a coalition to provide economic support and military supplies and refitting to Ukraine. Following Putin's

Victory Day Victory Day is a commonly used name for public holidays in various countries, where it commemorates a nation's triumph over a hostile force in a war or the liberation of a country from hostile occupation. In many cases, multiple countries may ob ...

speech in early May, US Director of National Intelligence

Avril Haines Avril Danica Haines (born August 27, 1969) is an American lawyer and senior government official who serves as the director of national intelligence in the Biden administration. She is the first woman to serve in this role. Haines previously ser ...

said no short term resolution to the invasion should be expected. Russian forces improved their focus on protecting their supply lines by advancing more slowly, and more methodically. They also benefited from centralising command under General Dvornikov. Ukraine's reliance on Western-supplied equipment constrained it, as Western countries feared that Ukraine would use it to strike targets in Russia. Military experts disagreed on the future of the conflict; some suggested Ukraine to trade territory for peace, while others assessed that Ukraine could sustain its resistance to the invasion, due to the Russian losses. On 26 May 2022, the

Conflict Intelligence Team The Conflict Intelligence Team (CIT) is an independent investigative organisation originating from Russia that conducts an open-source investigation of events taking place during armed conflicts, in particular, the actions of Russian troops in Uk ...

, citing Russian soldiers, reported that

Colonel General Colonel general is a three- or four-star military rank used in some armies. It is particularly associated with Germany, where historically general officer ranks were one grade lower than in the Commonwealth and the United States, and was a ra ...

Gennady Zhidko Gennady Valeryevich Zhidko (russian: Геннадий Валериевич Жидко, links=no; born 12 September 1965) is a colonel general of the Russian Armed Forces. He was awarded the title Hero of the Russian Federation in 2017 for his se ...

had been put in charge of Russian forces during the invasion, replacing Army General Dvornikov. By 30 May, disparities between Russian and Ukrainian artillery were apparent with Ukrainian artillery being vastly outgunned by range and number. In response to Biden's indication that enhanced artillery would be provided to Ukraine, Putin indicated that Russia would expand its invasion front to include new cities in Ukraine and in apparent retribution ordered a missile strike against Kyiv on 6 June after not directly attacking the city for several weeks. On 10 June 2022, Vadym Skibitsky, deputy head of Ukraine's military intelligence, stated during the Severodonetsk campaign that the frontlines were where the future of the invasion would be decided: "This is an artillery war now, and we are losing in terms of artillery. Everything now depends on what

he west He or HE may refer to: Language * He (pronoun), an English pronoun * He (kana), the romanization of the Japanese kana へ * He (letter), the fifth letter of many Semitic alphabets * He (Cyrillic), a letter of the Cyrillic script called ''He'' in ...

gives us. Ukraine has one artillery piece to 10 to 15 Russian artillery pieces. Our western partners have given us about 10% of what they have." On 29 June, Reuters reported that Director of National Intelligence

, updating U.S. intelligence assessment of the Russian invasion, said that U.S. intelligence agencies agree that the invasion will continue "for an extended period of time ... In short, the picture remains pretty grim and Russia's attitude toward the West is hardening." On 5 July, BBC reported that extensive destruction by the Russian invasion would cause immense financial damage to Ukraine's reconstruction economy stating: "Ukraine needs $750bn for a recovery plan and Russian oligarchs should contribute to the cost, Ukrainian Prime Minister

Denys Shmyhal Denys Anatoliyovych Shmyhal ( uk, Денис Анатолійович Шмигаль; born 15 October 1975) is a Ukrainian politician and entrepreneur who is the current Prime Minister of Ukraine since 2020. Prior to his appointment as prime m ...

has told a reconstruction conference in Switzerland." On 8 October 2022, the

named Air Force General

Sergei Surovikin Sergey Vladimirovich Surovikin (Russian: Серге́й Влади́мирович Сурови́кин; born 11 October 1966) is a Russian Armed Forces army general and Commander of the Aerospace Forces. A veteran of the Soviet–Afghan War, ...

as the overall commander of Russian forces fighting in Ukraine without naming who Surovikin was replacing.

First phase: Invasion of Ukraine (24 February – 7 April)

2022 Russian Invasion of Ukraine Phase 1 animated

The invasion began on 24 February, launched out of Belarus to target Kyiv, and from the northeast against the city of Kharkiv. The southeastern front was conducted as two separate spearheads, from Crimea and the southeast against Luhansk and Donetsk.

Northern front

Russian efforts to capture

included a probative spearhead on 24 February, from Belarus south along the west bank of the

Dnipro River } The Dnieper () or Dnipro (); , ; . is one of the major transboundary rivers of Europe, rising in the Valdai Hills near Smolensk, Russia, before flowing through Belarus and Ukraine to the Black Sea. It is the longest river of Ukraine and B ...

, apparently to encircle the city from the west, supported by two separate axes of attack from Russia along the east bank of the Dnipro: the western at

Chernihiv Chernihiv ( uk, Черні́гів, , russian: Черни́гов, ; pl, Czernihów, ; la, Czernihovia), is a city and municipality in northern Ukraine, which serves as the administrative center of Chernihiv Oblast and Chernihiv Raion within ...

, and the eastern at

Sumy Sumy ( uk, Суми ) is a city of regional significance in Ukraine, and the capital of Sumy Oblast. The city is situated on the banks of the Psel River in northeastern Ukraine with a population of according to the 2021 census, making it the 2 ...

. These were likely intended to encircle Kyiv from the north-east and east. Russia apparently tried to rapidly seize Kyiv, with

Spetsnaz Spetsnaz are special forces in numerous post-Soviet states. (The term is borrowed from rus, спецназ, p=spʲɪtsˈnas; abbreviation for or 'Special Purpose Military Units'; or .) Historically, the term ''spetsnaz'' referred to the So ...

infiltrating into the city supported by airborne operations and a rapid mechanised advance from the north, but was unsuccessful. Russian forces advancing on Kyiv from Belarus gained control of the ghost towns of

Chernobyl Chernobyl ( , ; russian: Чернобыль, ) or Chornobyl ( uk, Чорнобиль, ) is a partially abandoned city in the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone, situated in the Vyshhorod Raion of northern Kyiv Oblast, Ukraine. Chernobyl is about no ...

and

Pripyat Pripyat ( ; russian: При́пять), also known as Prypiat ( uk, При́пʼять, , ), is an abandoned city in northern Ukraine, located near the border with Belarus. Named after the nearby river, Pripyat, it was founded on 4 February 19 ...

Russian Airborne Forces The Russian Airborne Forces (russian: Воздушно-десантные войска России, ВДВ, Vozdushno-desantnye voyska Rossii, VDV) are the airborne forces branch of the Russian Armed Forces. It was formed in 1992 from units o ...

attempted to seize two key airfields near Kyiv, launching an airborne assault on Antonov Airport, and a similar landing at Vasylkiv, near

Vasylkiv Air Base Vasylkiv (also Vasyl'kiv) was an air base of the Ukrainian Air Force located near Vasylkiv, Kyiv Oblast, Ukraine. The base was home to the 40th Tactical Aviation Brigade. History On the beginning of Operation Barbarossa in June 1941, the airfield ...

, on 26 February. By early March, Russian advances along the west side of the Dnipro were limited by Ukrainian defences. As of 5 March, a large Russian convoy, reportedly long, had made little progress toward Kyiv. The London-based

think tank A think tank, or policy institute, is a research institute that performs research and advocacy concerning topics such as social policy, political strategy, economics, military, technology, and culture. Most think tanks are non-governmenta ...

Royal United Services Institute The Royal United Services Institute (RUSI, Rusi), registered as Royal United Service Institute for Defence and Security Studies and formerly the Royal United Services Institute for Defence Studies, is a British defence and security think tank. ...

(RUSI) assessed Russian advances from the north and east as "stalled". Advances from Chernihiv largely halted as a siege began there. Russian forces continued to advance on Kyiv from the northwest, capturing Bucha,

, and

Vorzel Vorzel ( uk, Во́рзель) is an urban-type settlement in Bucha Raion, Kyiv Oblast of Ukraine. It belongs to Bucha urban hromada, one of the hromadas of Ukraine. Population: It is home to Scripture Union's International Youth Camp. History ...

by 5 March, though

remained contested as of 9 March. By 11 March, the lengthy convoy had largely dispersed and taken cover. On 16 March, Ukrainian forces began a counter-offensive to repel Russian forces. Unable to achieve a quick victory in Kyiv, Russian forces switched their strategy to indiscriminate bombing and

warfare. On 25 March, a Ukrainian counter-offensive retook several towns to the east and west of Kyiv, including

Makariv Makariv (, ) is an urban-type settlement in Bucha Raion, in Kyiv Oblast (province) of Ukraine. It hosts the administration of Makariv settlement hromada, one of the hromadas of Ukraine. The population of the settlement is , down from 12,042 in 20 ...

. Russian troops in the Bucha area retreated north at the end of March. Ukrainian forces entered the city on 1 April. Ukraine said it had recaptured the entire region around Kyiv, including Irpin, Bucha, and Hostomel, and uncovered evidence of war crimes in Bucha. On 6 April, NATO secretary-general

Jens Stoltenberg Jens Stoltenberg (born 16 March 1959) is a Norwegian politician who has been serving as the 13th secretary general of NATO since 2014. A member of the Norwegian Labour Party, he previously served as the 34th prime minister of Norway from 2000 to ...

said that the Russian "retraction, resupply, and redeployment" of their troops from the Kyiv area should be interpreted as an expansion of Putin's plans for Ukraine, by redeploying and concentrating his forces on Eastern Ukraine. Kyiv was generally left free from attack apart from isolated missile strikes. One did occur while UN Secretary-General

António Guterres António Manuel de Oliveira Guterres ( , ; born 30 April 1949) is a Portuguese politician and diplomat. Since 2017, he has served as secretary-general of the United Nations, the ninth person to hold this title. A member of the Portuguese Socia ...

was visiting Kyiv on 28 April to discuss with Zelenskyy the survivors of the siege of Mariupol.

North-eastern front

Russian forces advanced into

Chernihiv Oblast Chernihiv Oblast ( uk, Черні́гівська о́бласть, translit=Chernihivska oblast; also referred to as Chernihivshchyna, uk, Черні́гівщина, translit=Chernihivshchyna) is an oblast (province) of northern Ukraine. T ...

on 24 February and besieged its administrative capital. The next day Russian forces attacked and captured Konotop. A separate advance into

Sumy Oblast Sumy Oblast ( uk, Сумська́ о́бласть, translit=Sumska oblast; also referred to as Sumshchyna – uk, Су́мщина) is an oblast (province) in the northeastern part of Ukraine. Population: The oblast was created in its most r ...

the same day attacked the city of

, just from the Russo-Ukrainian border. The advance bogged down in

urban fighting Urban warfare is combat conducted in urban areas such as towns and cities. Urban combat differs from combat in the open at both the operational and the tactical levels. Complicating factors in urban warfare include the presence of civilians and ...

, and Ukrainian forces successfully held the city, claiming more than 100 Russian armoured vehicles were destroyed and dozens of soldiers were captured. Russian forces also attacked Okhtyrka, deploying

thermobaric weapon A thermobaric weapon, also called an aerosol bomb, a vacuum bomb or a fuel air explosive (FAE), is a type of explosive that uses oxygen from the surrounding air to generate a high-temperature explosion. The fuel–air explosive is one of the be ...

s. On 4 March,

Frederick Kagan Frederick W. Kagan is an American resident scholar at the American Enterprise Institute (AEI) and a former professor of military history at the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, New York, West Point. Career Both he and his father, Donald Kag ...

wrote that the Sumy axis was then "the most successful and dangerous Russian avenue of advance on Kyiv", and commented that the geography favoured mechanised advances as the terrain "is flat and sparsely populated, offering few good defensive positions". Travelling along highways, Russian forces reached

Brovary Brovary ( uk, Бровари, , yi, בראָוואַר, Brovar) is a city in Kyiv Oblast (Region) in northern Ukraine, an eastern suburb of the country's capital, Kyiv. It is the administrative centre of Brovary Raion (district). Brovary h ...

, an eastern suburb of Kyiv, on 4 March.

The Pentagon The Pentagon is the headquarters building of the United States Department of Defense. It was constructed on an accelerated schedule during World War II. As a symbol of the U.S. military, the phrase ''The Pentagon'' is often used as a metony ...

confirmed on 6 April that the Russian army had left Chernihiv Oblast, but Sumy Oblast remained contested. On 7 April, the governor of Sumy Oblast said that Russian troops were gone, but left behind rigged explosives and other hazards.

Southern front

On 24 February, Russian forces took control of the

North Crimean Canal The North Crimean Canal ( uk, Північно-Кримський канал, translit=Pivnichno-Krymskyi kanal, russian: Северо-Крымский канал, in the Soviet Union: North Crimean Canal of the Lenin's Komsomol of Ukraine) is a l ...

. Troops used

explosives An explosive (or explosive material) is a reactive substance that contains a great amount of potential energy that can produce an explosion if released suddenly, usually accompanied by the production of light, heat, sound, and pressure. An expl ...

to destroy the

dam A dam is a barrier that stops or restricts the flow of surface water or underground streams. Reservoirs created by dams not only suppress floods but also provide water for activities such as irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, a ...

that was blocking the river, allowing Crimea to obtain water from the

Dnieper } The Dnieper () or Dnipro (); , ; . is one of the major transboundary rivers of Europe, rising in the Valdai Hills near Smolensk, Russia, before flowing through Belarus and Ukraine to the Black Sea. It is the longest river of Ukraine and B ...

which had been cut off since 2014. On 26 February, the

siege of Mariupol The siege of Mariupol began on 24 February 2022 and lasted until 20 May 2022, as part of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. It saw fighting between the Russian Armed Forces (alongside the Donetsk People's Militia) and the Ukrainian Armed F ...

began as the attack moved east linking to separatist-held Donbas. En route, Russian forces entered

Berdiansk Berdiansk or Berdyansk ( uk, Бердя́нськ, translit=Berdiansk, ; russian: Бердя́нск, translit=Berdyansk ) is a port city in the Zaporizhzhia Oblast (Oblast, province) in south-eastern Ukraine. It is on the northern coast of the ...

and captured it. On 1 March, Russian forces attacked

Melitopol Melitopol ( uk, Меліто́поль, translit=Melitópol’, ; russian: Мелитополь; based on el, Μελιτόπολις - "honey city") is a List of cities in Ukraine, city and List of hromadas of Ukraine, municipality in Zaporizhz ...

and nearby cities. On 25 February, Russian units from the DPR moves on

and were defeated near

Pavlopil Pavlopil ( uk, Павлопіль; russian: link=no, Павлополь) is a village in Mariupol Raion (district) in Donetsk Oblast of eastern Ukraine, at about 25 km NW from Novoazovsk and about 25 km NE from Mariupol, on the left ...

. By evening, the Russian Navy reportedly began an

amphibious assault Amphibious warfare is a type of offensive military operation that today uses naval ships to project ground and air power onto a hostile or potentially hostile shore at a designated landing beach. Through history the operations were conducted ...

on the coast of the

Sea of Azov The Sea of Azov ( Crimean Tatar: ''Azaq deñizi''; russian: Азовское море, Azovskoye more; uk, Азовське море, Azovs'ke more) is a sea in Eastern Europe connected to the Black Sea by the narrow (about ) Strait of Kerch, ...

west of Mariupol. A US defence official said that Russian forces might be deploying thousands of

marines Marines, or naval infantry, are typically a military force trained to operate in littoral zones in support of naval operations. Historically, tasks undertaken by marines have included helping maintain discipline and order aboard the ship (refle ...

from this

beachhead A beachhead is a temporary line created when a military unit reaches a landing beach by sea and begins to defend the area as other reinforcements arrive. Once a large enough unit is assembled, the invading force can begin advancing inland. The ...

. The Russian 22nd Army Corps approached the

Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant The Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Station ( uk, Запорізька атомна електростанція, translit=Zaporiz'ka atomna elektrostantsiya, russian: Запорожская атомная электростанция, Zaporozhskaya ...

on 26 February and besieged Enerhodar in order to assume control. A fire began, but the

International Atomic Energy Agency The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is an intergovernmental organization that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy and to inhibit its use for any military purpose, including nuclear weapons. It was established in 1957 ...

(IAEA) stated that essential equipment was undamaged. Despite the fires, the plant recorded no radiation leaks. A third Russian attack group from Crimea moved northwest and captured bridges over the Dnieper. On 2 March, Russian troops won a battle at Kherson; this was the first major city to fall to Russian forces in the invasion. Russian troops moved on

Mykolaiv Mykolaiv ( uk, Миколаїв, ) is a List of cities in Ukraine, city and List of hromadas of Ukraine, municipality in Southern Ukraine, the Administrative centre, administrative center of the Mykolaiv Oblast. Mykolaiv city, which provides U ...

, attacking it two days later. They were repelled by Ukrainian forces. On 2 March, Ukrainian forces initiated a counter-offensive on

Horlivka Horlivka ( , ; uk, Го́рлівка ), or Gorlovka (russian: link=no, Горловка ), is a city of regional significance in Donetsk Oblast, Ukraine. In 2001, the city's population was 292,000, and it was estimated as Economic activit ...

, controlled by the DPR since 2014. After renewed missile attacks on 14 March in Mariupol, the Ukrainian government said more than 2,500 had died. By 18 March, Mariupol was completely encircled and fighting reached the city centre, hampering efforts to evacuate civilians. On 20 March, an art school sheltering around 400 people, was destroyed by Russian bombs. The Russians demanded surrender, and the Ukrainians refused. On 24 March, Russian forces entered central Mariupol. On 27 March, Ukrainian deputy prime minister

Olha Stefanishyna Olha Vitaliiivna Stefanishyna ( uk, Ольга Віталіївна Стефанішина; born 29 October 1985) is a Ukrainian lawyer and civil servant. On 4 June 2020, she was appointed as the First Vice Prime Minister of Ukraine, deputy pri ...

said that "(m)ore than 85 percent of the whole town is destroyed." Putin told

in a phone call on 29 March that the bombardment of Mariupol would only end when the Ukrainians surrendered. On 1 April Russian troops refused safe passage into Mariupol to 50 buses sent by the United Nations to evacuate civilians, as peace talks continued in Istanbul. On 3 April, following the retreat of Russian forces from Kyiv, Russia expanded its attack on Southern Ukraine further west, with bombardment and strikes against Odesa, Mykolaiv, and the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant.

Eastern front

Russian bombardment on the outskirts of Kharkiv

In the east, Russian troops attempted to capture Kharkiv, less than from the Russian border, and met strong Ukrainian resistance. On 25 February, the Millerovo air base was attacked by Ukrainian military forces with

OTR-21 Tochka OTR-21 ''Tochka'' (russian: оперативно-тактический ракетный комплекс (ОТР) «Точка» ("point"); en, Tactical Operational Missile Complex "Tochka") is a Soviet tactical ballistic missile. Its GRAU desi ...

missiles, which according to Ukrainian officials, destroyed several

Russian Air Force " Air March" , mascot = , anniversaries = 12 August , equipment = , equipment_label = , battles = , decorations = , bat ...

planes and started a fire. On 28 February, missile attacks killed several people in Kharkiv. On 1 March,

Denis Pushilin Denis Vladimirovich Pushilin (russian: Дени́с Влади́мирович Пуши́лин, ; uk, Денис Володимирович Пушилін, Denys Volodymyrovych Pushylin; born 9 May 1981) is a Russian and Ukrainian politician ...

, head of the DPR, announced that DPR forces had almost completely surrounded the city of

Volnovakha Volnovakha ( uk, Волнова́ха, ; russian: Волнова́ха) is a town in Ukraine. It served as the administrative center of Volnovakha Raion, one of the 18 districts of the Donetsk Oblast. Before the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, ...

. On 2 March, Russian forces were repelled from

Sievierodonetsk russian: Северодоне́цк , other_name = Severodonetsk , settlement_type = City , image_skyline = , image_caption = , image_flag = Severodoneck prapor.png , image_shield ...

during an attack against the city.

Izium Izium or Izyum ( uk, Ізюм, ; russian: Изюм) is a city on the Donets River in Kharkiv Oblast (province) of eastern Ukraine. It serves as the administrative center of Izium Raion (district). Izium hosts the administration of Izium urban hr ...

was reportedly captured by Russian forces on 17 March, although fighting continued. On 25 March, the Russian defence ministry said it would seek to occupy major cities in Eastern Ukraine. On 31 March, the Ukrainian military confirmed Izium was under Russian control, and ''

PBS News The Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) is an American public broadcaster and non-commercial, free-to-air television network based in Arlington, Virginia. PBS is a publicly funded nonprofit organization and the most prominent provider of educati ...

'' reported renewed shelling and missile attacks in Kharkiv, as bad or worse than before, as peace talks with Russia were to resume in Istanbul. Amid the heightened Russian shelling of Kharkiv on 31 March, Russia reported a helicopter strike against an oil supply depot approximately north of the border in

Belgorod Belgorod ( rus, Белгород, p=ˈbʲeɫɡərət) is a city and the administrative center of Belgorod Oblast, Russia, located on the Seversky Donets River north of the border with Ukraine. Population: Demographics The population of Be ...

, and accused Ukraine of the attack. Ukraine denied responsibility. By 7 April, the renewed massing of Russian invasion troops and tank divisions around the towns of Izium,

Sloviansk Sloviansk ( uk, Слов'янськ, Sloviansk ; russian: Славянск, Slavyansk or ; prior to 1784 – Tor) is a city in the Kramatorsk district of the Donetsk region of Ukraine, the administrative center of the Slovyansk urban commun ...

, and

Kramatorsk Kramatorsk ( uk, Краматорськ, translit=Kramatorsk ) is a city and the administrative centre of Kramatorsk Raion in the northern portion of Donetsk Oblast, in eastern Ukraine. Prior to 2020, Kramatorsk was a City of regional significa ...

prompted Ukrainian government officials to advise the remaining residents near the eastern border of Ukraine to evacuate to western Ukraine within 2–3 days, given the absence of arms and munitions previously promised to Ukraine by then.

Second phase: South-Eastern front (8 April – 5 September)

2022 Russian Invasion of Ukraine Phase 2 animated

By 17 April, Russian progress on the south-eastern front appeared to be impeded by opposing Ukrainian forces in the large, heavily fortified Azovstal steel mill and surrounding area in Mariupol. On 19 April, ''The New York Times'' confirmed that Russia had launched a renewed invasion front referred to as an "eastern assault" across a front extending from Kharkiv to Donetsk and Luhansk, with simultaneous missile attacks again directed at Kyiv in the north and Lviv in Western Ukraine. As of 30 April, a NATO official described Russian advances as "uneven" and "minor". An anonymous US Defence Official called the Russian offensive: "very tepid", "minimal at best", and "anaemic". In June 2022 the chief spokesman for the

Ministry of Defence of the Russian Federation The Ministry of Defence of the Russian Federation (russian: Министерство обороны Российской Федерации, Минобороны России, informally abbreviated as МО, МО РФ or Minoboron) is the govern ...

Igor Konashenkov Lieutenant General Igor Yevgenyevich Konashenkov (russian: Игорь Евгеньевич Конашенков; born 15 May 1966) is a Russian military officer serving as the chief spokesperson for the Ministry of Defence of the Russian Federa ...

revealed that Russian troops are divided between the Army Groups "Center" commanded by Colonel General Aleksander Lapin and "South" commanded by Army General Sergey Surovikin. On 20 July, Lavrov announced that Russia would respond to the increased military aid being received by Ukraine from abroad as justifying the expansion of its special military operation to include objectives in both the

Zaporizhzhia Zaporizhzhia ( uk, Запоріжжя) or Zaporozhye (russian: Запорожье) is a city in southeast Ukraine, situated on the banks of the Dnieper, Dnieper River. It is the Capital city, administrative centre of Zaporizhzhia Oblast. Zapor ...

and

regions.

Russian Ground Forces The Russian Ground Forces (russian: Сухопутные войска �ВSukhoputnyye voyska V}), also known as the Russian Army (, ), are the land forces of the Russian Armed Forces. The primary responsibilities of the Russian Ground Forces ...

started recruiting volunteer battalions from the regions in June 2022 to create a new 3rd Army Corps within the

Western Military District The Western Military District (russian: Западный военный округ, Zapadnyy voyennyy okrug) is a Military districts of Russia, military district of Russia. It is one of the five military districts of the Russian Armed Forces, ...

, with a planned strength estimated at 15,500–60,000 personnel. Its units were deployed to the front around the time of Ukraine's 9 September Kharkiv oblast counteroffensive, in time to join the Russian retreat, leaving behind tanks, infantry fighting vehicles, and personnel carriers: the 3AC "melted away" according to ''

Forbes ''Forbes'' () is an American business magazine owned by Integrated Whale Media Investments and the Forbes family. Published eight times a year, it features articles on finance, industry, investing, and marketing topics. ''Forbes'' also re ...

'', having little or no impact on the battlefield along with other irregular forces.

Mykolaiv–Odesa front

Missile attacks and bombardment of the key cities of Mykolaiv and Odesa continued as the second phase of the invasion began. On 22 April, Russia's Brigadier General Rustam Minnekayev in a defence ministry meeting said that Russia planned to extend its Mykolayiv–Odesa front after the siege of Mariupol further west to include the breakaway region of Transnistria on the Ukrainian border with Moldova. The

Ministry of Defence of Ukraine Ministry may refer to: Government * Ministry (collective executive), the complete body of government ministers under the leadership of a prime minister * Ministry (government department), a department of a government Religion * Christian mi ...

described this intention as

, saying that it contradicted previous Russian claims that it did not have territorial ambitions in Ukraine and that the statement was an admission that "the goal of the 'second phase' of the war is not victory over the mythical Nazis, but simply the occupation of eastern and southern Ukraine". Georgi Gotev, writing for Reuters on 22 April, noted that occupying Ukraine from Odesa to Transnistria would transform it into a

landlocked nation A landlocked country is a country that does not have territory connected to an ocean or whose coastlines lie on endorheic basins. There are currently 44 landlocked countries and 4 landlocked de facto states. Kazakhstan is the world's largest ...

without any practical access to the Black Sea. On 24 April, Russia resumed its missile strikes on Odesa, destroying military facilities and causing two dozen civilian casualties. On 27 April, Ukrainian sources indicated that explosions had destroyed two Russian broadcast towers in Transnistria, primarily used to rebroadcast Russian television programming. At the end of April, Russia renewed missile attacks on runways in Odesa, destroying some of them. During the week of 10 May, Ukrainian troops began to take military action to dislodge Russian forces installing themselves on Snake Island in the Black Sea approximately from Odesa. On 30 June 2022, Russia announced that it had withdrawn troops from the island after objectives were completed. On 23 July, CNBC reported a Russian missile strike on Ukrainian port Odesa stating that the action was swiftly condemned by world leaders, a dramatic revelation amid a recently U.N. and Turkish-brokered deal that secured a sea corridor for grains and other foodstuff exports. On 31 July, CNN reported significant intensification of the rocket attacks and bombing of Mykolaiv by Russians also killing Ukrainian grain tycoon

Oleksiy Vadaturskyi Oleksiy Opanasovych Vadaturskyi ( uk, Олексій Опанасович Вадатурський; 8 September 1947 – 31 July 2022) was a Ukrainian agricultural and grain logistics businessman and the founder of Nibulon, the largest grain logi ...

in the city during the bombing.

Dnipro–Zaporizhzhia front

Shopping center in Kremenchuk after Russian shelling, 2022-06-27 (01)

Russian forces continued to fire missiles and drop bombs on the key cities of

Dnipro Dnipro, previously called Dnipropetrovsk from 1926 until May 2016, is Ukraine's fourth-largest city, with about one million inhabitants. It is located in the eastern part of Ukraine, southeast of the Ukrainian capital Kyiv on the Dnieper Rive ...

and

. On 10 April, Russian missiles destroyed the

Dnipro International Airport Dnipro International Airport ( ua, Міжнародний аеропорт «Дніпро») was an airport serving Dnipro, a city in Dnipropetrovsk Oblast, Ukraine. It is located southeast from the city center. On 24 February 2022, Ukraine c ...

. On 2 May the UN reportedly evacuated about 100 survivors from the siege at Mariupol with the cooperation of Russian troops, to the village of Bezimenne near Donetsk, from whence they were to move to Zaporizhzhia. On 28 June, Reuters reported that a Russian missile attack was launched upon the city of Kremenchuk north-west or Zaporizhzhia detonating in a public mall and causing at least 18 deaths while drawing condemnation from France's Emmanuel Macron, among other world leaders, who spoke of it as being a "war crime". 2022 July Dnipro missile strike killed four. On 7 July, it was reported that after the Russians captured the nuclear plant at Zaporizhzhia earlier in the invasion, they installed heavy artillery and mobile missile launchers between the separate reactor walls of the nuclear installation, using it as a shield against possible Ukrainian counterattack. A counterattack against the installed Russian artillery sites would not be possible without the risk of radiation fallout in case of near misses. On 19 August, Russia agreed to allow IAEA inspectors access to the Zaporizhzhia plant from Ukrainian-held territory, after a phone call between the

President of France The president of France, officially the president of the French Republic (french: Président de la République française), is the executive head of state of France, and the commander-in-chief of the French Armed Forces. As the presidency i ...

, and

Russian president The president of the Russian Federation ( rus, Президент Российской Федерации, Prezident Rossiyskoy Federatsii) is the head of state of the Russian Federation. The president leads the executive branch of the federal ...

. A temporary ceasefire around the plant still needed to be agreed for the inspection. Russia reported that 12 attacks with over 50 artillery shells explosions had been recorded at the plant and the staff town of

Energodar Enerhodar (; uk, Енергода́р, translit=Enerhodár, , ; russian: Энергодар, translit=Energodar, literally 'energy giver') is a city and municipality in the north-western part of the Zaporizhzhia Oblast in Ukraine, currently unde ...

, by 18 August. Also on 19 August,

Tobias Ellwood Tobias Martin Ellwood (born 12 August 1966) is a British Conservative Party politician and soldier who has been the Member of Parliament (MP) for Bournemouth East since 2005. He has chaired the Defence Select Committee since 2020 and was a G ...

, chair of the UK's

Defence Select Committee The Defence Select Committee is one of the Select Committees of the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, having been established in 1979. It examines the expenditure, administration, and policy of the Ministry of Defence and its associated pub ...

, said that any deliberate damage to the Zaporizhzhia nuclear plant that could cause radiation leaks would be a breach of

Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty The North Atlantic Treaty, also referred to as the Washington Treaty, is the treaty that forms the legal basis of, and is implemented by, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The treaty was signed in Washington, D.C., on 4 April 1949 ...

, according to which an attack on a member state of

is an attack on all of them. The next day, United States congressman

Adam Kinzinger Adam Daniel Kinzinger (; born February 27, 1978) is an American politician serving as the United States House of Representatives, U.S. representative for . The district covers eastern Rockford, Illinois, Rockford, most of Rockford's suburbs, and ...

said that any radiation leak would kill people in NATO countries, which would be an automatic activation of Article 5. Shelling hit

coal ash Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock, formed as rock strata called coal seams. Coal is mostly carbon with variable amounts of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen. Coal is formed when de ...

dumps at the neighbouring coal-fired power station on 23 August, and ash was on fire by 25 August. The 750 kV transmission line to the Dniprovska substation, which was the only one of the four 750 kV transmission lines that had not yet been damaged and cut by military action, passes over the ash dumps. At 12:12 p.m. on 25 August the line cut off due to the fire below, disconnecting the plant and its two operating reactors from the national grid for the first time since it started operating in 1985. In response, reactor 5's back-up generators and coolant pumps started up, and reactor 6 reduced generation. Incoming power was still available via the 330 kV line to the substation at the coal-fired station, so the diesel generators were not essential for cooling reactor cores and spent fuel pools. The 750 kV line and reactor 6 resumed operation at 12:29 p.m., but the line was cut by fire again two hours later. The line, but not the reactors, resumed operation again later that day. On 26 August, one reactor restarted in the afternoon and another in the evening, resuming electricity supplies to the grid. On 29 August 2022, an IAEA team led by Rafael Grossi went to investigate the plant.

Lydie Evrard Lydie Evrard, born Lydie Xuân Thuy Nguyen, is a French engineer and Head of the Department of Nuclear Safety and Security at the IAEA since 2021. She is also the Deputy Director General of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Life Evrar ...

and

Massimo Aparo Massimo Aparo (born 31 July 1953) is an Italian nuclear engineer, who started working as acting deputy director general and head of the Department of Safeguards, after Tero Varjoranta has resigne effective 11 May 2018. Biography Massimo Aparo w ...

were also in the leadership team. No leaks had been reported at the plant before their arrival but shelling had occurred days before.

Fall of Sievierodonetsk and Lysychansk

A Russian missile attack on Kramatorsk railway station in the city of

took place on 8 April, reportedly killing at least 52 and injuring 87 to 300. On 11 April, Zelenskyy said that Ukraine expected a major new Russian offensive in the east. American officials said that Russia had withdrawn or been repulsed elsewhere in Ukraine, and therefore was preparing a retraction, resupply, and redeployment of infantry and tank divisions to the south-eastern Ukraine front. Military satellites photographed extensive Russian convoys of infantry and mechanised units deploying south from Kharkiv to

on 11 April, apparently part of the planned Russian redeployment of its north-eastern troops to the south-eastern front of the invasion. On 14 April, Ukrainian troops reportedly blew up a bridge between Kharkiv and Izium used by Russian forces to redeploy troops to Izium, impeding the Russian convoy. On 18 April, with Mariupol almost entirely overtaken by Russian forces, the Ukrainian government announced that the second phase of the reinforced invasion of the Donetsk, Luhansk and Kharkiv regions had intensified with expanded invasion forces occupying of the Donbas. On 5 May,

David Axe David Axe (born on April 11, 1978) is an American military correspondent, blogger, and graphic novelist. Axe founded the website ''War Is Boring'' in 2007 as a webcomic, and later developed it into a news blog. Early life and education David Ax ...

writing for ''Forbes'' stated that the Ukrainian army had concentrated its 4th and 17th Tank Brigades and the 95th Air Assault Brigade around Izium for possible rearguard action against the deployed Russian troops in the area; Axe added that the other major concentration of Ukraine's forces around Kharkiv included the 92nd and 93rd Mechanized Brigades which could similarly be deployed for rearguard action against Russian troops around Kharkiv or link up with Ukrainian troops contemporaneously being deployed around Izium. On 13 May, BBC reported that Russian troops in Kharkiv were being retracted and redeployed to other fronts in Ukraine following the advances of Ukrainian troops into surrounding cities and Kharkiv itself, which included the destruction of strategic

pontoon bridge A pontoon bridge (or ponton bridge), also known as a floating bridge, uses float (nautical), floats or shallow-draft (hull), draft boats to support a continuous deck for pedestrian and vehicle travel. The buoyancy of the supports limits the maxi ...

s built by Russian troops to cross over the

Seversky Donets river The Seversky Donets () or Siverskyi Donets (), usually simply called the Donets, is a river on the south of the East European Plain. It originates in the Central Russian Upland, north of Belgorod, flows south-east through Ukraine (Kharkiv, Done ...

and previously used for rapid tank deployment in the region. On 22 May, the BBC reported that after the fall of Mariupol, Russia had intensified offensives in Luhansk and Donetsk while concentrating missile attacks and intense artillery fire on

Sievierodonetsk russian: Северодоне́цк , other_name = Severodonetsk , settlement_type = City , image_skyline = , image_caption = , image_flag = Severodoneck prapor.png , image_shield ...

, the largest city under Ukrainian control in Luhansk province. On 23 May, Russian forces were reported entering the city of Lyman, fully capturing the city by 26 May. Ukrainian forces were reported leaving

Sviatohirsk Sviatohirsk ( uk, Святогі́рськ, ) is a city in the northern part of the Donetsk Region of Ukraine. A part of the Sloviansk Municipality, it stands on the banks of the Siverskyi Donets River, from the city of Sloviansk. The populatio ...

. By 24 May, Russian forces captured the city of

Svitlodarsk Svitlodarsk (, ; ) is a city of district significance in Bakhmut Raion, Donetsk Oblast (province) of Ukraine. The city's population is . It is an industrial town, built as the home for the Vuhlehirska power station. In the War in Donbas (tha ...

. On 30 May, Reuters reported that Russian troops had breached the outskirts of Sievierodonetsk. By 2 June, ''The Washington Post'' reported that Sievierodonetsk was on the brink of capitulation to Russian occupation with over 80 per cent of the city in the hands of Russian troops. On 3 June, Ukrainian forces reportedly began a counter-attack in Sievierodonetsk. By 4 June, Ukrainian government sources claimed 20% or more of the city had been recaptured. On 12 June it was reported that possibly as many as 800 Ukrainian civilians (as per Ukrainian estimates) and 300–400 soldiers (as per Russian sources) were besieged at the Azot chemical factory in Severodonetsk. With the Ukrainian defences of Severodonetsk faltering, Russian invasion troops began intensifying their attack upon the neighbouring city of

Lysychansk Lysychansk ( uk, Лисича́нськ ; russian: Лисича́нск ) is a city in the Sievierodonetsk Raion of the Luhansk Oblast in Ukraine. Prior to 2020 municipal classification reforms, it was incorporated as a city of oblast significa ...

as their next target city in the invasion. On 20 June it was reported that Russian troops continued to tighten their grip on Severodonetsk by capturing surrounding villages and hamlets surrounding the city, most recently the village of Metelkine. On 24 June, CNN reported that, amid continuing scorched-earth tactics being applied by advancing Russian troops, Ukraine's armed forces were ordered to evacuate the city; they'd leave several hundred civilians seeking refuge in the Azot chemical plant in Severodenetsk, which has been compared to the civilian refugees left at the Azovstal steel works in Mariupol during May. On 3 July, CBS announced that the Russian defense ministry claimed that the city of Lysychansk had been captured and occupied by Russian forces. On 4 July, ''The Guardian'' reported that after the fall of the Luhansk oblast, that Russian invasion troops would continue their invasion into the adjacent Donetsk Oblast to attack the cities of

and

Bakhmut Bakhmut ( uk, Ба́хмут, ) is a city in the Donbas and the administrative centre of Bakhmut Raion in Donetsk Oblast, Ukraine. It is located on the Bakhmutka River, about 89 km north of Donetsk city, the administrative center of the o ...

Fall of Mariupol

On 13 April, Russian forces intensified their attack on the Azovstal iron and steel works in Mariupol, and the Ukrainian defence forces that remained there. By 17 April, Russian forces had surrounded the factory. Ukrainian prime minister

said that the Ukrainian soldiers had vowed to ignore the renewed ultimatum to surrender and to fight to the last soul. On 20 April, Putin said that the siege of Mariupol could be considered tactically complete, since the 500 Ukrainian troops entrenched in bunkers within the Azovstal iron works and estimated 1,000 Ukrainian civilians were completely sealed off from any type of relief in their siege. After consecutive meetings with Putin and Zelenskyy, UN Secretary-General Guterres on 28 April said he would attempt to organise an emergency evacuation of survivors from Azovstal in accordance with assurances he had received from Putin on his visit to the Kremlin. On 30 April, Russian troops allowed civilians to leave under UN protection. By 3 May, after allowing approximately 100 Ukrainian civilians to depart from the Azovstal steel factory, Russian troops renewed non-stop bombardment of the steel factory. On 6 May, ''The Telegraph'' reported that Russia had used

thermobaric bomb A thermobaric weapon, also called an aerosol bomb, a vacuum bomb or a fuel air explosive (FAE), is a type of explosive that uses oxygen from the surrounding air to generate a high-temperature explosion. The fuel–air explosive is one of the b ...

s against the remaining Ukrainian soldiers, who had lost contact with the Kyiv government; in his last communications, Zelenskyy had authorised the commander of the besieged steel factory to surrender as necessary under the pressure of increased Russian attacks. On 7 May, the Associated Press reported that all civilians were evacuated from the Azovstal steel works at the end of the three-day ceasefire. After the last civilians evacuated from the Azovstal bunkers, nearly two thousand Ukrainian soldiers remained barricaded there, with 700 injured; they were able to communicate a plea for a military corridor to evacuate, as they expected summary execution if they surrendered to the Russians. Reports of dissent within the Ukrainian troops at Azovstal were reported by ''Ukrainskaya Pravda'' on 8 May indicating that the commander of the Ukrainian Marines assigned to defend the Azovstal bunkers made an unauthorised acquisition of tanks, munitions, and personnel, broke out from the position there and fled. The remaining soldiers spoke of a weakened defensive position in Azovstal as a result, which allowed progress to advancing Russian lines of attack. Ilia Somolienko, deputy commander of the remaining Ukrainian troops barricaded at Azovstal, said: "We are basically here dead men. Most of us know this and it's why we fight so fearlessly." On 16 May, the Ukrainian General staff announced that the Mariupol garrison had "fulfilled its combat mission" and that final evacuations from the Azovstal steel factory had begun. The military said that 264 service members were evacuated to Olenivka under Russian control, while 53 of them who were "seriously injured" had been taken to a hospital in

Novoazovsk Novoazovsk (, ; rus, Новоазовск}) is a border town on the south-eastern tip of Ukraine (near the border with Russia), Following the evacuation of Ukrainian personnel from Azovstal, Russian and DPR forces fully controlled all areas of Mariupol. The end of the battle also brought an end to the

Siege of Mariupol The siege of Mariupol began on 24 February 2022 and lasted until 20 May 2022, as part of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. It saw fighting between the Russian Armed Forces (alongside the Donetsk People's Militia) and the Ukrainian Armed F ...

. Russia press secretary

Dmitry Peskov Dmitry Sergeyevich Peskov ( rus, Дмитрий Сергеевич Песков, p=pʲɪˈskof; born 17 October 1967) is a Russian diplomat and the press secretary for Russian President Vladimir Putin.Vladimir Putin Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin; (born 7 October 1952) is a Russian politician and former intelligence officer who holds the office of president of Russia. Putin has served continuously as president or prime minister since 1999: as prime min ...

had guaranteed that the fighters who surrendered would be treated "in accordance with international standards" while Ukrainian President

said in an address that "the work of bringing the boys home continues, and this work needs delicacy — and time". Some prominent Russian lawmakers called on the government to deny prisoner exchanges for members of the

Azov Regiment The Special Operations Detachment "Azov" (), also known as the Azov Regiment ( uk, Полк «Азов», translit=Polk "Azov") and formerly the Azov Battalion ( uk, батальйон «Азов», translit=Batalion "Azov"), is a unit of the N ...

Third phase: Counteroffensives and annexations (6 Septemberpresent)

2022 Russian Invasion of Ukraine Phase 3 animated (cropped)

On 6 September 2022, Ukrainian forces launched a surprise counteroffensive in the Kharkiv region, beginning near Balakliia. By 12 September, an emboldened Kyiv launched a counteroffensive in the area surrounding Kharkiv with sufficient success for Russia to publicly admit to losing key positions in the area. ''The New York Times'' reported on 12 September that the success of the counteroffensive dented the image of a "Mighty Putin", and led to encouraging the government in Kyiv to seek more arms from the West to sustain its counteroffensive in Kharkiv and surrounding areas. On 21 September 2022, Vladimir Putin announced a 2022 Russian mobilization, partial mobilization. He also said that his country will use "all means" to "defend itself". Later that day, minister of defence

stated that 300,000 reservists would be called on a compulsory basis. Mykhailo Podolyak, the adviser to the president of Ukraine Volodymyr Zelenskyy, said that the decision was predictable, and was an attempt to justify "Russia's failures". British Foreign Office Minister Gillian Keegan called the situation an "escalation", while former Mongolian president Tsakhia Elbegdorj accused Russia of using Russian Mongols as "cannon fodder". On 8 October 2022, the Crimean Bridge partially collapsed due to an 2022 Crimean Bridge explosion, explosion. Russia later blamed Ukraine for the blast, and launched retaliatory 2022 Russian strikes against Ukrainian infrastructure, missile strikes against Ukrainian civilian areas. Since mid-October, Russia has carried out waves of strikes on Ukrainian electrical and water systems. On 15 November 2022, Russia fired 85 missiles at the Ukrainian Power Grid, causing major power outages in Kyiv and neighboring regions. A missile, initially reported to be Russian and later claimed to be "Russian-made", 2022 missile explosion in Poland, crossed into Poland, killing two people in Przewodów, which led to the top leaders of Poland holding an emergency meeting. The next day, US president Joe Biden stated that the missile that struck Polish territory was ‘unlikely’ to have been fired from Russia.

Annexations

In late September 2022, Russian-installed officials in Ukraine organized 2022 annexation referendums in Russian-occupied Ukraine, referendums on annexation of occupied territories of Ukraine, including the Donetsk People's Republic and the Luhansk People's Republic in Russian occupied Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts of Ukraine, as well as the Russian-appointed military administrations of Kherson Oblast and Zaporizhzhia Oblast. Denounced by Ukraine's government and its allies as sham elections, the official results showed overwhelming majorities in favor of annexation. On 30 September 2022, Vladimir Putin announced the annexation of Ukraine's Donetsk, Luhansk, Kherson and Zaporizhzhia regions in an address to both houses of the Federal Assembly (Russia), Russian parliament. Ukraine, the United States, the European Union and the United Nations all condemned the annexation.

Kherson counteroffensive

On 29 August, Zelenskyy advisedly vowed the start of a full-scale counteroffensive in the southeast. He first announced a counteroffensive to retake Russian-occupied territory in the south concentrating on the Kherson-Mykolaiv region, a claim that was corroborated by the Ukrainian parliament as well as Operational Command South. At the start of the operation, the Ukrainian operational group "Kakhovka" and some Ukrainian officials claimed that their forces had broken through defensive lines manned by the Separatist forces of the war in Donbas#Structure, 109th DPR Regiment and Russian paratroopers. The 109th DPR Regiment, which was a conscript unit that was known to serve on garrison duty in the Kherson area, was reported to have withdrawn from it. Ukrainian officials also claimed that they had hit and destroyed a large Russian base in the area amid a general increase of Ukrainian air and artillery bombardments of Russian positions. On 1 September, the Ukrainian army claimed to have captured Stanislav and Snihurivka, confirmed by local sources. On 4 September, Zelenskyy announced the liberation of two unnamed villages in Kherson Oblast and one in Donetsk Oblast. Ukrainian authorities released a photo showing the raising of the Ukrainian flag in Vysokopillia by Ukrainian forces. On 6 September, Ukraine started a 2022 Ukrainian Kharkiv Oblast counteroffensive, second offensive in the Kharkiv area, where it achieved a rapid breakthrough. Meanwhile, Ukrainian attacks also continued along the southern frontline, though reports about territorial changes were largely unverifiable. On 12 September, Zelenskyy said that Ukrainian forces had retaken a total of from Russia, in both the south and the east. The BBC stated that it could not verify these claims. By 13 September, that Russian forces had withdrawn from Kyselivka, Kherson Raion, Kyselivka, a settlement 15 km from Kherson. On the same day, the Russia-backed deputy head of the Kherson Region posted a video from the outskirts of the settlement in which he claimed that Ukrainian troops have not been able to enter it. The mayor of

reported that Russian forces were abandoning the city and were moving to Russian-held

. Ukraine also claimed to have retaken Oleksandrivka, Kherson Oblast, Oleksandrivka on 13 September. A local official claimed that Ukraine had retaken Kyselivka, Kherson Raion, Kyselivka, but this had not been confirmed by the Ukrainian military or outside sources such as the ISW as of 14 September. In October, Ukrainian forces pushed further south towards the city of Kherson, taking control of of territory, with fighting extending to Dudchany. On 9 November, defence minister Shoigu ordered Russian forces to leave part of Kherson Oblast, including the city of Liberation of Kherson, Kherson, and move to the eastern bank of the

. On 11 November, Ukrainian troops entered Kherson, as Russia stated its withdrawal had been completed. This meant that Russian forces no longer had a foothold west of the Dnieper River (its right bank).

Kharkiv counteroffensive

Meanwhile, Ukrainian forces launched another surprise counteroffensive on 6 September in the Kharkiv region, beginning near Balakliia. By 7 September, Ukrainian forces had advanced some into Russian occupied territory and claimed to have recaptured approximately . Russian commentators said this was likely due to the relocation of Russian forces to Kherson in response to the Ukrainian offensive there. On 8 September, Ukrainian forces captured Balakliia and advanced to within of Kupiansk. Military analysts said Ukrainian forces appeared to be moving towards Kupiansk, a major railway hub, with the aim of cutting off the Russian forces at

from the north. On 9 September, the Russian occupation of Kharkiv Oblast, Russian occupation administration of Kharkiv Oblast announced it would "evacuate" the civilian populations of Izium, Kupiansk and Velykyi Burluk. The Institute for the Study of War said it believed Kupiansk would likely fall in the next 72 hours, while Russian reserve units were sent to the area by both road and helicopter. On the morning of 10 September, photos emerged claiming to depict Ukrainian troops raising the Ukrainian flag in the centre of Kupiansk, and the Institute for the Study of War said Ukrainian forces had captured approximately by effectively exploiting their breakthrough. Later in the day, ''Reuters'' reported that Russian positions in northeast Ukraine had "collapsed" in the face of the Ukrainian assault, with Russian forces forced to withdraw from their base at Izium after being cut off by the capture of Kupiansk. By 15 September, an assessment by UK's Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom), Ministry of Defence confirmed that Russia had either lost or withdrawn from almost all of their positions west of Oskil (river), Oskil river. The retreating units had also abandoned various high-value military assets. The offensive continued pushing east and by 2 October Ukrainian Armed Forces had liberated another key city in the Second Battle of Lyman.

Dnipro–Zaporizhzhia front

On 3 September 2022, an IAEA delegation visited the nuclear power plant at Zaporizhzhia and on 6 September a report was published documenting damages and threats to the plant security caused by external shelling and presence of occupational troops in the plant. On 11 September, at 3:14 a.m., the sixth and final reactor was disconnected from the grid, "completely stopping" the plant. The statement from Energoatom said that "Preparations are underway for its cooling and transfer to a cold state".

Events in Crimea

file:Ukraine disputed regions.svg, left, Ukrainian oblasts annexed by Russia since 2014 (

) and 2022 (others). The 2022 annexation creates the equivalent of a strategic land bridge between Crimea and Russia. On 31 July 2022, Russian Navy Day commemorations were cancelled after a drone attack reportedly wounded several people at the Russian Black Sea Fleet headquarters in Sevastopol. On 9 August 2022, there were large explosions reported at Saky (air base), Saky Air Base in western Crimea. Satellite imagery showed that at least eight aircraft were damaged or destroyed. The cause of the explosions is unknown, but may have been long-range missiles, sabotage by special forces or an accident; Ukrainian commander-in-chief Valerii Zaluzhnyi claimed on 7 September that it had been a Ukrainian missile attack. The base is located near the town of Novofedorivka, which is popular with tourists. Queues to leave the area formed at the Crimean Bridge after the explosions. A week later there were explosions and a fire at an arms depot near Dzhankoi in northeastern Crimea, which Russia blamed on "sabotage". A railway line and power station were also damaged. According to the Russian regional head, Sergei Aksyonov, 2,000 people were evacuated from the area. On 18 August, explosions were reported at Belbek Air Base, north of Sevastopol. On the morning of 8 October, the Kerch Bridge, which links occupied Crimea with Russia, was hit by Crimean Bridge explosion, a large explosion which collapsed part of the roadway and caused damage to the railway line.

Missile attacks and aerial warfare

Aerial warfare began on the first day of the invasion. By September, the Ukrainian air force was still at 80% of its prewar strength and had shot down about 55 Russian warplanes. By late December, 173 Ukrainian aircraft and UAVs were confirmed to have been shot down, whereas Russia had lost 171 aircraft. With the the beginning of the invasion, dozens of missile attacks were recorded across both Eastern Ukraine and Western Ukraine. Dozens of missile strikes across Ukraine also reached as far west as

. Starting in mid-October, Russian forces launched massive missile strikes against Ukrainian infrastructure, intending to knock out energy facilities throughout the country. By late November, hundreds of civilians had been killed and wounded by the attacks, and millions of civilians had been left without power due to Rolling blackout, rolling blackouts.

Naval blockade and engagements

Ukraine lies on the Black Sea, which has ocean access only through the Turkish-held Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits. On 28 February, Turkey invoked the 1936 Montreux Convention and sealed off the straits to Russian warships not registered to Black Sea home bases and not returning to their ports of origin. This prevented the passage of four Russian naval vessels through the Turkish Straits in late February. On 24 February, the State Border Guard Service of Ukraine announced that an attack on Snake Island by Russian Navy ships had begun. The guided missile cruiser and patrol boat bombarded the island with their deck guns. When the Russian warship identified itself and instructed the Ukrainian soldiers stationed on the island to surrender, their response was "Russian warship, go fuck yourself!" After the bombardment, a detachment of Russian soldiers landed and took control of Snake Island (Black Sea), Snake Island. Russia stated on 26 February that US drones supplied intelligence to the Ukrainian navy to help target Russian warships in the Black Sea, which the US denied. By 3 March, the Ukrainian frigate , the flagship of the Ukrainian navy, was scuttled in Mykolaiv to prevent its capture by Russian forces. On 14 March, the Russian source RT reported that the Russian Armed Forces had captured about a dozen Ukrainian ships in Berdiansk, including the . On 24 March, Ukrainian officials said that a Russian Alligator-class landing ship, landing ship docked in Berdiansk – initially reported to be the ''Orsk'' and then its sister ship, the ''Saratov'' – was destroyed by a Ukrainian rocket attack. In March 2022, the UN International Maritime Organization (IMO) sought to create a safe sea corridor for commercial vessels to leave Ukrainian ports. On 27 March, Russia established a sea corridor long and wide through its Maritime Exclusion Zone, for the transit of merchant vessels from the edge of Ukrainian territorial waters south-east of Odesa. Ukraine closed its ports at MARSEC level 3, with sea mines laid in port approaches, until the end to hostilities. The Russian cruiser , the flagship of the Black Sea Fleet, was, according to Ukrainian sources and a US senior official, hit on 13 April by two Ukrainian Neptune (cruise missile), Neptune anti-ship cruise missiles, setting the ship on fire. The Russian Defence Ministry confirmed the warship had suffered serious damage due to a munition explosion caused by a fire, and said that its entire crew had been evacuated.

spokesman John Kirby reported on 14 April that satellite images showed that the Russian warship had suffered a sizeable explosion onboard but was heading to the east for expected repairs and refitting in Sevastopol. Later on the same day, the Russian Ministry of Defence stated that Sinking of the Moskva, ''Moskva'' had sunk while under tow in rough weather. On 15 April, Reuters reported that Russia launched an apparent retaliatory missile strike against the missile factory Luch Design Bureau in Kyiv where the Neptune missiles used in the ''Moskva'' attack were manufactured and designed. On 5 May, a US official confirmed that the US gave "a range of intelligence" (including real-time battlefield Targeting (warfare), targeting Military intelligence, intelligence) to assist in the Sinking of the Moskva, sinking of the Russian cruiser ''Russian cruiser Moskva, Moskva''. In early May, Ukrainian forces launched counterattacks on Snake Island. The Russian Ministry of Defense claimed to have repelled these counterattacks. Ukraine released footage of a Russian Serna-class landing craft located in the Black Sea being destroyed near Snake Island by a Ukrainian drone. The same day, a pair of Ukrainian Su-27 conducted a high-speed, low level Toss bombing, bombing run on Russian-occupied Snake Island; the attack was captured on film by a Baykar Bayraktar TB2 drone. On 1 June, Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov asserted that Ukraine's policy of mining its own harbours to impede Russia maritime aggression had contributed to the food export crisis, stating that: "If Kyiv solves the problem of demining ports, the Russian Navy will ensure the unimpeded passage of ships with grain to the Mediterranean Sea." On 30 June 2022, Russia announced that it had withdrawn troops from the island in a "gesture of goodwill". The withdrawal was later officially confirmed by Ukraine.

Nuclear threats

Four days into the invasion, President Putin placed Russia's nuclear forces on high alert, raising fears that Russia could use tactical nuclear weapons against Ukraine, or a wider escalation of the conflict could occur. During April, Putin and Russian foreign minister Sergei Lavrov made a number of threats alluding to the use of nuclear weapons against Ukraine and the countries supporting Ukraine. On 14 April, CIA director William J. Burns (diplomat), William Burns said that "potential desperation" in the face of defeat could encourage President Putin to use tactical nuclear weapons. In response to Russia's disregard of safety precautions during its occupation of the disabled former Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, nuclear power plant at Chernobyl and its firing of missiles in the vicinity of the active Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant, nuclear power plant at Zaporizhzhia, on 26 April President Zelenskyy called for an international discussion on regulating Russia's use of nuclear resources, stating: "no one in the world can feel safe knowing how many nuclear facilities, nuclear weapons and related technologies the Russian state has... If Russia has forgotten what Chernobyl is, it means that global control over Russia's nuclear facilities, and nuclear technology is needed." In August, shelling around the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant developed into a Crisis at the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant, crisis, prompting an emergency inspection by the

. Ukraine has described the crisis as an act of nuclear terrorism by Russia. On 19 September, CNBC reported that Biden's response to Russian uncertainties about its lack of combat success in its invasion stating: "President Joe Biden warned of a 'consequential' response from the U.S. if Russian President Vladimir Putin were to use nuclear or other non-conventional weapons... Asked what he would say to Putin if he was considering such action, Biden replied, 'Don't. Don't. Don't.'" Following his statement made on 19 September, Biden appeared before the United Nations on 21 September and continued his criticism of Putin's nuclear , stating that Putin was "overt, reckless and irresponsible... Joint Statement of the Leaders of the Five Nuclear-Weapon States on Preventing Nuclear War and Avoiding Arms Races, A nuclear war cannot be won and must never be fought."

Ukrainian resistance

Ukrainian civilians resisted the Russian invasion, volunteered for territorial defence units, made Molotov cocktails, donated food, built barriers such as Czech hedgehogs, and helped to transport refugees. Responding to a call from Ukraine's transportation agency, State Agency of Automobile Roads of Ukraine, Ukravtodor, civilians dismantled or altered road signs, constructed makeshift barriers, and blocked roadways. Social media reports showed spontaneous street protests against Russian forces in occupied settlements, often evolving into verbal altercations and physical standoffs with Russian troops. By the beginning of April, Ukrainian civilians began to organise as guerrillas, mostly in the wooded north and east of the country. The Ukrainian military announced plans to launch a large-scale guerrilla campaign to complement its conventional defence against the Russian invasion. People physically blocked Russian military vehicles, sometimes forcing them to retreat. The Russian soldiers' response to unarmed civilian resistance varied from reluctance to engage the protesters to firing into the air or directly into crowds. There have been mass detentions of Ukrainian protesters, and Ukrainian media reported forced disappearances, mock executions, hostage-taking, extrajudicial killing, and sexual violence perpetrated by the Russian military. To facilitate Ukrainian attacks, civilians reported Russian military positions via a Telegram (software), Telegram chatbot and Diia, a Ukrainian government app previously used by citizens to upload official identity and medical documents. In response, Russian forces began destroying mobile phone network equipment, searching door-to-door for smartphones and computers, and in at least one case killing a civilian found with pictures of Russian tanks. As of 21 May, President Zelensky indicated that Ukraine had 700,000 servicemembers on active duty combating the Russian invasion. Throughout 2022, Ukraine withdrew soldiers and military equipment deployed to United Nations peacekeeping missions, such as MONUSCO in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, back to Ukraine.

Foreign involvement

Foreign military sales and aid

Countries supplying military equipment to Ukraine during the 2022 Russian invasion

Countries supplying aid to Ukraine during the 2022 Russian invasion

The Kiel Institute has tracked $84.2B from 40 countries in financial, humanitarian, and military aid to Ukraine from 24 January to 3 August 2022. NATO is coordinating and assisting member states in providing billions of dollars in military equipment and financial aid to Ukraine. The United States has provided the most military assistance, having provided $16.8B since February 2022. Many NATO allies, such as Germany and Sweden, have reversed past policies against providing offensive military aid in order to support Ukraine. The European Union for the first time in its history supplied lethal arms and has provided €2.5B to Ukraine. Between 2014 and 2021, the UK, US, EU, and NATO provided mostly non-lethal military aid to Ukraine. Lethal military support was initially limited. The US began to sell weapons including FGM-148 Javelin, Javelin anti-tank missiles starting in 2018, and Ukraine agreed to purchase Bayraktar TB2, TB2 combat drones from Turkey in 2019. Russia built up equipment and troops on Ukraine's borders in January 2022. In response, the US worked with other NATO member states to transfer US-produced weapons to Ukraine. The UK also began to supply Ukraine with NLAW and Javelin anti-tank weapons. After the invasion, NATO member states including Germany agreed to supply weapons, but NATO as an organisation did not. NATO and its members also refused to send troops into Ukraine, or to establish a no fly-zone, lest this spark a larger-scale war, a decision some labelled appeasement. On 26 February, US Secretary of State Antony Blinken announced $350 million in lethal military assistance, including anti-armor and anti-aircraft systems. The next day the EU stated that it would purchase €450 million (US$502 million) in lethal assistance and an additional €50 million ($56 million) in non-lethal supplies for Ukraine, with Poland handling distribution. During the first week of the invasion, NATO member states supplied more than 17,000 anti-tank weapons to Ukraine; by mid-March, the number was estimated to be more than 20,000. In three tranches agreed in February, March and April 2022, the European Union committed to €1.5 billion to support the capabilities and resilience of the Ukrainian Armed Forces and the protection of the Ukrainian civilian population, under the purview of the European Peace Facility line. As of 11 April, Ukraine had been provided with approximately 25,000 anti-air and 60,000 anti-tank weapon systems by the US and its allies. The following day, Russia reportedly received anti-tank missiles and RPGs from Iran, supplied through undercover networks via Iraq. On 19 April 2022, Romania announced a planned reform to the government decree that regulates the export of military weapons and national defence products to provide these weapons not only to

allies but also to Ukraine. The Ministry of Defense developed the draft decree stating that the reason behind this decision was Russia's aggression against Ukraine. However, on 27 April Defense Minister Vasile Dincu said that his plan had been discontinued. On 26 April, the US convened a 2022 Ramstein Air Base meeting, conference in which representatives of more than 40 countries met at the

to discuss military support for Ukraine. On 28 April, US President Biden asked United States Congress, Congress for an additional $33 billion to assist Ukraine, including $20 billion to provide weapons to Ukraine. On 5 May, Ukraine's Prime Minister

announced that Ukraine had received more than $12 billion worth of weapons and financial aid from Western countries since the start of Russia's invasion on 24 February. On 10 May, the United States House of Representatives, House passed legislation that would provide $40 billion in new aid to Ukraine. After the legislation was approved by the United States Senate, Senate, Biden signed the legislation on 21 May. On 30 May, French Foreign Minister Catherine Colonna announced the provision to Ukraine of additional CAESAR self-propelled howitzer systems, mounted on the Renault Trucks, Renault Renault Sherpa 5, Sherpa 5 6×6 chassis. On 25 May, the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Ukraine Valerii Zaluzhnyi said that the first batch was already on the front lines fighting the invader. On 10 June, the AFU demonstrated the combat systems to representatives from the press; by that date the Ukrainian gunners possessed 18 CAESAR units.Alt URL
/ref> On 31 May, the White House informed the press that the US would be supplying M142 HIMARS, HIMARS Multiple rocket launcher, multiple launch rocket systems to Ukraine. Some analysts had said HIMARS could be a "game-changer" in the war. * Under Secretary of Defense for Policy Colin Kahl stated that the US would be able to send more systems as the fighting evolves. On 10 June, an official from the Ukrainian military said that they were using 5,000 to 6,000 artillery rounds a day and would then be using 155-calibre NATO standard shells because all their Soviet-era guns had been destroyed. The official said the Russians had transformed the war into an artillery duel focused on the southeast of the country. On 12 June, a Ukrainian Presidential advisor put on Twitter a list of weapons that Ukraine needed to achieve "heavy weapons parity". The top item was "1000 howitzers caliber 155 mm". Ukraine claimed it had enough 155 mm ammunition but lacked the artillery to use it. According to Oryxspioenkop only 250 howitzers have been promised or delivered. On 13 June, a Deutsche Welle correspondent said that the Ukrainian supply of Soviet-era ammunition had been exhausted and all they had was a dwindling supply obtained from friendly ex-Soviet countries. In June 2022 Germany declassified its list of military aid to Ukraine. For the 16 US-supplied HIMARS systems in Ukraine (2 August 2022), the US was providing more munitions (additional HIMARS rocket pods in monthly installments, as well as more 155-mm howitzer shells) at a cost of $550 million for the 17th Presidential drawdown package. The 18th US presidential drawdown package was released (8 Aug 2022), a $1 billion package including additional HIMARS rocket pods, 75,000 rounds of 155mm artillery ammunition, 20 120mm mortar systems and 20,000 rounds of 120mm mortar ammunition, National Advanced Surface-to-Air Missile Systems (NASAMS), 1000 Javelins and hundreds of AT4 anti-tank weapons, 50 armored medical treatment vehicles, Claymore mines, C4 explosives, and medical supplies. The 19th US presidential drawdown package (19 Aug 2022) was a $775 million package, which included additional HIMARS rocket pods, 16 105mm howitzers with 36,000 artillery rounds (this supplements the UK's past contributions of 105mm howitzers), 1000 anti-armor Javelins, 2000 anti-armor rounds for the Swedish Carl Gustaf 8.4 cm recoilless rifle, 1,500 tube-launched, optically tracked, wire-guided anti-tank missiles (BGM-71 TOWs), additional AGM-88 HARM air-launched, shows Ukrainian MIG-29s With AGM-88 HARM air-launched anti-radiation missiles already mounted anti-radiation missiles that home on radar sites, 15 ScanEagle UAVs (to guide Ukrainian artillery), 40 mine flail vehicles to clear out minefields, 50 HMMWVs, tactical secure communication systems, demolition munitions, night vision devices, thermal imagery systems, optics, and laser rangefinders. The packages since 2021 totaled $10.7 billion by 19 August 2022. As of July 2022, CNN reported on American recent declassified intel suggested that Iranians have given Shahed 129 UAV combat drones to Russian forces. In 2022, 800 combat drones manufactured by the Taiwanese DronesVision were transferred to Ukraine through Poland. In November 2022, United Kingdom announced they were donating three former Royal Navy and Royal Air Force Sea King's to Armed Forces of Ukraine, Ukraine. ;Ukraine security assistance package On 24 August 2022, aid for longer-term requirements by Ukraine, $3 billion in US security assistance was from a congressional funding source (Ukraine Security Assistance Initiative —USAI) rather than by drawdown from US government stocks; instead the ammunition, and other materiel, such as ScanEagle and Puma drones, and Vampire counter-drone missiles would be from suppliers. The Vampire contract was not yet let as of November 2022, with delivery to Ukraine after mid-2023. The longer-term deliveries of materiel will include 6 additional NASAMS air defense units and their attendant rounds (for a total of 8 units); up to 245,000 155mm howitzer shells; up to 65,000 120mm mortar rounds; up to 24 counter-battery radars, and the attendant training, maintenance, and sustainment. By 24 August 2022 US aid since January 2021 exceeded $13.5 billion. By August 2022, the United Kingdom had provided military aid to the value of £2.3bn ($2.8bn). This included three M270 Multiple Launch Rocket Systems, some 5,000 NLAW anti-tank missiles, "hundreds" of Brimstone (missile), Brimstone missiles, 120 armoured vehicles including Cougar (MRAP), Mastiff Protected Patrol Vehicles, and heavy-lift drones. Additionally, 10,000 Ukrainian soldiers were in an intensive 120-day infantry training course at four bases in Britain, delivered by a multi-national team of trainers. On 8 September 2022, US secretary of state Blinken announced $2 billion in aid to Ukraine and eighteen partners in the defence industrial base. In addition US secretary of defense Austin announced the 20th drawdown package —up to $675 million for Ukraine military aid at the Ukraine Defense Contact Group meeting in Germany, as well as discussion of initiatives for the respective industrial bases of the Defense Contact Group, in order to defend Ukraine's sovereign territory for the long haul. On 28 September William LaPlante, US under-secretary of defense for acquisition and sustainment (Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Sustainment, USD (A&S)) met in Brussels with 40 counterparts in the Ukraine Defense Contact Group. On the agenda was the identification of industrial suppliers of replacement materiel such as gun barrels, ball bearings, steel casings, and microchips, without which the existing military aid will eventually cease to function due to heavy use on the battlefield. LaPlante later noted that a policy of "interoperability, but interchangeability, with multiple plants in multiple countries making identical items" will have a deterrent effect on the adversaries of those countries, as well as on the adversaries of Ukraine. Arms suppliers from Eastern Europe are also arming Ukraine using Ukraine Defense Contacts.Reuter
(24 Nov 2022) Weapons industry booms as Eastern Europe arms Ukraine
/ref> On 15 September 2022, US president Biden announced his 21st drawdown package, worth $600 million in military aid to Ukraine in light of the 2022 Ukrainian Kharkiv counteroffensive. On 28 September 2022, the US department of defense announced a USAI (Ukraine Security Assistance Initiative) package worth up to $1.1 billion, which will purchase 18 additional HIMARS systems and their associated rockets from vendors in the future. By 28 September 16 HIMARS systems drawn from the US and an additional 10 equivalent systems from the allies were in service in Ukraine. This USAI package was also to include 150 Humvees (HMMWVs), 150 tactical vehicles, 20 multi-mission radars, explosive ordnance disposal equipment, body armor and tactical secure communications systems, surveillance systems and optics. * Training for Ukrainian troops, maintenance, and sustainment were included in this long-term package, totaling $16.2 billion in aid since the beginning of the 2022 invasion. ;Proposal for a Kyiv Security Compact In September 2022, former NATO Secretary General Anders Fogh Rasmussen delivered a proposal for a long lasting Kyiv Security Compact to President

, on legally binding security guarantees for Ukraine from a coalition of Western countries to bolster its ability to fend off Russian attacks through extensive joint training, the provision of advanced defense weapons systems, and support to develop the country's own defense industrial base. ;Lend-Lease for Ukraine On 1 October 2022 Ukraine Democracy Defense Lend-Lease Act of 2022, Lend-Lease for Ukraine came into effect. A proposal to administer US security assistance as part of EUCOM is under consideration at the Pentagon. This plan would systematise the services currently being provided to Ukraine on an ''ad hoc'' basis, and would provide a long-term vehicle for countering Russian plans under the provisions of the Lend-Lease act, and for coordinating Allied aid for Ukraine's defense with Ukrainian requests at a single point of contact in Wiesbaden, Germany. On 4 October 2022 the 22nd Presidential drawdown from US stocks to Ukraine, $625 million in security assistance, included a tailored package: 4 more HIMARS systems and their associated rockets; 16 more M777 155mm howitzers and 75,000 155mm rounds; 500 M982 Excalibur precision-guided 155mm rounds; 1,000 155mm rounds of remote anti-armor mine systems; 16 more 105mm M119 howitzers; 30,000 120 mm mortar rounds; 200 mine-resistant, ambush-protected vehicles (MRAPs); 200,000 rounds of small arms ammunition; and Claymore mines. The package responds to current Ukrainian ammunition consumption rates during their latest offensives; more aid is forthcoming according to Laura Cooper, a US DoD deputy assistant secretary of defense. So far, the security assistance has totalled $16.8 billion to Ukraine. On 14 October 2022 the 23rd Presidential drawdown from US stocks provided Ukraine $725 million in security assistance, including additional rounds for High Mobility Artillery Rocket Systems (HIMARS); 23,000 155mm howitzer rounds; 500 precision-guided 155mm artillery rounds; 5,000 155mm rounds of Remote Anti-Armor Mine (RAAM) Systems; 5,000 anti-tank weapons; High-speed Anti-radiation missiles (HARMs); more than 200 High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicles (HMMWVs); small arms and more than 2,000,000 rounds of small arms ammunition; and medical supplies. So far, the security assistance has totalled $18.2 billion to Ukraine since January 2021. On 17 October 2022 the European Union approved €500 million ($486 million) in weapons for Ukraine, and a two-year training mission under the command of Vice Admiral Hervé Bléjean (France) for 15,000 Ukrainian troops, initially. The training, at the "individual, collective and specialized" levels would be held in Germany and Poland, and would be open to other nations as well. The planned training cost would be nearly €107 million. ;Aid in construction of a missile defence system Missile defence of Ukraine was arriving piecemeal; in Brussels on 12 October 2022, US Army General Mark Milley suggested to the Ukraine Defense Contact Group that the allies of Ukraine "chip in to help Ukraine rebuild and sustain an integrated air and missile defense system" from the contributed air and missile defence system materiel. Specifically, Ukraine would need to link together and integrate their existing materiel and radars with "command and control and communication systems". On 28 October 2022 the Pentagon announced the 24th Presidential drawdown of materiel worth $275 million; the security assistance has totalled $18.5 billion to Ukraine since January 2021. The aid includes 500 Excalibur precision-guided 155mm artillery rounds, 2000 155mm remote anti-armor mine systems, more than 1,300 anti-armor weapons, more than 2.75 million rounds of small arms ammunition, more HIMARS rockets, 125 HMMWV, Humvees, and four satellite communications antennas for Ukraine's command and control systems, as well as training for operation of the NASAMS units. Two NASAMS units arrived in Ukraine on 7 November 2022. ;Security Assistance Group Ukraine (SAGU) By 21 July 2022, the EUCOM Control Center-Ukraine/International Donor Coordination Centre (ECCU/IDCC) a joint cell formed in March 2022 had trained 1,500 Ukrainian Armed Forces members on coalition-donated equipment. By 4 November 2022, the equipment shipments, and training measures of the Ukraine Contact Group had become repeatable enough to systematise in a Security Assistance Group Ukraine (Ukraine Security Assistance Initiative#SAGU, SAGU), based in Wiesbaden, Germany. On 4 November 2022 the Pentagon announced a $400 million Ukraine Security Assistance Initiative, USAI security assistance package to refurbish 45 T-72 tanks from the Czech Republic with "advanced optics, communications and armor packages"; in addition 1,100 Phoenix Ghost tactical unmanned aerial systems (UASs), and "40 armored riverine boats" are in the package. The combined additional aid amounts to 90 more T-72s by year-end 2022, plus 250 M1117 Armored Security Vehicles furnished for the first time, as well as the refurbished HAWK missiles from the Czech Republic, which will serve on the HAWK launchers from Spain. On 10 November, the $400 million aid announcement was clarified: 4 Stinger-based air defense AN/TWQ-1 Avengers, to counter the Iranian drones, were provided to Ukraine for the first time, as well as additional HIMARS rockets, 10,000 mortar rounds, thousands of 155mm howitzer rounds, 400 grenade launchers, 100 HMMWV, Humvees, 20 million rounds of small arms ammunition, and cold-weather gear. So far, the 20 HIMARS launchers drawn from US stocks are still in service; hundreds of T-72s have already been provided by Poland and other nations; the Ukraine Security Assistance Initiative, USAI security assistance has totalled $18.9 billion to Ukraine since January 2021. On 15 November 2022 the US White House Office of Management and Budget asked Congress for an additional $38 billion in fiscal year 2023 in aid for Ukraine. The supplemental funding request included $21.7 billion in security assistance, $14.5 billion in US State department sources and USAID sources to be provided to Ukraine's government, humanitarian relief, and global food security, as well as a $900 million request for the Department of Health and Human Services, to "provide standard assistance health care and support services to Ukrainian parolees"; in addition a $626 million Energy Department request would aid nuclear security at the power plant in Zaporizhzhia. In addition the US White House is requesting that Congress grant $7 billion in additional presidential drawdown authority from existing Defense department materiel. Were Congress to grant this fourth request, the total aid to Ukraine would be $104 billion in less than a year. On 17 November 2022, it was reported that Israel approved the transfer of weapons systems with Israeli parts, via NATO countries including the UK. These include advanced fire-control and electro-optic systems. It also agreed to buy strategic materials for the Ukrainian armed forces. On 23 November 2022 the Pentagon announced its 26th drawdown package of up to $400 million in aid.Stephen Lose
(23 November 2022) US to send anti-drone machine guns, air defense ammunition to Ukraine
/ref> The aid consisted of more HIMARS rockets, more high-speed anti-radiation missiles (AGM-88 HARMs), 200 precision-guided 155mm artillery M982 Excalibur rounds, 150 heavy machine guns to shoot down drones, additional NASAMS missiles for air defense, 150 Humvees, over 100 additional light tactical vehicles, over 200 electical generators, 20 million rounds of small arms ammunition, and spare parts for 105mm howitzers. On 9 December 2022 the Pentagon announced the US president had authorized the 27th drawdown package of up to $275 million in aid to Ukraine for additional HIMARS rockets, 80,000 155mm artillery rounds, counter-unmanned aerial systems (counter-unmanned aerial system, UASs), counter air defense equipment, HMMWVs (Humvees) Ambulances and medical equipment, nearly 150 generators, and field equipment.US Do
(9 December 2022) $275 Million in Additional Assistance for Ukraine
/ref> On 21 December 2022 Antony Blinken of the US State department announced the 28th drawdown of aid for Ukraine, a $1 billion package consisting of a MIM-104 Patriot, Patriot missile battery; in addition the Pentagon announced $850 million of security assistance for Ukraine under its Ukraine Security Assistance Initiative. Training in the use of these Patriot missiles will be required for Ukraine's troops.Antony Blinken, Secretary of Stat
(21 December 2022) $1.85 Billion in Additional U.S. Military Assistance, Including the First Transfer of Patriot Air Defense System
/ref> The materiel also included JDAM kitsChris Gordo
(21 December 2022) Biden Gives Ukraine Patriot System, JDAMs, as Zelenskyy Visits U.S.
Joint Direct Attack Munitions for Precision aerial munitions. Additional aid from the drawdown included: additional ammunition for HIMARS High Mobility Artillery Rocket Systems; 500 precision-guided munition , precision-guided 155mm artillery rounds; 10 120mm mortar systems and 10,000 120mm mortar rounds; 10 82mm mortar systems; 10 60mm mortar systems; 37 Cougar Mine Resistant Ambush Protected vehicles; 120 High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicles (Humvees); Six armored utility trucks; High-speed anti-radiation missiles; 2,700 grenade launchers and small arms; Claymore anti-personnel munitions; Demolition munitions and equipment; Night vision devices and optics; Tactical secure communications systems; and Body armor and other field equipment. The USAI (from industry rather than from DoD stocks) will be: 45,000 152mm artillery rounds; 20,000 122mm artillery rounds; 50,000 122mm GRAD rockets; 100,000 rounds of 125mm tank ammunition; and Satellite communications terminals and services; Funding for training, maintenance and sustainment. David Vergun, DOD New
(21 December 2022) Ukraine Getting Patriot Battery, Other Defense Weapons
/ref>

Foreign military involvement

Although NATO and the EU have publicly taken a strict policy of "no boots on the ground" in support against the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the United States has significantly increased the secret involvement of special operations military and CIA operatives in support of Ukrainian forces since the beginning of the invasion. In addition, Ukraine has actively sought volunteers from other countries. On 1 March, Ukraine temporarily lifted visa requirements for foreign volunteers who wished to join the fight against Russian forces. The move came after Zelenskyy created the International Legion of Territorial Defense of Ukraine and called on volunteers to "join the defence of Ukraine, Europe and the world". The U.S. also assisted Ukraine with military planning, including war-gaming counteroffensive options. Ukraine's foreign minister Dmytro Kuleba stated that as of 6 March, approximately 20,000 foreign nationals from 52 countries have volunteered to fight. Most of these volunteers joined the newly created International Legion of Territorial Defense of Ukraine. On 9 June, the

sentenced three foreign volunteers to death. Two of them were British citizens and one was a Moroccan national. The foreign prisoners were later released. On 3 March, Ministry of Defence (Russia), Russian Defence Ministry spokesman

warned that Unlawful combatant, mercenaries are not entitled to protection under the Geneva Conventions, and captured foreign fighters would not be considered prisoners of war, but prosecuted as criminals. Shortly thereafter, however, on 11 March, Moscow announced that 16,000 volunteers from the Middle East were ready to join other pro-Russian foreign fighters alongside the Donbas separatists. A video uploaded online showed armed Central African paramilitaries preparing to fight in Ukraine with Russian troops. On 21 October, a White House press release stated that Islamic Republic of Iran Armed Forces, Iranian troops were in Crimea assisting Russia in launching 2022 Russian strikes against Ukrainian infrastructure, drone attacks against civilians and civilian infrastructure. On 24 November Ukrainian officials said the military had killed ten Iranians and would target any further Iranian military presence in Ukraine.

Foreign sanctions and ramifications

Western countries and others imposed limited sanctions on Russia when it recognised Donbas as an independent nation. When the attack began, many other countries applied sanctions intended to cripple the Russian economy. The sanctions targeted individuals, banks, businesses, monetary exchanges, bank transfers, exports, and imports. The sanctions cut major Russian banks from SWIFT, the global messaging network for international payments, but left some limited accessibility to ensure the continued ability to pay for gas shipments. Sanctions also included asset freezes on the Russian Central Bank, which holds $630 billion in List of countries by foreign-exchange reserves, foreign-exchange reserves, to prevent it from offsetting the impact of sanctions and froze the Nord Stream 2 gas pipeline. By 1 March, total Russian assets frozen by sanctions amounted to $1 trillion. EUR-RUB exchange rate

Kristalina Georgieva, managing director of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), warned that the conflict posed a substantial economic risk both regionally and internationally. The IMF could help other countries affected, she said, in addition to the $2.2 billion loan package for Ukraine. David Malpass, president of the World Bank Group, president of the World Bank Group, warned of far-reaching economic and social effects, and reported that the bank was preparing options for significant economic and fiscal support to Ukraine and the region. Economic sanctions affected Russia from the first day of the invasion, with its stock market falling by up to 39% (RTS Index). The Russian ruble fell to record lows, and Russians rushed to exchange currency. Stock exchanges in Moscow and Saint Petersburg closed until at least 18 March, the longest closure in Russia's history. On 26 February, S&P Global Ratings downgraded the Russian government List of countries by credit rating, credit rating to "junk", causing funds that require investment-grade bonds to dump Russian debt, making further borrowing very difficult for Russia. On 11 April, S&P Global placed Russia under "selective default" on its foreign debt for insisting on payments in rubles. Dozens of corporations, including Unilever, McDonald's, Coca-Cola company, Coca-Cola, Starbucks, Hermès, Chanel, and Prada ceased trading in Russia. Peace talks and stability of international borders were discussed during the week of 9 May within both Sweden and Finland when their parliaments applied to become full members of NATO. On 24 March, Joe Biden's administration issued an executive order that barred the sale of Russian gold reserves by US citizens; other G7 leaders took similar action. Gold has been one of Russia's major avenues to protect its economy from the impact of the sanctions imposed since the 2014 annexation of Crimea. In April 2022, Russia supplied 45% of EU's natural gas imports, earning $900 million a day. Russia is the world's largest exporter of natural gas, grains, and fertilisers, and among the world's largest suppliers of crude oil, coal, steel and metals, including palladium, platinum, gold, cobalt, nickel, and aluminium. In May 2022, the European Commission proposed a ban on Russia in the European energy sector, oil imports from Russia. With European policy-makers deciding to replace Russian fossil fuel imports with other Fossil fuel exporters, fossil fuels imports and European Coal in Europe, coal energy production, as well as due to Russia being "a key supplier" of materials used for "clean energy technologies", the reactions to the war may also have an overall negative impact on the Greenhouse gas emissions, climate emissions pathway. Due to the sanctions imposed on Russia, Moscow is now looking to capitalise on alternative trade routes as the country has practically broken all logistic corridors for trade. The 2022 Russia–European Union gas dispute, Russia–EU gas dispute flared up in March 2022. On 14 June, Russia's Gazprom announced that it would be slashing gas flow via the Nord Stream 1 pipeline, due to what it claimed to be Siemens' failure to return on time compressor units that had been sent off to Canada for repair. The explanation was challenged by Germany's energy regulator. On 17 June, president Putin spoke to investors at St. Petersburg International Economic Forum about economic sanctions, saying that "the economic blitzkrieg against Russia had no chance of succeeding from the very beginning". He further claimed that the sanctions would hurt the countries imposing them more than they would hurt Russia, calling the restrictions "mad and thoughtless". He said to the investors: "Invest here. It's safer in your own house. Those who didn't want to listen to this have lost millions abroad". In response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Estonia has removed a remaining Soviet era monument from a square in Narva. After its removal Estonia was subject to "the most extensive cyberattack" since the 2007 cyberattacks on Estonia. On 25 August 2022, president Zelensky thanked president Biden for the $3 billion #Ukraine Security Assistance Initiative, USAI security aid package (24 August 2022), as well as the $3 billion World Bank financial aid package for Ukraine. On 2 September, president Biden requested $13.7 billion "for equipment, intelligence support and direct budgetary support" to Ukraine from Congress.Mary Claire Jaloni
(2 Sep 2022) Biden seeks $47B for Ukraine, COVID-19, monkeypox, disasters
Over three-fourths of the $40 billion already approved by Congress has been expended or committed.

Foreign condemnation and protest

The invasion received widespread international condemnation and Protests against the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, protests occurred around the world. On 2 March, the

passed United Nations General Assembly Resolution ES-11/1, UNGA resolution ES-11/1 condemning the invasion and demanding a full withdrawal of Russian forces. The

ordered Russia to suspend military operations, and the

expelled Russia. Many countries imposed sanctions on Russia, which have affected the economies of Russia and the world and provided humanitarian and military aid to Ukraine. The

opened an investigation into

in Ukraine since 2013, as well as war crimes in the 2022 invasion.

Casualties

Field casualties and injuries

Combat deaths can be inferred from a variety of sources, including satellite imagery and video footage of military actions. Both Russian and Ukrainian sources are widely considered to inflate casualty numbers in opposing forces, while downplaying their own losses for the sake of morale. Russian news outlets have largely stopped reporting the Russian death toll. Russia and Ukraine admitted to suffering "significant" and "considerable" losses, respectively. BBC News reported in April 2022 that Ukrainian claims of Russian fatalities included the injured as well. Agence France-Presse, as well as independent conflict monitors, reported that they had not been able to verify Russian and Ukrainian claims of enemy losses, but suspected they were inflated. The number of civilian and military deaths is impossible to determine with precision given the fog of war. On 12 October 2022, the independent Russian media project Important Stories, iStories reported that more than 90,000 Russian soldiers had been killed, seriously wounded or gone missing in Ukraine, citing sources close to the Kremlin. The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) considers the number of civilian casualties to be considerably higher than the figure the United Nations has been able to certify. On 16 June, the Ukrainian Minister of Defense told CNN that he believed tens of thousands of Ukrainians had died, adding that he hoped that the true death toll was below 100,000. In the destroyed city of

alone, Ukrainian officials believe at least 25,000 have been killed, but investigations of morgue records indicate many more, while still more bodies remain uncollected.

Prisoners of war

Official statistics and estimates of prisoners of war (POW) have varied. In the initial stages of the invasion, on 24 February, Oksana Markarova, Ukraine's ambassador to the US, said that a platoon of the 74th Guards Motor Rifle Brigade from Kemerovo Oblast surrendered, saying they were unaware that they had been brought to Ukraine and tasked with killing Ukrainians. Russia claimed to have captured 572 Ukrainian soldiers by 2 March 2022, while Ukraine claimed 562 Russian soldiers were being held as prisoners as of 20 March, with 10 previously reported released in a prisoner exchange for five Ukrainian soldiers and the mayor of

. A report by ''The Independent'' on 9 June cited an intelligence report estimating that more than 5,600 Ukrainian soldiers had been captured, while the number of Russian servicemen being held as prisoners had fallen to 550, from 900 in April, following several prisoner exchanges. In contrast, ''Ukrayinska Pravda'' claimed 1,000 Russian soldiers were being held as prisoners as of 20 June. The first large prisoner exchange took place on 24 March, when 10 Russian and 10 Ukrainian soldiers, as well as 11 Russian and 19 Ukrainian civilian sailors, were exchanged. On 1 April 86 Ukrainian servicemen were exchanged for an unknown number of Russian troops. On 25 August, research conducted by the Humanitarian Research Lab of the Yale School of Public Health and the Conflict Observatory was published which reported the identification of some 21 Russian filtration camps for Ukrainians, filtration camps in and around Russian-controlled Donetsk oblast, run by Russian and Russian allied forces and used for Ukrainian "civilians, POWs, and other personnel". These camps were allegedly used for four main purposes: as registration points; as camps and other holding facilities for those awaiting registration; as interrogation centers; and as "correctional colonies" (i.e., prisons). At Olenivka, Kalmiuske Raion, Olenivka prison, one of the identified camps, the disturbed earth seen in imagery was said by researchers to be consistent with graves. Kaveh Khoshnood, a professor at the Yale School of Public Health, said: "Incommunicado detention of civilians is more than a violation of international humanitarian law — it represents a threat to the public health of those currently in the custody of Russia and its proxies. The conditions of confinement documented in this report allegedly include insufficient sanitation, shortages of food and water, cramped conditions, and reported acts consistent with torture."

Humanitarian impact

The humanitarian impact of the invasion has been extensive and has included negative impacts on international food supplies and the 2022 food crises. The invasion has also had a negative impact upon the cultural heritage of Ukraine, with over 500 Ukrainian cultural heritage sites, including cultural centers, theatres, museums, and churches, having been impacted by "Russian aggression", and Ukraine's Minister of Culture calling it cultural genocide. The deliberate destruction and looting of Ukrainian cultural heritage sites in this way is considered a war crime.

Refugee crisis

02022 1199 Refugees from Ukraine in Kraków

The war caused the largest refugee and humanitarian crisis within Europe since the Yugoslav Wars in the 1990s; the UN described it as the fastest-growing such crisis since World War II. As Russia built up military forces along the Ukrainian border, many neighbouring governments and aid organisations prepared for a mass displacement event in the weeks before the invasion. In December 2021, the Ukrainian defence minister estimated that an invasion could force three to five million people to flee their homes. In the first week of the invasion, the UN reported over a million refugees had fled Ukraine; this subsequently rose to over 7,405,590 by 24 September, a reduction from over eight million due to some refugees' return. On 20 May, NPR reported that, following a significant influx of foreign military equipment into Ukraine, a significant number of refugees are seeking to return to regions of Ukraine which are relatively isolated from the invasion front in south-eastern Ukraine. However, by 3 May, another 8 million people were displaced inside Ukraine. Most refugees were women, children, the elderly, or people with disabilities. Most male Ukrainian nationals aged 18 to 60 were denied exit from Ukraine as part of mandatory conscription, unless they were responsible for the financial support of three or more children, single fathers, or were the parent/guardian of children with disabilities. Many Ukrainian men, including teenagers, in any case opted to remain in Ukraine to join the resistance. Regarding destinations, according to the UN High Commission for Refugees, as of 13 May, there were 3,315,711 refugees in Poland, 901,696 in Romania, 594,664 in Hungary, 461,742 in Moldova, 415,402 in Slovakia, and 27,308 in Belarus, while Russia reported it had received over 800,104 refugees. As of 23 March, over 300,000 refugees had arrived in the Czech Republic. Turkey has been another significant destination, registering more than 58,000 Ukrainian refugees as of 22 March, and more than 58,000 as of 25 April. The EU invoked the Temporary Protection Directive for the first time in its history, granting Ukrainian refugees the right to live and work in the EU for up to three years. Britain has accepted 146,379 refugees, as well as extending the ability to remain in the UK for 3 years with broadly similar entitlements as the EU, three years residency and access to state welfare and services. According to the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), “massive deportation" of over 1.3 million Ukrainian civilians by Russia have occurred, potentially constituting constitute

. The OSCE and Ukraine have accused Russia of Forced displacement, forcibly moving civilians to "Russian filtration camps for Ukrainians, filtration centers" in Russian-held territory, and then into Russia. Ukrainian sources have compared this policy to Population transfer in the Soviet Union, Soviet-era population transfers and Russian actions in the Chechen War of Independence. For instance, as of 8 April, Russia claimed to have evacuated about 121,000 Mariupol residents to Russia. Also, on 19 October, Russia announced the forced deportation of 60,000 civilians from areas around the line of contact in Kherson oblast. RIA Novosti and Ukrainian officials said that thousands were dispatched to various centers in cities in Russia and Russian-occupied Ukraine, from which people were sent to economically depressed regions of Russia. In April, Ukraine's National Security and Defence Council secretary Oleksiy Danilov said Russia planned to build "concentration camps" for Ukrainians in western Siberia, and that it likely planned to force prisoners to build new cities in Siberia. A second refugee crisis created by the invasion and by the Russian government's suppression of human rights has been the flight of more than Russian emigration following the 2022 invasion of Ukraine, 300,000 Russian political refugees and economic migrants, the largest White émigré, exodus from Russia since the

of 1917, to countries such as the Baltic states, Finland, Georgia, Turkey, and Central Asia. By 22 March, it was estimated that between 50,000 and 70,000 high-tech workers had left the country, and that 70,000 to 100,000 more might follow. Fears arose in Russia over the effect of this Human capital flight, flight of talent on economic development. Some Russian refugees sought to oppose Putin and help Ukraine from outside their country, and some faced discrimination for being Russian. There has also been an exodus of millionaires. On 6 May, ''The Moscow Times'', citing data from the FSB, reported that almost four million Russians had left the country, although this figure included travellers for business or tourism. Russia's partial mobilization of 300,000 men in September prompted an initial 200,000 more Russians to flee the country, rising to 400,000 by early October, double the number of those conscripted. , the

has likely resulted in tens of thousands of deaths on both sides and has caused Europe's largest refugee crisis since

, with an estimated 8 million people being Internally displaced person, displaced within the country by late May as well as 2022 Ukrainian refugee crisis, 7.6 million Ukrainians fleeing the country as of 3 October 2022.

Reactions

United Nations General Assembly resolution ES-11 L

The invasion received widespread international condemnation from Government and intergovernmental reactions to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, governments and intergovernmental organisations, with political reactions including International sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War, new sanctions imposed on Russia, which triggered Economic impact of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, widespread economic effects on the Russian and world economies. The European Union and other Western world, Western governments financed and delivered humanitarian and military aid to Ukraine. The bloc also implemented various economic sanctions, including a ban on Russian aircraft using EU airspace, a SWIFT ban on certain Russian banks, and a ban on certain Russian media outlets. Reactions to the invasion have varied considerably across a broad spectrum of concerns including public response, media responses, 2022 Russia–Ukraine peace negotiations, peace efforts, and the examination of the legal implications of the invasion. The invasion received widespread public condemnation internationally, while in some countries, certain sectors expressed sympathy or outright support for Russia due in part to distrust of Foreign policy of the United States, US foreign policy. Protests and demonstrations were held worldwide, including some 2022 anti-war protests in Russia, in Russia and 2022 protests in Russian-occupied Ukraine, parts of Ukraine occupied by Russia. Calls for a 2022 boycott of Russia and Belarus, boycott of Russian goods spread on social media platforms, while hackers attacked Russian websites, particularly those operated by the Russian government. Anti-Russian sentiment against Russians living abroad surged after the invasion.

Peace efforts

Peace negotiations between Russia and Ukraine took place on 28 February, 3 March, and 7 March 2022, in an undisclosed location in the Gomel Region on the Belarus–Ukraine border, with further talks held on 10 March in Turkey prior to a fourth round of negotiations which began on 14 March. The Ukrainian foreign minister Dmytro Kuleba stated on 13 July that peace talks are frozen for the time being. On 19 July, former Russian President and current Deputy head of the Russian Security Council,

, said: “Russia will achieve all its goals. There will be peace – on our terms.”

Notes

References

External links

The UN and the war in Ukraine
at the United Nations
Think Tank reports on the invasion of Ukraine
at the Council of the European Union
Ukraine conflict updates
by the Institute for the Study of War
2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
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Background

Prelude and declaration of military operations

Invasion and resistance

First phase: Invasion of Ukraine (24 February – 7 April)

Northern front

North-eastern front

Southern front

Eastern front

Second phase: South-Eastern front (8 April – 5 September)

Mykolaiv–Odesa front

Dnipro–Zaporizhzhia front

Fall of Sievierodonetsk and Lysychansk

Fall of Mariupol

Third phase: Counteroffensives and annexations (6 Septemberpresent)

Annexations

Kherson counteroffensive

Kharkiv counteroffensive

Dnipro–Zaporizhzhia front

Events in Crimea

Missile attacks and aerial warfare

Naval blockade and engagements

Nuclear threats

Ukrainian resistance

Foreign involvement

Foreign military sales and aid

Foreign military involvement

Foreign sanctions and ramifications

Foreign condemnation and protest

Casualties

Field casualties and injuries

Prisoners of war

Humanitarian impact

Refugee crisis

Reactions

Peace efforts

See also

Notes

References

Further reading

External links