Festivals in ancient Rome were a very important part of Roman religious life during both the Republican and Imperial eras, and one of the primary features of the

Roman calendar The Roman calendar was the calendar used by the Roman Kingdom and Roman Republic. Although the term is primarily used for Rome's pre-Julian calendars, it is often used inclusively of the Julian calendar established by Julius Caesar in 46&nbs ...

. ''Feriae'' ("holidays" in the sense of "holy days"; singular also ''feriae'' or ''dies ferialis'') were either public ''(publicae)'' or private ''( privatae)''. State holidays were celebrated by the Roman people and received public funding. Games ''(

ludi ''Ludi'' (Latin:games; plural of "ludus") were public games held for the benefit and entertainment of the Roman people (''populus Romanus''). ''Ludi'' were held in conjunction with, or sometimes as the major feature of, Roman religious festiv ...

)'', such as the Ludi Apollinares, were not technically ''feriae'', but the days on which they were celebrated were '' dies festi'', holidays in the modern sense of days off work. Although ''feriae'' were paid for by the state, ''ludi'' were often funded by wealthy individuals. ''Feriae privatae'' were holidays celebrated in honor of private individuals or by families. This article deals only with public holidays, including rites celebrated by the state priests of Rome at temples, as well as celebrations by neighborhoods, families, and friends held simultaneously throughout Rome. ''Feriae publicae'' were of three kinds: * ''Stativae'' were annual holidays that held a fixed or stable date on the calendar. * ''Conceptivae'' were annual holidays that were

moveable feast A moveable feast is an observance in a Christian liturgical calendar which occurs on different dates in different years. It is the complement of a fixed feast, an annual celebration that is held on the same calendar date every year, such as Chri ...

s (like

Easter Easter, also called Pascha ( Aramaic: פַּסְחָא , ''paskha''; Greek: πάσχα, ''páskha'') or Resurrection Sunday, is a Christian festival and cultural holiday commemorating the resurrection of Jesus from the dead, described in t ...

on the Christian calendar, or

Thanksgiving Thanksgiving is a national holiday celebrated on various dates in October and November in the United States, Canada, Saint Lucia, Liberia, and unofficially in countries like Brazil and Germany. It is also observed in the Australian territory ...

in North America); the date was announced by the magistrates or

priests A priest is a religious leader authorized to perform the sacred rituals of a religion, especially as a mediatory agent between humans and one or more deities. They also have the authority or power to administer religious rites; in particular, ...

who were responsible for them. * '' Imperativae'' were holidays held "on demand" (from the verb ''impero, imperare'', "to order, command") when special celebrations or expiations were called for. One of the most important sources for Roman holidays is

Ovid Publius Ovidius Naso (; 20 March 43 BC – AD 17/18), known in English as Ovid ( ), was a Augustan literature (ancient Rome), Roman poet who lived during the reign of Augustus. He was a younger contemporary of Virgil and Horace, with whom he i ...

's '' Fasti'', an incomplete poem that describes and provides origins for festivals from January to June at the time of

Augustus Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian (), was the founder of the Roman Empire, who reigned as the first Roman emperor from 27 BC until his death in A ...

Keeping the ''feriae''

Varro Marcus Terentius Varro (116–27 BCE) was a Roman polymath and a prolific author. He is regarded as ancient Rome's greatest scholar, and was described by Petrarch as "the third great light of Rome" (after Virgil and Cicero). He is sometimes call ...

defined ''feriae'' as "days instituted for the sake of the gods." Religious rites were performed on the ''feriae'', and public business was suspended. Even

slaves Slavery is the ownership of a person as property, especially in regards to their labour. Slavery typically involves compulsory work, with the slave's location of work and residence dictated by the party that holds them in bondage. Enslavemen ...

were supposed to be given some form of rest.

Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, orator, writer and Academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises tha ...

says specifically that people who were free should not engage in lawsuits and quarrels, and slaves should get a break from their labours. Agricultural writers recognized that some jobs on a farm might still need to be performed, and specified what these were. Some agricultural tasks not otherwise permitted could be carried out if an expiation were made in advance ''( piaculum)'', usually the sacrifice of a puppy. Within the city of Rome, the flamens and the priest known as the '' Rex sacrorum'' were not allowed even to see work done. On a practical level, those who "inadvertently" worked could pay a fine or offer up a ''piaculum'', usually a pig. Work considered vital either to the gods or preserving human life was excusable, according to some experts on religious law. Although Romans were required not to work, they were not required to take any religious action unless they were priests or had family rites ''( sacra gentilicia)'' to maintain.

List of festivals by month

Following is a month-by-month list of Roman festivals and games that had a fixed place on the calendar. For some, the date on which they were first established is recorded. A deity's festival often marks the anniversary ('' dies natalis,'' "birthday") of the founding of a temple, or a rededication after a major renovation. Festivals not named for deities are thought to be among the oldest on the calendar. Some religious observances were monthly. The first day of the month was the Kalends (or Calends, from which the English word "calendar" derives). Each Kalends was sacred to Juno, and the '' Regina sacrorum'' ("Queen of the Rites," a public priestess) marked the day by presiding over a sacrifice to the goddess. Originally a pontiff and the '' Rex sacrorum'' reported the sighting of the new moon, and the pontiff announced whether the Nones occurred on the 5th or 7th of that month. On the Nones, announcements were made regarding events to take place that month; with the exception of the Poplifugia, no major festivals were held before the Nones, though other ceremonies, such as anniversaries of temple dedications, might be carried out. The Ides (usually the 13th, or in a few months the 15th) were sacred to

Jupiter Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the List of Solar System objects by size, largest in the Solar System. It is a gas giant with a Jupiter mass, mass more than 2.5 times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined a ...

. On each Ides, a white lamb was led along the Via Sacra to the Capitolium for sacrifice to Jupiter. The list also includes other notable public religious events such as sacrifices and processions that were observed annually but are neither ''feriae'' nor ''dies natales.'' Unless otherwise noted, the calendar is that of H.H. Scullard, ''Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic''.

Ianuarius , ("January"), or in full , abbreviated , was the first month of the Roman calendar, ancient Roman calendar, from which the Julian calendar, Julian and Gregorian calendar, Gregorian month of January derived. It was followed by ''Februarius'' (" ...

*1 ( Calends): From 153 BC onward,

consuls A consul is an official representative of a government who resides in a foreign country to assist and protect citizens of the consul's country, and to promote and facilitate commercial and diplomatic relations between the two countries. A consu ...

entered office on this date, accompanied by '' vota publica'' (public vows for the wellbeing of the republic and later of the emperor) and the taking of auspices. Festivals were also held for the imported cult of Aesculapius and for the obscure god Vediovis. * 3-5: most common dates for Compitalia, a movable feast ''( feriae conceptivae)'' * 5 (Nones): ''Dies natalis'' (founding day) of the shrine of Vica Pota on the Velian Hill *9:

Agonalia An Agonalia or Agonia was an obscure archaic religious observance celebrated in ancient Rome In modern historiography, ancient Rome is the Roman people, Roman civilisation from the founding of Rome, founding of the Italian city of Rome in ...

in honor of Janus, after whom the month January is named; first of at least four festivals named Agonalia throughout the year *11 and 15: Carmentalia, with Juturna celebrated also on the 11th * 13 (Ides) * 24–26: most common dates for the

Sementivae Sementivae, also known as Feriae Sementivae or Sementina dies (in the country called Paganalia), was a Roman festival of sowing. It was a type of '' feriae conceptivae'' r ''conceptae'' These free days were held every year, but not on certain or ...

, a ''feriae conceptivae'' of sowing, perhaps also known as the Paganalia as celebrated by the '' pagi'' * 27: ''Dies natalis'' of the Temple of Castor and Pollux, or perhaps marking its rededication (see also July 15); ''Ludi Castores'' ("Games of the Castors") celebrated at Ostia during the Imperial period

Februarius ''Februarius'', fully ''Mensis Februarius'' ("month of Februa"), was the shortest month of the Roman calendar from which the Julian calendar, Julian and Gregorian calendar, Gregorian month of February derived. It was eventually placed second in ...

In the archaic Roman calendar, February was the last month of the year. The name derives from ''februa'', "the means of purification, expiatory offerings." It marked a turn of season, with February 5 the official first day of spring bringing the renewal of agricultural activities after winter. * 1 (Kalends): ''Dies natalis'' for the Temple of Juno Sospita, Mother and Queen; ''sacra'' at the Grove of Alernus, near the

Tiber The Tiber ( ; ; ) is the List of rivers of Italy, third-longest river in Italy and the longest in Central Italy, rising in the Apennine Mountains in Emilia-Romagna and flowing through Tuscany, Umbria, and Lazio, where it is joined by the R ...

at the foot of the

Palatine Hill The Palatine Hill (; Classical Latin: ''Palatium''; Neo-Latin: ''Collis/Mons Palatinus''; ), which relative to the seven hills of Rome is the centremost, is one of the most ancient parts of the city; it has been called "the first nucleus of the ...

* 5: ''Dies natalis'' for the Temple of Concord on the Capitoline Hill * 13 (Ides): minor festival of

Faunus In Religion in ancient Rome, ancient Roman religion and Roman mythology, myth, Faunus was the rustic god of the forest, plains and fields; when he made cattle fertile, he was called Inuus. He came to be equated in literature with the Greek god ...

on the Tiber Island * 13–22:

Parentalia In ancient Rome, the Parentalia () or ''dies parentales'' (, "ancestral days") was a nine-day festival held in honour of family ancestors, beginning on 13 February. Although the Parentalia was a holiday on the Roman religious calendar, its observ ...

, a commemoration of ancestors and the dead among families ** 13: Parentatio, with appeasement of the

Manes In ancient Roman religion, the ''Manes'' (, , ) or ''Di Manes'' are chthonic deities sometimes thought to represent souls of deceased loved ones. They were associated with the '' Lares'', '' Lemures'', '' Genii'', and '' Di Penates'' as deities ...

beginning at the 6th hour and ceremonies performed by the chief Vestal; temples were closed, no fires burned on altars, marriages were forbidden, magistrates took off their insignia, until the 21st * 15:

Lupercalia Lupercalia, also known as Lupercal, was a pastoral festival of Ancient Rome observed annually on February 15 to purify the city, promoting health and fertility. Lupercalia was also known as ''dies Februatus'', after the purification instruments ...

* 17: last day of the ''feriae conceptivae'' Fornacalia, the Oven Festival; Quirinalia, in honour of

Quirinus In Roman mythology and Roman religion, religion, Quirinus ( , ) is an early god of the Ancient Rome, Roman state. In Augustus, Augustan Rome, ''Quirinus'' was also an epithet of Janus, Mars (mythology), Mars, and Jupiter (god), Jupiter. Name ...

*21:

Feralia Ferālia was an ancient Roman public festival Dumézil, Georges. ''Archaic Roman Religion''. p. 366. celebrating the Manes (Roman spirits of the dead, particularly the souls of deceased individuals) which fell on 21 February as recorded by ...

, the only public observation of the Parentalia, marked F ''(dies festus)'' in some calendars and FP (a designation of uncertain meaning) in others, with dark rites aimed at the gods below ''( di inferi)'' * 22:

Caristia In ancient Rome, the Caristia, also known as the Cara Cognatio, was an official but privately observed holiday on February 22 that celebrated love of family with banqueting and gifts. Families gathered to dine together and offer food and incense ...

(or Cara Cognatio, "Dear Kindred"), a potluck meal provided by all the family, and shared in a spirit of love and forgiveness * 23:

Terminalia Terminalia may refer to: * Terminalia (festival) Terminalia () was an ancient Roman festival in honour of the god Terminus, who presided over boundaries. His statue was merely a stone or post stuck in the ground to distinguish between propert ...

, in honour of Terminus * 24:

Regifugium The Regifugium ("Flight of the King") or Fugalia ("Festival of the Flight") was an annual religious festival that took place in ancient Rome In modern historiography, ancient Rome is the Roman people, Roman civilisation from the founding of ...

*27:

Equirria The Equirria (also as ''Ecurria'', from ''equicurria'', "horse races") were two Roman festival, ancient Roman festivals of chariot racing, or perhaps horseback racing, held in honor of the god Mars (mythology), Mars, one 27 February and the other ...

, first of two horse-racing festivals to

Mars Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun. It is also known as the "Red Planet", because of its orange-red appearance. Mars is a desert-like rocky planet with a tenuous carbon dioxide () atmosphere. At the average surface level the atmosph ...

Martius

In the old Roman calendar (until perhaps as late as 153 BC), the ''mensis Martius'' ("Mars' Month") was the first month of the year. It is one of the few months to be named for a god,

, whose festivals dominate the month. *1 (Kalends): the original New Year's Day when the sacred fire of Rome was renewed; the dancing armed priesthood of the Salii celebrated the ''Feriae Marti'' (holiday for Mars), which was also the ''dies natalis'' ("birthday") of Mars; also the

Matronalia In ancient Roman religion, the Matronalia (or Matronales Feriae) was a festival celebrating Juno Lucina, the goddess of childbirth (" Juno who brings children into the light"), and of motherhood (''mater'' is "mother" in Latin) and women in gene ...

, in honor of Juno Lucina, Mars' mother * 7: a second festival for Vediovis * 9: a '' dies religiosus'' when the Salii carried the sacred shields ''( ancilia)'' around the city again *14: the second

, a ''Feriae Marti'' also called the

Mamuralia In Religion in ancient Rome, ancient Roman religion, the Mamuralia or ''Sacrum Mamurio'' ('Rite for Mamurius') was a Roman festivals, festival held on March 14 or 15, named only in sources from late antiquity. According to Joannes Lydus, an old m ...

or ''sacrum Mamurio'' * 15 (Ides): ''Feriae Iovi'', sacred to Jove, and also the feast of the year goddess Anna Perenna * 16–17: the procession of the

Argei The rituals of the Argei were archaic religious observances in ancient Rome that took place on March 16 and March 17, and again on May 14 or May 15. By the time of Augustus, the meaning of these rituals had become obscure even to those who p ...

* 17:

Liberalia In ancient Roman religion Religion in ancient Rome consisted of varying imperial and provincial religious practices, which were followed both by the Roman people, people of Rome as well as those who were brought under its rule. The Romans t ...

, in honour of

Liber In Religion in ancient Rome, ancient Roman religion and Roman mythology, mythology, Liber ( , ; "the free one"), also known as Liber Pater ("the free Father"), was a god of viticulture and wine, male fertility and freedom. He was a patron de ...

; also an

for Mars * 19: Quinquatrus, later expanded into a five-day holiday as Quinquatria, a ''Feriae Marti'', but also a feast day for

Minerva Minerva (; ; ) is the Roman goddess of wisdom, justice, law, victory, and the sponsor of arts, trade, and strategy. She is also a goddess of warfare, though with a focus on strategic warfare, rather than the violence of gods such as Mars. Be ...

, possibly because her temple on the Aventine Hill was dedicated on this day * 23: Tubilustrium, purification of the trumpets. * 24: a day marked QRCF, when the Comitia Calata met to sanction wills * 25:

Hilaria The Hilaria (; Latin "the cheerful ones", a term derived from the borrowed adjective "cheerful, merry") were ancient Roman religious festivals celebrated on the March equinox to honor Cybele. Origins The term seems originally to have been ...

, A two-weeks long festival commemorating Cybele's lamentation (fasting, castigation, taurobolium, festoonment, washing) of the death and rejoicing of at the resurrection of her mortal lover Attis. *31: anniversary of the Temple of Luna on the Aventine

Aprilis

A major ''feriae conceptivae'' in April was the Latin Festival. * 1 (Kalends): Veneralia in honour of

Venus Venus is the second planet from the Sun. It is often called Earth's "twin" or "sister" planet for having almost the same size and mass, and the closest orbit to Earth's. While both are rocky planets, Venus has an atmosphere much thicker ...

*4–10: Ludi Megalenses or Megalesia, in honor of the Magna Mater or Cybele, whose temple was dedicated April 10, 191 BC * 5: anniversary of the Temple of Fortuna Publica *12–19: Cerialia or Ludi Cereri, festival and games for Ceres, established by 202 BC * 13 (Ides): anniversary of the Temple of Jupiter Victor *15: Fordicidia, offering of a pregnant cow to Tellus ("Earth") *21: Parilia, rustic festival in honour of Pales, and the ''dies natalis'' of Rome *21: Dies Romana, a festival linked to the foundation of Rome.

Plutarch Plutarch (; , ''Ploútarchos'', ; – 120s) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo (Delphi), Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for his ''Parallel Lives'', ...

, ''

Parallel Lives * Culture of ancient Greece Culture of ancient Rome Ancient Greek biographical works Ethics literature History books about ancient Rome Cultural depictions of Gaius Marius Cultural depictions of Mark Antony Cultural depictions of Cicero ...

- Life of Romulus''
12.2
(from LacusCurtius) According to

legend A legend is a genre of folklore that consists of a narrative featuring human actions, believed or perceived to have taken place in human history. Narratives in this genre may demonstrate human values, and possess certain qualities that give the ...

Romulus Romulus (, ) was the legendary founder and first king of Rome. Various traditions attribute the establishment of many of Rome's oldest legal, political, religious, and social institutions to Romulus and his contemporaries. Although many of th ...

is said to have founded the city of

Rome Rome (Italian language, Italian and , ) is the capital city and most populated (municipality) of Italy. It is also the administrative centre of the Lazio Regions of Italy, region and of the Metropolitan City of Rome. A special named with 2, ...

on April 21, 753 BC. From this date, the Roman chronology derived its system, known by the

Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...

phrase ''

Ab Urbe condita ''Ab urbe condita'' (; 'from the founding of Rome, founding of the City'), or (; 'in the year since the city's founding'), abbreviated as AUC or AVC, expresses a date in years since 753 BC, 753 BC, the traditional founding of Rome. It is ...

'', meaning ''"from the founding of the City"'', which counted the years from this presumed foundation. *23: the first of two wine festivals ( Vinalia), the ''Vinalia Priora'' for the previous year's wine, held originally for Jupiter and later Venus *25: Robigalia, an agricultural festival involving dog sacrifice *27 (28 in the

Julian calendar The Julian calendar is a solar calendar of 365 days in every year with an additional leap day every fourth year (without exception). The Julian calendar is still used as a religious calendar in parts of the Eastern Orthodox Church and in parts ...

) to May 1: Ludi Florales in honour of

Flora Flora (: floras or florae) is all the plant life present in a particular region or time, generally the naturally occurring (indigenous (ecology), indigenous) native plant, native plants. The corresponding term for animals is ''fauna'', and for f ...

, extended to May 3 under the Empire

Maius

The ''feriae conceptivae'' of this month was the

Ambarvalia Ambarvalia was a Roman agricultural fertility rite, involving animal sacrifices and held on 29 May in honor of Ceres, Bacchus and Dea Dia. However, the exact timing could vary since Ambarvalia was a "fariae conceptivae" - a festival not bound ...

. *1 (Kalends): Games of Flora continue; sacrifice to Maia; anniversary of the Temple of Bona Dea on the Aventine; rites for the Lares Praestites, tutelaries of the city of Rome * 3: in the Imperial period, a last celebration for Flora, or the anniversary of one of her temples *9, 11, 13:

Lemuria Lemuria (), or Limuria, was a continent proposed in 1864 by zoologist Philip Sclater, theorized to have sunk beneath the Indian Ocean, later appropriated by occultists in supposed accounts of human origins. The theory was discredited with the dis ...

, a festival of the dead with both public and household rites, possibly with a sacrifice to

Mania Mania, also known as manic syndrome, is a Psychiatry, psychiatric Abnormality (behavior), behavioral syndrome defined as a state of Abnormality (behavior), abnormally elevated arousal, affect (psychology), affect, and energy level. During a mani ...

on the 11th * 14: anniversary of the Temple of Mars Invictus (Mars the Unconquered); a second procession of the

*15 (Ides): Mercuralia, in honor of Mercury; ''Feriae'' of Jove *21: one of four

, probably a third festival for Vediovis *23: a second Tubilustrium; ''Feriae'' for Volcanus (Vulcan) * 24: QRCF, following Tubilustrium as in March * 25: anniversary of the Temple of Fortuna Primigenia

Iunius

Scullard places the Taurian Games on June 25–26, but other scholars doubt these ''ludi'' had a fixed date or recurred on a regular basis. * 1 (Kalends): anniversaries of the Temple of Juno Moneta; of the Temple of Mars on the ''clivus'' (slope, street) outside the Porta Capena; and possibly of the Temple of the Tempestates (storm goddesses); also a festival of the complex goddess Cardea or Carna *3: anniversary of the Temple of Bellona * 4: anniversary of the restoration of the Temple of Hercules Custos * 5: anniversary of the Temple of Dius Fidius * 7: Ludi Piscatorii, "Fishermen's Games" *7–15: Vestalia, in honour of Vesta; June 9 was a ''dies religiosus'' to her * 8: anniversary of the Temple of Mens * 11: Matralia in honour of Mater Matuta; also the anniversary of the Temple of Fortuna in the

Forum Boarium The Forum Boarium (, ) was the cattle market or '' forum venalium'' of ancient Rome. It was located on a level piece of land near the Tiber between the Capitoline, the Palatine and Aventine hills. As the site of the original docks of Rome () ...

* 13 (Ides): ''Feriae'' of Jove * 13–15: ''Quinquatrus minusculae'', the lesser Quinquatrus celebrated by '' tibicines'', flute-players in their role as accompanists to religious ceremonies *19: a commemoration involving the Temple of Minerva on the Aventine, which had its anniversary March 19 *20: anniversary of the Temple of Summanus * 24: festival of Fors Fortuna, which "seems to have been a rowdy affair" * 27: poorly attested observance in honour of the

Lares Lares ( , ; archaic , singular ) were Tutelary deity#Ancient Rome, guardian deities in ancient Roman religion. Their origin is uncertain; they may have been hero-ancestors, guardians of the hearth, fields, boundaries, or fruitfulness, or an ama ...

; anniversary of the Temple of Jupiter Stator * 29: anniversary of the Temple of Hercules Musarum, Hercules of the Muses

Iulius ( Quinctilis)

Until renamed for

Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (12 or 13 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC) was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in Caesar's civil wa ...

, this month was called Quinctilis or Quintilis, originally the fifth month ''(quint-)'' when the year began in March. From this point in the calendar forward, the months had numerical designations. * 1 (Kalends): a scarcely attested anniversary of a temple to Juno Felicitas *5: Poplifugia *6–13: Ludi Apollinares, games in honour of

Apollo Apollo is one of the Twelve Olympians, Olympian deities in Ancient Greek religion, ancient Greek and Ancient Roman religion, Roman religion and Greek mythology, Greek and Roman mythology. Apollo has been recognized as a god of archery, mu ...

, first held in 212 BC as a one-day event (July 13) and established as annual in 208 BC. * 6: anniversary of the Temple of Fortuna Muliebris * 7 (Nones): Nonae Caprotinae; ''Ancillarum Feriae'' (Festival of the Serving Women); sacrifice to Consus by unspecified public priests ''(sacerdotes publici)''; also a minor festival to the two Pales * 8: Vitulatio * 14–19: a series of markets or fairs ''( mercatus)'' following the Ludi Apollinares; not religious holidays * 15 (Ides): '' Transvectio equitum,'' a procession of cavalry * 17: anniversary of the Temple of Honos and Virtus; sacrifice to

Victory The term victory (from ) originally applied to warfare, and denotes success achieved in personal duel, combat, after military operations in general or, by extension, in any competition. Success in a military campaign constitutes a strategic vi ...

*18: a ''dies ater'' ("black day," meaning a day of ill omen) marking the defeat of the Romans by the

Gauls The Gauls (; , ''Galátai'') were a group of Celts, Celtic peoples of mainland Europe in the Iron Age Europe, Iron Age and the Roman Gaul, Roman period (roughly 5th century BC to 5th century AD). Their homeland was known as Gaul (''Gallia''). Th ...

at the

Battle of the Allia The Battle of the Allia was fought between the Senones – a Gauls, Gallic tribe led by Brennus (leader of the Senones), Brennus, who had invaded Northern Italy – and the Roman Republic. The battle was fought at the confluence of the Tibe ...

in 390 BC, leading to the sack of Rome by the Gauls *19, 21: Lucaria * 20–30: Ludi Victoriae Caesaris, "Games of the Victorious Caesar", held annually from 45 BC * 22: anniversary of the Temple of Concordia at the foot of the Capitol *23: Neptunalia held in honour of

Neptune Neptune is the eighth and farthest known planet from the Sun. It is the List of Solar System objects by size, fourth-largest planet in the Solar System by diameter, the third-most-massive planet, and the densest giant planet. It is 17 t ...

*25: Furrinalia, ''feriae publicae'' in honour of Furrina *30: anniversary of the Temple of the Fortune of This Day ''(Fortunae Huiusque Diei)''

Augustus (Sextilis)

Until renamed for

Augustus Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian (), was the founder of the Roman Empire, who reigned as the first Roman emperor from 27 BC until his death in A ...

, this month was called Sextilis, originally the sixth month (sext-) when the year began in March. * 1 (Kalends): anniversary of the Temple of Spes (Hope) in the Forum Holitorium, with commemorations also for the "two Victories" on the Palatine * 3: '' Supplicia canum'' ("punishment of the dogs") an unusual dog sacrifice and procession at the temples of Iuventas ("Youth") and Summanus, connected to the Gallic siege * 5: public sacrifice ''(sacrificium publicum)'' at the Temple of Salus on the Quirinal * 9: public sacrifice to Sol Indiges * 12: sacrifice of a heifer to Hercules Invictus, with a libation from the '' skyphos'' of Hercules * 13 (Ides): festival of Diana on the Aventine ( Nemoralia), with slaves given the day off to attend; other deities honored at their temples include Vortumnus, Fortuna Equestris, Hercules Victor (or Invictus at the Porta Trigemina), Castor and Pollux, the Camenae, and Flora *17: Portunalia in honour of Portunus; anniversary of the Temple of Janus *19: Vinalia Rustica, originally in honour of Jupiter, but later

*21: Consualia, with a sacrifice on the Aventine *23: Vulcanalia or ''Feriae Volcano'' in honour of Vulcan, along with sacrifices to Maia, the

Nymph A nymph (; ; sometimes spelled nymphe) is a minor female nature deity in ancient Greek folklore. Distinct from other Greek goddesses, nymphs are generally regarded as personifications of nature; they are typically tied to a specific place, land ...

s ''in campo'' ("in the field", perhaps the Campus Martius), Ops Opifera, and a Hora *24: sacrifices to Luna on the Graecostasis; and the first of three days when the mysterious ritual pit called the '' mundus'' was opened *25:

Opiconsivia The Opiconsivia (or Opeconsiva or Opalia) was an ancient Roman religious festival held August 25 in honor of Ops ("Plenty"), also known as Opis, a goddess of agricultural resources and wealth. The festival marked the end of harvest, with a mirr ...

or ''Feriae Opi'' in honour of Ops Consivae at the Regia *27: Volturnalia, when the Flamen Volturnalis made a sacrifice to Volturnus *28: Games at the

Circus Maximus The Circus Maximus (Latin for "largest circus"; Italian language, Italian: ''Circo Massimo'') is an ancient Roman chariot racing, chariot-racing stadium and mass entertainment venue in Rome, Italy. In the valley between the Aventine Hill, Avent ...

''( circenses)'' for Sol and Luna

September September is the ninth month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. Its length is 30 days. September in the Northern Hemisphere and March in the Southern Hemisphere are seasonally equivalent. In the Northern hemisphere, the b ...

*1 (Kalends): ceremonies for Jupiter Tonans ("the Thunderer") on the Capitolium, and Juno Regina on the Aventine * 5: anniversary of one of the temples to Jupiter Stator * 5–19,

Ludi Romani The ''Ludi Romani'' ("Roman Games"; see '' ludi'') was a religious festival in ancient Rome held annually, starting in 366 BC, from September 12 to September 14. In the 1st century BC, an extra day was added in honor of the deified Julius Caesa ...

or Ludi Magni, "the oldest and most famous" of the ''ludi'' * 13 (Ides): anniversary of the Temple to Jupiter Optimus Maximus; an Epulum Iovis; an ''epulum'' to the

Capitoline Triad The Capitoline Triad was a group of three deities who were worshipped in ancient Roman religion in an elaborate temple on Rome's Capitoline Hill (Latin ''Capitolium''). It comprised Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. The triad held a central place in th ...

* 14: ''Equorum probatio'' ("Approval of the Horses"), a cavalry parade of the Imperial period * 20–23: days set aside for markets and fairs ''( mercatus)'' immediately following the Ludi Romani * 23: anniversary of the rededication of the Temple of Apollo in the Campus Martius; Latona was also honored *26: anniversary of the Temple of Venus Genetrix vowed by Julius Caesar

October October is the tenth month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. Its length is 31 days. The eighth month in the old calendar of Romulus , October retained its name (from Latin and Greek ''ôctō'' meaning "eight") after Januar ...

* 1 (Kalends): ceremonies for Fides and the Tigillum Sororium * 3–12: Ludi Augustales, established 14 AD after the death of

, based on the Augustalia *4: '' Ieiunium Cereris'', a day of

fasting Fasting is the act of refraining from eating, and sometimes drinking. However, from a purely physiological context, "fasting" may refer to the metabolic status of a person who has not eaten overnight (before "breakfast"), or to the metabolic sta ...

in honour of Ceres, instituted in 191 BC as a quinquennial observance, made annual by

* 5: second of the three days when the '' mundus'' was opened * 6: ''dies ater'' ("black day") to mark the anniversary of the battle of Arausio (105 BC) * 7 (Nones): rites for Jupiter Fulgur (Jupiter of daytime lightning) and Juno Curitis * 9: rites at shrines for the Genius Publicus, Fausta Felicitas, and Venus Victrix on the Capitolium * 10: ceremonies to mark a rededication of the Temple of Juno Moneta * 11: Meditrinalia * 12: Augustalia, celebrated from 14 AD in honour of the divinized

, established in 19 BC with a new altar and sacrifice to Fortuna Redux * 13: Fontinalia in honour of Fons * 14: ceremonies to mark a restoration of the Temple of the Penates Dei on the Velian Hill *15 (Ides):

October Horse In Religion in ancient Rome, ancient Roman religion, the October Horse (Latin ''Equus October'') was an animal sacrifice to Mars (mythology), Mars carried out on October 15, coinciding with the end of the Roman agriculture, agricultural and mili ...

sacrifice to

in the Campus Martius; also ''Feriae'' of Jupiter *19:

Armilustrium In ancient Roman religion, the Armilustrium was a festival in honor of Mars, the god of war, celebrated on October 19. H.H. Scullard, ''Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic'' (Cornell University Press, 1981), p. 195. On this day the weap ...

, a ''dies religiosus'' in honour of Mars * 26 to November 1: Ludi Victoriae Sullanae, "Victory Games of Sulla", established as an annual event in 81 BC

November November is the eleventh and penultimate month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. Its length is 30 days. November was the ninth month of the calendar of Romulus . November retained its name (from the Latin ''novem'' meaning " ...

*1 (Kalends): '' Ludi circenses'' to close the Sullan Victory Games *4–17: ''Ludi Plebeii'' (Plebeian Games) * 8: third of the three days when the ''mundus'' ritual pit was opened *13 (Ides):

Epulum Jovis In ancient Roman religion, the Epulum Jovis (also Epulum Iovis) was a sumptuous ritual feast offered to Jove on the Ides of September (September 13) and a smaller feast on the Ides of November (November 13). It was celebrated during the '' Ludi ...

; also ceremonies for Feronia and Fortuna Primigeniae * 14: a second ''Equorum probatio'' (cavalry parade), as on July 15 * 18–20: markets and fairs ''( mercatus)'' * 24-30: Brumalia (continues into December)

December December is the twelfth and final month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. Its length is 31 days. December's name derives from the Latin word ''decem'' (meaning ten) because it was originally the tenth month of the year in t ...

* 1-17: Brumalia (continued from November) * 3:

Bona Dea Bona Dea (; 'Good Goddess') was a List of Roman deities, goddess in Religion in ancient Rome, ancient Roman religion. She was associated with chastity and fertility among married Women in ancient Rome, Roman women, healing, and the protection of t ...

rites for women only *5 (Nones): a country festival for

held by the '' pagi'' * 8: festival for Tiberinus Pater and Gaia *11:

for Indiges; also the (probably unrelated)

Septimontium The Septimontium was a proto-Urban area, urban Roman festival, festival celebrated in ancient Rome by ''montani'', residents of the seven ''(sept-)'' communities associated with the hills or peaks of Rome ''(montes)'': Oppius, Palatine Hill, Palati ...

* 12: ceremonies at the Temple of Consus on the Aventine * 13 (Ides): ''dies natalis'' of the Temple of Tellus, and associated lectisternium for Ceres *15: Consualia or ''Feriae'' for Consus, the second of the year *17–23:

Saturnalia Saturnalia is an Roman festivals, ancient Roman festival and holiday in honour of the List of Roman deities, god Saturn (mythology), Saturn, held on 17 December in the Julian calendar and later expanded with festivities until 19 December. By t ...

in honour of

Saturn Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second largest in the Solar System, after Jupiter. It is a gas giant, with an average radius of about 9 times that of Earth. It has an eighth the average density of Earth, but is over 95 tim ...

, with the public ritual on the 17th *18 Eponalia in honor of Epona *19: Opalia in honor of Ops *21: Divalia in honor of Angerona; Hercules and Ceres also received a sacrifice * 22: anniversary of the Temple of the Lares Permarini in the Porticus Minucia *23:

Larentalia The Roman festival of Larentalia was held on 23 December but was ordered to be observed twice a year by Augustus; by some supposed to be in honour of the Lares, a kind of domestic ''genii'', or divinities, worshipped in houses, and esteemed the gua ...

; commemorations for the temples of Diana and Juno Regina in the Circus Flaminius, and for the Tempestates;

Sigillaria ''Sigillaria'' is a genus of extinct, spore-bearing, Lepidodendrales, arborescent lycophyte, known from the Carboniferous and Permian periods. It is related to the more famous ''Lepidodendron'', and more distantly to modern Isoetes, quillworts. ...

, the last day of the Saturnalia, devoted to gift-giving *25: Dies Natalis Solis Invicti ("Birthday of the Unconquered Sun")

''Feriae conceptivae''

The following "moveable feasts" are listed roughly in chronological order. * Compitalia, held sometime between December 17 (the Saturnalia) and January 5; in the later Empire, they were regularly held January 3–5, but Macrobius (5th century AD) still categorized them as ''conceptivae''. *

, a festival of sowing honoring Tellus and Ceres, placed on January 24–26 by Ovid, who regards these ''feriae'' as the same as Paganalia; Varro may indicate that the two were separate festivals. * Fornacalia, a mid-February baking festival celebrated by the ''curiae'', the 30 archaic divisions of the Roman people; the date was announced by the '' curio maximus'' and set for each ''curia'' individually, with a general Fornacalia on February 17 for those who had missed their own or who were uncertain to which ''curia'' they belonged. *

Amburbium The Amburbium ("City Circuit", from ''ambire'', "to go around" + ''urb-'', "city"; plural ''amburbia'') was an ancient Roman festival for purifying the city; that is, a lustration ''(lustratio urbis)''. It took the form of a procession, perhaps ...

, a ceremony to purify the city ''(urbs)'' as a whole, perhaps held sometime in February. * Feriae Latinae (Latin Festival), a major and very old ''conceptivae'' in April. *

, purification of the fields in May. The Rosalia or "Festival of Roses" also had no fixed date, but was technically not one of the ''feriae conceptivae'' with a date announced by public priests based on archaic practice.

''Feriae imperativae''

Festivals were also held in ancient Rome in response to particular events, or for a particular purpose such as to propitiate or show gratitude toward the gods. For example,

Livy Titus Livius (; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( ), was a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled , covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional founding i ...

reports that following the Roman destruction of

Alba Longa Alba Longa (occasionally written Albalonga in Italian sources) was an ancient Latins (Italic tribe), Latin city in Central Italy in the vicinity of Lake Albano in the Alban Hills. The ancient Romans believed it to be the founder and head of the ...

in the 7th century BC, and the removal of the Alban populace to Rome, it was reported to have rained stones on the Mons Albanus. A Roman deputation was sent to investigate the report, and a further shower of stones was witnessed. The Romans took this to be a sign of the displeasure of the Alban gods, the worship of whom had been abandoned with the evacuation of Alba Longa. Livy goes on to say that the Romans instituted a public festival of nine days, at the instigation either of a 'heavenly voice' heard on the Mons Albanus, or of the haruspices. Livy also says that it became the longstanding practice in Rome that whenever a shower of stones was reported, a festival of nine days would be ordered in response. Another irregular festival of note is the Secular Games. Over the course of several days there were sacrifices, entertainers, and games hosted by the state, attempting to be the greatest display anyone living had ever seen. These games were intended to be held every 100 years with the purpose of it occurring only once in any individuals lifetime. At one point two cycles of the Secular Games were being held simultaneously, leading there to be people who would in fact witness it twice in their life.

''Mercatus''

The noun (plural ) means "commerce" or "the market" generally, but it also refers to fairs or markets held immediately after certain .

said that

Numa Pompilius Numa Pompilius (; 753–672 BC; reigned 715–672 BC) was the Roman mythology, legendary second king of Rome, succeeding Romulus after a one-year interregnum. He was of Sabine origin, and many of Rome's most important religious and political ins ...

, the semi-legendary second

king of Rome The king of Rome () was the ruler of the Roman Kingdom, a legendary period of Roman history that functioned as an elective monarchy. According to legend, the first king of Rome was Romulus, who founded the city in 753 BC upon the Palatine H ...

, established in conjunction with religious festivals to facilitate trade, since people had already gathered in great numbers. In early times, these may have played a role in wholesale trade, but as commerce in Rome became more sophisticated, by the late Republic they seem to have become retail fairs specialized for the holiday market. The

attached to the

may have been a in this sense. Surviving record , July 14–19; , September 20–23; and , November 18–20. Others may have existed. The English word "fair" derives from Latin .

"Roman holidays" as trope

By the outset of the nineteenth century and particularly in response to the carnage of the latter years of the French revolution, the term "Roman holiday" had taken on sinister aspects, implying an event that occasions enjoyment or profit at the expense, or derived from the suffering, of others, as in this passage about a dying gladiator from Lord Byron's ''

Childe Harold's Pilgrimage ''Childe Harold's Pilgrimage: A Romaunt'' is a long narrative poem in four parts written by Lord Byron. The poem was published between 1812 and 1818. Dedicated to " Ianthe", it describes the travels and reflections of a young man disillusioned ...

'':

''There'' were his young barbarians all at play,
''There'' was their Dacian mother—he their sire,
Butchered to make a Roman holiday.""Cruelty". The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase, Saying, and Quotation, 2nd edition. Susan Ratcliffe, ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002,109-110.

More benignly, the phrase was used as the title of a romantic movie set in Rome, '' Roman Holiday.''