Admiral Admiral is one of the highest ranks in some navies. In the Commonwealth nations and the United States, a "full" admiral is equivalent to a "full" general in the army or the air force, and is above vice admiral and below admiral of the fleet, ...

comte Pierre André de Suffren de Saint Tropez, bailli de Suffren (17 July 1729 –

Paris Paris () is the capital and most populous city of France, with an estimated population of 2,165,423 residents in 2019 in an area of more than 105 km² (41 sq mi), making it the 30th most densely populated city in the world in 2020. S ...

, 8 December 1788), Château de Saint-Cannat) was a French Navy officer and

admiral Admiral is one of the highest ranks in some navies. In the Commonwealth nations and the United States, a "full" admiral is equivalent to a "full" general in the army or the air force, and is above vice admiral and below admiral of the fleet, ...

. Beginning his career during the

War of the Austrian Succession The War of the Austrian Succession () was a European conflict that took place between 1740 and 1748. Fought primarily in Central Europe, the Austrian Netherlands, Italy, the Atlantic and Mediterranean, related conflicts included King George's W ...

, he fought in the

Seven Years' War The Seven Years' War (1756–1763) was a global conflict that involved most of the European Great Powers, and was fought primarily in Europe, the Americas, and Asia-Pacific. Other concurrent conflicts include the French and Indian War (1754– ...

, where he was taken prisoner at the

Battle of Lagos The naval Battle of Lagos took place between a British fleet commanded by Sir Edward Boscawen and a French fleet under Jean-François de La Clue-Sabran over two days in 1759 during the Seven Years' War. They fought south west of the Gulf of C� ...

. Promoted to captain in 1772, he was one of the aids of Admiral d'Estaing during the

Naval battles of the American Revolutionary War The American Revolutionary War saw a series of battles involving naval forces of the British Royal Navy and the Continental Navy from 1775, and of the French Navy from 1778 onwards. Although the British enjoyed more numerical victories, these ...

, notably taking part in the

Siege of Savannah The siege of Savannah or the Second Battle of Savannah was an encounter of the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) in 1779. The year before, the city of Savannah, Georgia, had been captured by a British expeditionary corps under Lieutenan ...

. Suffren was then appointed to serve in the

Indian Ocean The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, covering or ~19.8% of the water on Earth's surface. It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia to the east. To the south it is bounded by ...

under Thomas d'Estienne d'Orves, but assumed command himself at his death. Leading a 15-ship squadron, he fought five intense and evenly matched battles for control of the sea against Vice-Admiral Sir Edward Hughes. Through these battles, Suffren managed to secure French dominance of the seas in Indian waters until the conclusion of the war at the Treaty of Paris. At his return, he was promoted to vice-admiral. He died shortly before he was to take command of the Brest squadron of the French fleet.

Biography

Early life

Pierre André de Suffren was born on 17 July 1729 in the Château de Saint-Cannat to the family of Marquis Paul de Suffren, the third son of an old nobility from

Provence Provence (, , , , ; oc, Provença or ''Prouvènço'' , ) is a geographical region and historical province of southeastern France, which extends from the left bank of the lower Rhône to the west to the Italian border to the east; it is bor ...

with two daughters and three other sons. In October 1743, as the

was raging, Suffren, aged 14, went to

Toulon Toulon (, , ; oc, label= Provençal, Tolon , , ) is a city on the French Riviera and a large port on the Mediterranean coast, with a major naval base. Located in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region, and the Provence province, Toulon is th ...

to undertaken naval studies as a

Garde-Marine In France, under the Ancien Régime, the Gardes de la Marine (Guards of the Navy), or Gardes-Marine were young gentlemen undergoing training to be naval officers. The training program was established by Cardinal Richelieu in 1670 and lasted until Ad ...

. However, he spent only 6 months ashore before he was appointed on a ship.

War of the Austrian Succession

Suffren served on the 64-gun ''Solide'' and took part in the Battle of Toulon in 1744. During the battle, ''Solide'' engaged HMS ''Northumberland''. In the spring of 1745, Suffren transferred to ''Pauline'', part of a 5-ship and 2-frigate squadron under Captain Jean-Baptiste Mac Nemara, sent to America to harass British forces. At his return, Suffren served on the 60-gun ''Trident'', under Captain d'Estourmel, and took part in the Duc d'Anville expedition. Suffren graduated from the Gardes-Marine in 1747 as an ensign, and worked on commissioning the brand new

74-gun The "seventy-four" was a type of two- decked sailing ship of the line, which nominally carried 74 guns. It was developed by the French navy in the 1740s, replacing earlier classes of 60- and 62-gun ships, as a larger complement to the recently-de ...

''Monarque'', under Captain La Bédoyère, in a squadron under Des Herbiers de l'Estenduère. He took part in the Second Battle of Cape Finisterre on 25 October 1747, where La Bédoyère was killed and ''Monarque'', badly damaged, was captured. Suffren was taken prisoner. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle restoring peace, Suffren joined the

Order of Malta The Sovereign Military Order of Malta (SMOM), officially the Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, of Rhodes and of Malta ( it, Sovrano Militare Ordine Ospedaliero di San Giovanni di Gerusalemme, di Rodi e di Malta; ...

. He served in several commercial expeditions on galleys of the order, escorting merchantmen and defending them against the depredation of the

Barbary corsairs The Barbary pirates, or Barbary corsairs or Ottoman corsairs, were Muslim pirates and privateers who operated from North Africa, based primarily in the ports of Salé, Rabat, Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli. This area was known in Europe as the ...

. In late 1754, Suffren departed Malta to return to Toulon.

Seven Years' War

In 1756, Suffren had returned to Toulon and had risen to

Lieutenant A lieutenant ( , ; abbreviated Lt., Lt, LT, Lieut and similar) is a commissioned officer rank in the armed forces of many nations. The meaning of lieutenant differs in different militaries (see comparative military ranks), but it is often sub ...

. At the outbreak of the

, Suffren was appointed to the 64-gun ''Orphée'', part of a 12-ship squadron under La Galissonière tasked with ferrying 12,000 men under Maréchal de Richelieu to strike

Menorca Menorca or Minorca (from la, Insula Minor, , smaller island, later ''Minorica'') is one of the Balearic Islands located in the Mediterranean Sea belonging to Spain. Its name derives from its size, contrasting it with nearby Majorca. Its capi ...

. The squadron departed on 10 April, arriving on 17 and landing troops; the British garrison retreated to St. Philip's Castle and was forced to surrender after the Siege of Fort St Philip. Patrolling between

and

Mallorca Mallorca, or Majorca, is the largest island in the Balearic Islands, which are part of Spain and located in the Mediterranean. The capital of the island, Palma, is also the capital of the autonomous community of the Balearic Islands. The Bale ...

to prevent British relief to support Fort St. Philip, La Galissonière intercepted a 13-ship squadron under Admiral Byng, leading to the

Battle of Minorca The island of Menorca in the Mediterranean Sea has been invaded on numerous occasions. The first recorded invasion occurred in 252 BC, when the Carthaginians arrived. The name of the island's chief city, Mahón (now Maó), appears to derive from t ...

. The British failed to break the French blockade, and Fort St. Philip fell on 29 July. In 1757, Suffren transferred to the 80-gun ''Océan'', flagship of a 6-ship and 2-frigate squadron under

Jean-François de La Clue-Sabran Jean-François de Sabran, comte de La Clue (known as "La Clue-Sabran"; 30 September 1696 – 4 October 1764) was a French naval officer best known for his command of the French fleet in the Mediterranean Sea during the Seven Years' War. Seven Ye ...

. The squadron departed Toulon in November, bound for Brest. On 7 December, it called Cartagena to resupply, and found itself blockaded by a British from under Henry Osborne. A relief squadron under Duquesne de Menneville attempted to break the blockade, but was destroyed in the Battle of Cartagena, as La Clue failed to

sortie A sortie (from the French word meaning ''exit'' or from Latin root ''surgere'' meaning to "rise up") is a deployment or dispatch of one military unit, be it an aircraft, ship, or troops, from a strongpoint. The term originated in siege warfare ...

. Suffren witnessed the capture of ''Foudroyant'' and ''Orphée'' on 28 February 1758. La Clue's squadron eventually returned to Toulon. Toulon was blockaded by

Edward Boscawen Admiral of the Blue Edward Boscawen, PC (19 August 171110 January 1761) was a British admiral in the Royal Navy and Member of Parliament for the borough of Truro, Cornwall, England. He is known principally for his various naval commands durin ...

's forces but, on 16 August 1758, La Clue seized an opportunity to make a sortie with 12 ships and 3 frigates. The frigate HMS ''Gibraltar'' detected La Clue's squadron and reported to Boscawen, who moved to intercept. Meanwhile, the French squadron failed to maintain formation and scattered. In the ensuing

, ''Océan'' ran aground in Almadora Bay and was burnt by the British, in violation of neutrality laws, while her crew was taken prisoner, including Suffren. He returned to France after several months and was left without employ at sea for several years.

Interwar period

On the return of peace in 1763 Suffren intended again to do the service in the caravans which was required to qualify him to hold the high and lucrative posts of the order. He was, however, named to the command of the 20-gun

xebec A xebec ( or ), also spelled zebec, was a Mediterranean sailing ship that was used mostly for trading. Xebecs had a long overhanging bowsprit and aft-set mizzen mast. The term can also refer to a small, fast vessel of the sixteenth to nineteent ...

''Caméléon'', which he cruised against the

Barbary pirates The Barbary pirates, or Barbary corsairs or Ottoman corsairs, were Muslim pirates and privateers who operated from North Africa, based primarily in the ports of Salé, Rabat, Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli. This area was known in Europe as ...

. Shortly thereafter, he transferred on ''Singe'', also a 20-gun xebec, part of a squadron under Louis Charles du Chaffault de Besné. He took part in the

Larache expedition The Expedition of Larache occurred in June 1765 when French Navy troops attempted to invade the Moroccan city of Larache following a bombardment of Salé and Rabat. It is an example of the sporadic failure of Western arms against local forces in co ...

. In 1767, Suffren was promoted to

frigate captain Frigate captain is a naval rank in the naval forces of several countries. Corvette captain lies one level below frigate captain. It is usually equivalent to the Commonwealth/US Navy rank of commander. Countries using this rank include Argentin ...

and called to Brest to serve on the 64-gun ''Union'', flagship of a squadron headed by Breugnon. Upon his return, he was promoted to

Frigate captain Frigate captain is a naval rank in the naval forces of several countries. Corvette captain lies one level below frigate captain. It is usually equivalent to the Commonwealth/US Navy rank of commander. Countries using this rank include Argentin ...

on 18 August 1767. After the end of the expedition, Suffren returned to Malta to resume escort duty with the order. He spent four years, rising from Knight to Commander. In February 1772, he was promoted to

Captain Captain is a title, an appellative for the commanding officer of a military unit; the supreme leader of a navy ship, merchant ship, aeroplane, spacecraft, or other vessel; or the commander of a port, fire or police department, election precinct, e ...

in the French Navy, and returned to Toulon to take command of the 26-gun frigate ''Mignonne''. He conducted two patrols in the Eastern Mediterranean. In 1776, Duchaffault appointed Suffren to the command of the 26-gun frigate ''Alcmène''. She departed for a training cruise to drill new navy officers. From that time till the beginning of the

War of American Independence The American Revolutionary War (April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783), also known as the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence, was a major war of the American Revolution. Widely considered as the war that secured the independence of t ...

he commanded vessels in the squadron of evolution which the French government had established for the purpose of training its officers.

War of American independence

Tensions mounted between France and England in early 1778 in the context of the

American Revolutionary War The American Revolutionary War (April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783), also known as the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence, was a major war of the American Revolution. Widely considered as the war that secured the independence of t ...

, with the action of 17 June 1778 constituting a step up announcing France's participation in the American Revolutionary War. Suffren was appointed to the fleet of Admiral d'Estaing, leading a division comprising the 64-gun ''Fantasque'', which he personally captained, and the frigates ''Aimable'', ''Chimère'' and ''Engageante''. The mission of his force was to support Franco-American efforts in the

Battle of Rhode Island The Battle of Rhode Island (also known as the Battle of Quaker Hill) took place on August 29, 1778. Continental Army and Militia forces under the command of Major General John Sullivan had been besieging the British forces in Newport, Rhode I ...

by striking a 5-frigate British squadron anchored in

Narragansett Bay Narragansett Bay is a bay and estuary on the north side of Rhode Island Sound covering , of which is in Rhode Island. The bay forms New England's largest estuary, which functions as an expansive natural harbor and includes a small archipelago. S ...

, off Newport, comprising HMS ''Juno'', ''Flora'', ''Lark'', ''Orpheus'' and ''Cerebus''. On 5 August 1778, Suffren entered the Bay and anchored next to the British, who cut their cables and scuttled their ships by fire to avoid capture. The Royal Navy ended up having to destroy ten of their own vessels in all, including five frigates.The remains of the ''Cerberus'' are now part of a site listed on the

National Register of Historic Places The National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) is the United States federal government's official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures and objects deemed worthy of preservation for their historical significance or "great artistic ...

, the " Wreck Sites of HMS ''Cerberus'' and HMS ''Lark''." The French fleet sailed to Martinique, where Suffren's division joined up with it, and from there to Grenada, leading to the

Battle of Grenada The Battle of Grenada took place on 6 July 1779 during the American Revolutionary War in the West Indies between the British Royal Navy and the French Navy, just off the coast of Grenada. The British fleet of Admiral John Byron (the grandfather ...

on 6 July 1779. ''Fantasque'' was at the front of the vanguard, preceding the 74-gun ''Zélé''. When the two fleets came in contact, she came under fire from the 74-gun ''Royal Oak'' and the 70-gun ''Boyne'', sustaining 62 men killed or wounded. After the battle, Admiral d'Estaing sent Suffren with a 2-ship and 3-frigate division to secure the surrender of

Carriacou Carriacou is an island of the Grenadine Islands. It is a dependency of Grenada, and is located in the south-eastern Caribbean Sea, northeast of the island Grenada and the north coast of South America. The name is derived from the Carib la ...

and Union Island. On 7 September 1779, d'Estaing ordered Suffren to blockade the mouth of

Savannah River The Savannah River is a major river in the southeastern United States, forming most of the border between the states of South Carolina and Georgia. Two tributaries of the Savannah, the Tugaloo River and the Chattooga River, form the nort ...

, to cover the landing of French troops in support of the

, and prevent British ships from escaping. Suffren led the 64-gun ''Artésien'' and ''Provence'', and the frigates ''Fortunée'', ''Blanche'' and ''Chimère'', sailing into the river and forcing the British to scuttle several ships, notably HMS ''Rose''. On 1 March 1780,

Louis XVI Louis XVI (''Louis-Auguste''; ; 23 August 175421 January 1793) was the last King of France before the fall of the monarchy during the French Revolution. He was referred to as ''Citizen Louis Capet'' during the four months just before he was e ...

granted Suffren a 1,500

French livre The livre (abbreviation: £ or ₶., French for (pound)) was the currency of Kingdom of France and its predecessor state of West Francia from 781 to 1794. Several different livres existed, some concurrently. The livre was the name of coins ...

pension in recognition of his services. In April, Suffren was given command of the

, part of a two-ship squadron along with ''Marseillais'', under Captain d'Albert de Rions. They set sail on 19 May 1780 to patrol off

Portugal Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic ( pt, República Portuguesa, links=yes ), is a country whose mainland is located on the Iberian Peninsula of Southwestern Europe, and whose territory also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of the ...

, and joined up with a division under Rear-Admiral de Beausset in Cadiz on 17 June. He then joined up with a combined Franco-Spanish fleet under Admiral

Luis de Córdova y Córdova Admiral Luis de Córdova y Córdova (8 February 1706 – 29 July 1796) was a Spanish admiral. He is best known for his command of the Spanish fleet during the Anglo-Spanish War. His best remembered actions were the capture of two merchant ...

. On 9 August, the fleet intercepted a large British convoy, leading to the action of 9 August 1780. The British escort, comprising the 74-gun , under Captain Sir John Moutray, and the frigates ''Thetis'' and ''Southampton'', fled before the vastly superior combined fleet. Suffren attempted to give chase, but the

copper sheathing Copper sheathing is the practice of protecting the under-water hull of a ship or boat from the corrosive effects of salt water and biofouling through the use of copper plates affixed to the outside of the hull. It was pioneered and developed by ...

of the British warships gave them a decisive advantage, and he abandoned the pursuit to help with the capture of the merchantmen. After the battle, Suffren wrote a letter to Antoine de Sartine, Secretary of State of the Navy, to advocate for the French Navy to copper its own ships.The full text of Suffren's memorandum on copper sheathing is quoted in Cunat, p.353-354

Campaign in the Indian Ocean

With the outbreak of the

Fourth Anglo-Dutch War The Fourth Anglo-Dutch War ( nl, Vierde Engels-Nederlandse Oorlog; 1780–1784) was a conflict between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Dutch Republic. The war, contemporary with the War of American Independence (1775-1783), broke out ove ...

, France and the

Dutch Republic The United Provinces of the Netherlands, also known as the (Seven) United Provinces, officially as the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands ( Dutch: ''Republiek der Zeven Verenigde Nederlanden''), and commonly referred to in historiography ...

found themselves allied against the

Kingdom of Great Britain The Kingdom of Great Britain (officially Great Britain) was a sovereign country in Western Europe from 1 May 1707 to the end of 31 December 1800. The state was created by the 1706 Treaty of Union and ratified by the Acts of Union 1707, wh ...

. The Dutch expected the British to send an expeditionary force to try and capture their

Dutch Cape Colony The Cape Colony ( nl, Kaapkolonie) was a Dutch United East India Company (VOC) colony in Southern Africa, centered on the Cape of Good Hope, from where it derived its name. The original colony and its successive states that the colony was inco ...

, and Suffren was given command of a 5-ship squadron to reinforce it. The task force comprised the 74-gun ''Héros'' (under Suffren) and ''Annibal'' (under Trémignon), and the 64-gun ''Artésien'' (under Cardaillac), ''Sphinx'' (under Du Chilleau) and ''Vengeur'' (under Forbin), as well as the 16-gun corvette ''Fortune'' (under Lieutenant Lusignan), and seven transports carrying the Régiment de Pondichéry, under Brigadier General Thomas Conway. All these ships had a

, except for ''Fortune'' and ''Annibal''.

Battle of Porto Praya

The squadron departed Brest on 22 March 1781. En route, ''Artésien'', which had originally been appointed to a shorter mission, found herself short on water, and Captain de Cardaillac requested permission to resupply at

Santiago Santiago (, ; ), also known as Santiago de Chile, is the capital and largest city of Chile as well as one of the largest cities in the Americas. It is the center of Chile's most densely populated region, the Santiago Metropolitan Region, wh ...

. Suffren gave permission but, unwilling to scatter his forces, ordered his entire squadron to move into

Praia Harbour Praia Harbor ( pt, Porto da Praia) is the port of the city of Praia in the southern part of the island of Santiago, Cape Verde. It is situated in a natural bay of the Atlantic Ocean. Since the latest modernization in 2014, it has 2 long quays, 3 sh ...

. Arriving there at 0830 the morning of 16 April, ''Artésien'' spotted five British warship at anchor; she turned, signalling "enemy ships in sight". Understanding that random chance had put him in contact with George Johnstone's squadron, and disregarding neutrality laws, Suffren ordered an immediate attack. At 1000, Suffren's squadron attacked, precipitating the

Battle of Porto Praya The Battle of Porto Praya was a naval battle that took place during the American Revolutionary War on 16 April 1781 between a British squadron under Commodore George Johnstone and a French squadron under the Bailli de Suffren. Both squadrons w ...

. Having scattered and disorganised Johnstone's forces, Suffren rushed to The Cape, and arrived at

Simon's Bay Simon's Town ( af, Simonstad), sometimes spelled Simonstown, is a town in the Western Cape, South Africa and is home to Naval Base Simon's Town, the South African Navy's largest base. It is located on the shores of False Bay, on the eastern sid ...

on 21 June. The Régiment de Pondichéry landed and started fortifying the Cape colony against attacks from land and from the sea, while the fleet repaired its ships and had its sick given medical attention in hospitals ashore. Johnstone arrived in the morning of 21 July, left two frigates to watch the bay, and sailed on to

Saldanha Bay Saldanha Bay ( af, Saldanhabaai) is a natural harbour on the south-western coast of South Africa. The town that developed on the northern shore of the bay, also called Saldanha, was incorporated with five other towns into the Saldanha Bay Local ...

. On 24 July, Suffren set sail with four ships, chased away the British frigates, and patrolled the area around the Cape to ascertain the intentions of the British. Satisfied that Johnstone had renounced attacking the Cape colony, he resupplied and sailed to Isle de France (now

Mauritius Mauritius ( ; french: Maurice, link=no ; mfe, label=Mauritian Creole, Moris ), officially the Republic of Mauritius, is an island nation in the Indian Ocean about off the southeast coast of the African continent, east of Madagascar. It inc ...

) with the rest of the squadron, arriving on 28 July.

Preliminary operations at Isle de France

Until the outbreak of the Anglo-French War, the French colony of Pondichéry maintained a small squadron under François-Jean-Baptiste l'Ollivier de Tronjoli, comprising the 64-gun ''Brillant'' (under Tronjoli), the 40-gun frigate ''Pourvoyeuse'' (under Captain Saint-Orens, and three armed merchantmen: the 26-gun corvette ''Sartine'' (under du Chayla), the 24-gun ''Brisson'' (under Captain du Chézeau), and the 24-gun ''Lawriston''. During the Siege of Pondicherry in 1778, Tronjoli had lost some of his ships and escaped to Isle de France with the survivors, arriving there in late September. Pondichéry fell to the British on 17 October. With these reinforcements, the island was guarded by the 64-gun ''Brillant'', the 54-gun ''Flamand'', the frigates ''Pourvoyeuse'' and ''Consolante'', and the smaller ''Subtile'' (a 24-gun corvette), ''Elisabeth'' (a

fluyt A fluyt (archaic Dutch: ''fluijt'' "flute"; ) is a Dutch type of sailing vessel originally designed by the shipwrights of Hoorn as a dedicated cargo vessel. Originating in the Dutch Republic in the 16th century, the vessel was designed to facil ...

) and ''Sylphide'' (a 12-gun corvette). Furthermore, on 28 December 1778, the 74-gun ''Orient'' departed Brest under Thomas d'Estienne d'Orves to reinforce the colony, and on 27 March 1779, so did the 64-gun ''Sévère'', under la Pallière, escorting the transports ''Hercule'' and ''Trois-Amis'', arriving on 9 August 1779. With four ships of the line now at his disposal, Tronjoli departed on 6 December 1779 to cruise off the Cape, but to no avail, and he returned to Isle de France on 13 January 1780. On 3 February 1780, the 64-gun ''Bizarre'' departed Lorient to further reinforce Isle de France. After it was confirmed that the British had despatched a squadron under Admiral Hughes in the Indian Ocean, France sent a convoy comprising the 64-gun ''Protée'' and ''Ajax'', and the frigate ''Charmante'' (under Baron de la Haye), escorting 16 transports ferrying the Régiment d'Austrasie under Brigadier Duchemin de Chenneville. En route, the convoy encountered a British squadron under Admiral George Rodney, yielding the action of 24 February 1780 in which ''Protée'' sacrificed herself and tree smaller transports to lure the British away from the others. ''Charmante'' returned to Lorient to bring the news of the engagement, while the other survivors sailed on to Isle de France. By 1780, Tronjoly was recalled to France, leaving d'Orves in command with a total of six ships of the line at his disposal. Suffren arrived at Isle de France on 25 October 1781. The island had been selected as the base for French operations in the Indian Ocean, falling under the overall command of

Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau Charles Joseph Patissier, Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau (8 February 1718 or 8 February 1720 – 7 January 1785) or Charles Joseph Patissier de Bussy was the Governor General of the French colony of Pondicherry from 1783 to 1785. He served with di ...

. On 7 December 1781, d'Orves led a 27-ship fleet to Ceylon, with his flag on ''Orient''. He had 11 ships of the line, 3 frigates and 3 corvettes at his disposal. En route, d'Orves changed his objectif from

Trincomalee Trincomalee (; ta, திருகோணமலை, translit=Tirukōṇamalai; si, ත්‍රිකුණාමළය, translit= Trikuṇāmaḷaya), also known as Gokanna and Gokarna, is the administrative headquarters of the Trincomalee Di ...

Madras Chennai (, ), formerly known as Madras ( the official name until 1996), is the capital city of Tamil Nadu, the southernmost Indian state. The largest city of the state in area and population, Chennai is located on the Coromandel Coast of th ...

.Present-day

Chennai Chennai (, ), formerly known as Madras ( the official name until 1996), is the capital city of Tamil Nadu, the southernmost Indian state. The largest city of the state in area and population, Chennai is located on the Coromandel Coast of t ...

On 19 January, ''Sévère'' detected a strange sail, and d'Orves detached ''Héros'' and ''Artésien'' to investigate. Suffren closed in, making signals according to tables captured at Porto Praya on the East Indiaman ''Hinchinbrooke'', until the ship made signals that he was unable to answer. A chase ensued, and with the night Suffren abandoned the pursuit to rejoin the fleet. On 21, the fleet encountered the same ship again, and again detached ''Héros'', ''Artésien'' and ''Vengeur'', but this time with other ships deploying as to ensure communication between the pursuers and the main body of the fleet, allowing Suffren to press on his chase. Suffren caught up with his quarry on 22 around noon and forced her to surrender. She was the 50-gun HMS ''Hannibal'', under Captain Christy, which the French pressed into their service as ''Petit Annibal''.

Battle of Sadras

In the following days, d'Orves' failing health deteriorated to the point where he was not fit for duty, and he delegated command to Suffren.Cunat, p.100 The French intended to surprise the British ships anchored in the roads of Madras. The fleet arrived North of Madras on 5 February 1782, and its light units started preying on coastal merchantmen and capturing cargo of rice.Cunat, p.101 However, the

monsoon A monsoon () is traditionally a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation but is now used to describe seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with annual latitudinal osci ...

caused strong winds from the South which trapped the French North of Madras, while at the same time favouring the return of Hughes' squadron from Ceylon to Madras.Cunat, p.102 Upon Hughes' arrival, Lord Macartney warned him of the presence of the French squadron, and Hughes anchored his ships under the protection of

Fort St. George Fort St. George (or historically, White Town) is a fortress in the coastal city of Chennai, India. Founded in 1639, it was the first English (later British) fortress in India. The construction of the fort provided the impetus for further ...

and Black Town. On 9 February 1782, Hughes received reinforcements with the arrival of a squadron comprising the 64-gun HMS ''Monmouth'', the

''Hero'', the 50-gun ''Isis'' and the armed transport ''Manilla'', under James Alms. D'Orves died the same day at 1600. Suffren re-appointed his captains to the ships of the squadron: Captain de Lapallière took command of ''Orient'' and Cillart that of ''Sévère''; Captain Morard de Galles, of ''Pourvoyeuse'', and Lieutenant de Ruyter, in temporary command of ''Petit Annibal'', exchanged their positions; Beaulieu went on ''Bellone'';Cunat, p.103 Tromelin-Lanuguy took on ''Subtile''; and Galifet took ''Sylphide''. General Duchemin transferred from ''Orient'' to ''Héros''.Cunat, p.104 On 14 February, the usual monsoon wind from the North-East resumed, allowing Suffren's squadron to sail South. In the evening, ''Fine'', under Perrier de Salvert, came in view of Madras harbour and Hughes' squadron. Seeing Hugues anchored in a very strong defensive position, Suffren decided to sail off the coast,Cunat, p.105 but to his surprise, Hugues left the safety of the forts and gave chase.Cunat, p.106 Suffren deployed a frigate screen to warn his squadron of Hugues' moves, but during the night ''Pourvoyeuse'' drifted away from the fleet due to a navigation error, while ''Fine'' lost sight of the British ships, and both thus failed to keep Suffren appraised of Hughes's position.Cunat, p.108 In the morning, signals from ''Fine'' informed Suffren that HMS ''Montmouth'', ''Hero'', ''Isis'', ''Aigle'' and ''Burford'' where approaching the French transports. Suffren rushed with his warships to protect the convoy, and Hughes ordered his ships to regroup and form a

line of battle The line of battle is a tactic in naval warfare in which a fleet of ships forms a line end to end. The first example of its use as a tactic is disputed—it has been variously claimed for dates ranging from 1502 to 1652. Line-of-battle tacti ...

.Cunat, p.109 In the morning of 17 February, the fleets were about 6 km apart, the British forming a line and had captured ''Lawriston'', while the French were scattered due to an error in interpreting night signals. Suffren formed a line without consideration for the order of battle,Cunat, p.111 and at 1500 he closed in within gun range, starting the

Battle of Sadras The Battle of Sadras was the first of five largely indecisive naval battles fought between a British fleet (under Admiral Sir Edward Hughes) and a French fleet (under Admiral Pierre Suffren) off the east coast of India during the Anglo-French ...

. Suffren sustained about 30 men killed and 100 wounded,Cunat, p.115 and light damage to his riggings.Cunat, p.116 At 1900 he broke contact.

Battle of Providien

Suffren returned to Pondichéry, where he arrived on 19 February 1782 and learned that the British squadron was heading for

. After consulting

Hyder Ali Hyder Ali ( حیدر علی, ''Haidarālī''; 1720 – 7 December 1782) was the Sultan and ''de facto'' ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore in southern India. Born as Hyder Ali, he distinguished himself as a soldier, eventually drawing the atten ...

, he decided not to land his troops in Pondichéry, and rather to head for Porto Nove, where he arrived on 23 February.Hennequin, p.299 Hyder Ali despatched André Piveron de Morlat, the French ambassador, to act as an intermediary between Suffren and himself, along with two of his officiers. Suffren negotiated an agreement that French troops would retain their own command; that a 4,000-man cavalry and 6,000-man infantry force would reinforce them; and that they be paid 24

Lakh A lakh (; abbreviated L; sometimes written lac) is a unit in the Indian numbering system equal to one hundred thousand (100,000; scientific notation: 105). In the Indian 2,2,3 convention of digit grouping, it is written as 1,00,000. For ...

rupee a year.Hennequin, p.302 Suffren landed his troops at Porto Nove, and departed on 23 March to search for the British fleet. On 10 April, the two fleets came into view, and they spent two days in manoeuvres, trying to gain an advantage on the other. In the morning, ''Fine'' captured a British courier and managed to retrieve the dispatches that her captain had thrown overboard, revealing British plans to expel the Dutch from Ceylon.Cunat, p. 127 On 12, the Battle of Providien broke out, leaving both squadrons damaged. Suffren retreated to the safety of the Dutch forts of Batacalo to repair, and tend to those members of his crews who were wounded or suffered from scurvy.

Battle of Negapatam

On 3 June 1782, Suffren departed Batacalo and sailed to

Cuddalore Cuddalore, also spelt as Kadalur (), is the city and headquarters of the Cuddalore District in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Situated south of Chennai, Cuddalore was an important port during the British Raj. While the early history of Cuddal ...

, where he received letters from Hyder Ali requesting that he lay siege to

Nagapattinam Nagapattinam (''nākappaṭṭinam'', previously spelt Nagapatnam or Negapatam) is a town in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and the administrative headquarters of Nagapattinam District. The town came to prominence during the period of Medieva ...

. The French troops reembarked on their transports, when ''Bellone'', which had been left to patrol, came with news that Hughes' squadron was at Nagapattinam. Suffren ordered an immediate departure and found the British ships anchored when he arrived on 6 July 1782. Before the battle, Suffren despatched ''Pourvoyeuse'' to

Malacca Malacca ( ms, Melaka) is a state in Malaysia located in the southern region of the Malay Peninsula, next to the Strait of Malacca. Its capital is Malacca City, dubbed the Historic City, which has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site ...

, ''Résolution'' to

Manila Manila ( , ; fil, Maynila, ), officially the City of Manila ( fil, Lungsod ng Maynila, ), is the capital of the Philippines, and its second-most populous city. It is highly urbanized and, as of 2019, was the world's most densely populated ...

, and ''Fortitude'' and ''Yarmouth'' to Isle de France, to purchase spare

spars The United States Coast Guard (USCG) Women's Reserve, also known as the SPARS (SPARS was the acronym for "Semper Paratus—Always Ready"), was the women's branch of the United States Coast Guard Reserve. It was established by the United States ...

, food and ammunition to resupply his fleet. He furthermore kept ''Sylphide'' and ''Diligent'' handy to bring news of the outcome of the battle to Isle de France. The Battle of Negapatam ensued. The two fleets exchanged fire to over 4 hours, until Hughes retreated. During the battle, Captain Cillart, captain of ''Sévère'', panicked and struck his colours but two of the officers, named Dieu and Kerlero de Rosbo, refused to surrender and resumed firing. HMS ''Sultan'' had stopped to launch her boats and take possession of ''Sévère'', and sustained serious damage when the broadsides of ''Sévère'' suddenly raked her. Seeing his hand forced, Cillart ordered his flag hoisted again. Suffren cruised off Nagapattinam to observe the moves of the British ships, and seeing them idle, returned to Cuddalore to repair. On the way, HMS ''Rodney'' joined up as

cartel A cartel is a group of independent market participants who collude with each other in order to improve their profits and dominate the market. Cartels are usually associations in the same sphere of business, and thus an alliance of rivals. Mo ...

with ''Héros'', with Captain James Watt of HMS ''Sultan'' bringing a letter from Hughes demanding that Suffren hand over ''Sévère'' after her surrender. Suffren answered that he was unaware that ''Sévère'' had surrendered and promised to launch an investigation, and also warned that without orders from his government he was not at liberty to give away his ships. Following the incident with ''Sévère'', Suffren relieved Cillart of duty and sent him back to Isle de France to be returned to France and

court-martial A court-martial or court martial (plural ''courts-martial'' or ''courts martial'', as "martial" is a postpositive adjective) is a military court or a trial conducted in such a court. A court-martial is empowered to determine the guilt of mem ...

ed. He also dismissed Maurville of ''Artésien'', Forbin of ''Vengeur'' and De Ruyter of ''Pourvoyeuse'', as well as three more junior officers. Command of ''Artésien'' went to Saint-Félix; that of ''Vengeur'' went to Cuverville, himself replaced by Lieutenant Perier de Salvert at the command of ''Flamand''; Lieutenant Maureville de Langle was promoted to the command of ''Sévère''; Lieutenant de Beaumont le Maître received command of ''Ajax'', replacing Bouvet de Précourt; and ''Brillant'' went to Beaulieu, himself replaced on ''Bellone'' by Pierrevert. Later, Beaulieu returned to ''Bellone'' after Pierrevert's death in the action of 12 August 1782, and from then on Lieutenant de Kersauson captained ''Brillant''.

Battle of Trincomalee

On 25 July 1782, Hyder Ali arrived at Bahour under the gun salutes of the fortress and the whole French squadron. The next day, a 500-man cavalry troop under General Ghulam Ali Khan escorted Suffren, six of his captains and several officers to the encampment of Hyder Ali's army for a meeting with him. Suffren announced that Bussy-Castelnau had arrived to Isle de France with 6 ships of the line, 2 frigates and transports carrying 5,000 soldiers. He also informed Hyder Ali that a French frigate had intercepted a British schooner carrying Colonal Horn to Nagapattinam. Hyder Ali responded with luxurious gifts to Suffren and his officers, or with gifts represented by their equivalent value in rupees. He then ajourned the meeting until the next day. On 27, Hyder Ali invited Suffren and Piveron to a private dinner, with European-style seating in deference to his guests. Suffren reported on the battles against Hughes, and they reviewed plans of operations against the British. Hyder Ali was especially concerned by British advance on the

Malabar Coast The Malabar Coast is the southwestern coast of the Indian subcontinent. Geographically, it comprises the wettest regions of southern India, as the Western Ghats intercept the moisture-laden monsoon rains, especially on their westward-facing m ...

and the risk that the

Maratha Empire The Maratha Empire, also referred to as the Maratha Confederacy, was an early modern Indian confederation that came to dominate much of the Indian subcontinent in the 18th century. Maratha rule formally began in 1674 with the coronation of S ...

would switch sides, ally with the British and start a war with Mysore. The next day, ''Fine'' joined the squadron with a prize carrying British colonel Horn, of the

Madras Army The Madras Army was the army of the Presidency of Madras, one of the three presidencies of British India within the British Empire. The presidency armies, like the presidencies themselves, belonged to the East India Company until the Governmen ...

, and ''Lézard'' brought news of the arrival of Bussy-Castelnau, with the 74-gun ''Illustre'' and the 64-gun ''Saint Michel'', on the theatre of operations. Meanwhile, the French squadron was effecting repairs, especially to its rigging, and ''Pourvoyeuse'' sailed to

to pick up

. In early August, Suffren learnt that the British fleet had departed Nagapattinam and was embarking troops in Madras, bound for an unknown destination. Suffren departed at once for

Tharangambadi Tharangambadi (), formerly Tranquebar ( da, Trankebar, ), is a town in the Mayiladuthurai district of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu on the Coromandel Coast. It lies north of Karaikal, near the mouth of a distributary named Uppanar of the Ka ...

in the hope of discovering the British plans. Failing to do so, he sailed to Batticaloa, where he arrived on 8 August to find ''Consolante'', arrived from Isle de France three days earlier. From ''Consolante'', Suffren learnt that Bussy's ''Illustre'' and ''Saint Michel'' were awaiting him at

Galle Galle ( si, ගාල්ල, translit=Gālla; ta, காலி, translit=Kāli) (formerly Point de Galle) is a major city in Sri Lanka, situated on the southwestern tip, from Colombo. Galle is the provincial capital and largest city of Souther ...

with 8 transports of troops and supplies. Suffren had sent a light ship to Trincomalee, which returned announcing that the British ships were not there. Suffren then decided to lay siege to Trincomalee. On 21 August, the two ships of the convoy arrived. Suffren had ammunition from the convoy distributed among his warships to replenish their magazines, and explained his intentions to the captains. The same day, the cutter ''Lézard'' arrived, bringing despatches. The letter, dated from 22 November 1781, notably carried official approval of Suffren's conduct at the Battle of Porto Praya, granted the requests he had made to appoint his officers, and promoted him to

Chef d'Escadre ''Chef d'escadre'' (; literally " squadron commander") was a rank in the French Navy during the Ancien Régime and until the French Revolution. The rank was changed to '' contre-amiral'' by a law passed on 15 May 1791. History The first chefs ...

. Furthermore, a letter from

Emmanuel de Rohan-Polduc Fra' Emmanuel Marie des Neiges de Rohan-Polduc (18 April 1725, in La Mancha, Spain – 14 July 1797, in Valletta, Malta) was a member of the wealthy and influential Rohan family of France, and Prince and 70th Grand Master of the Order of St. Joh ...

, Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller, informed him that he was promoted to Bailiff (''Bailli'') of the

Sovereign Military Order of Malta The Sovereign Military Order of Malta (SMOM), officially the Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, of Rhodes and of Malta ( it, Sovrano Militare Ordine Ospedaliero di San Giovanni di Gerusalemme, di Rodi e di Malta; ...

. On 25 August, the fleet set sail and formed a battle line, soon arriving in view of the forts of Trincomalee. 2,000 men quickly landed, with siege artillery, ammunition and three days worth of rations. By 29, the French had completed their siege battery emplacements, and they started bombarding the fort. On 30, at 0900, Suffren sent a message to the fort of Trincomalee to negotiate its capitulation. Captain

Hay MacDowall Lt.-Gen. Hay MacDowall (died March 1809) was a Scottish officer in the British Army who was the sixth General Officer Commanding, Ceylon. He was appointed on 19 July 1799. He was succeeded by David Douglas Wemyss. Fort MacDowall in Matale was ...

surrendered the fort in exchange for its 1,000-man garrison to be sent to Madras. The next day, Captain Quelso, low on water, surrendered

Fort Ostenburg The Hoods Tower Museum ( ta, குட் கோபுர நூதனசாலை, translit=Kuṭ Kōpura Nūtaṉacālai; si, ත්‍රිකුණාමලය නාවික කෞතුකාගාරය ''Trikuṇāmalaya Nāvika Kautuk ...

under the same conditions. On 3 September, the British fleet arrived. Suffren reembarked his troops and moved to intercept, leading to the Battle of Trincomalee. The French line fought disorganised, especially after ''Vengeur'' caught fire and had to distance herself from the other ships. The flag of ''Héros'' was shot away by British fire and Suffren had new French ensigns hoisted to continue the fight. After an hour and a half, night fell and the battle ended. Suffren was furious at the conduct of his captains, whom he accused of abandoning him. The next day, the British fleet had disappeared, and Suffren returned to Trincomalee, where he arrived in the evening of 7 September 1782.

Battle of Cuddalore

When the French squadron arrived at Trincomalee in the evening of 7 September 1782 after the Battle of Trincomalee, its ships were seriously damaged. ''Héros'', in particular, was leaking and had lost her foremast and mainmast. The ships anchored to effect repairs, which the crew completed in two weeks. Around that time, Captains Tromelin, Saint-Félix and la Landelle-Roscanvec, who could not get along with Suffren, requested to be relieved. So did Morard de Galles, who was wounded and weakened. On 23 September 1782, Suffren sent ''Pulvérisateur'' to Isle de France under M. Le Fer to bring despatches to Governor François de Souillac, with the four captains aboard. This yielded another reshuffle: ''Annibal'' went to Captain d'Aymar, ''Artésien'' to Captain de Vigues, ''Saint-Michel'' to Dupas, ''Petit-Annibal'' to Beaulieu, ''Bizarre'' to Lieutenant Tréhouret de Pennelé, ''Fine'' to Saint-Georges, ''Bellone'' to Villaret-Joyeuse, ''Consolante'' to Malis, and ''Lézard'' to Dufreneau. Meanwhile, Suffren received news that Hyder Ali had left Cuddalore with his army to fight in the North, leaving the city vulnerable to a British attack from Madras. As Cuddalore was a crucial supply depot, it was imperative for Suffren to protect it. Suffren departed Trincomalee on 1 October to reinforce Cuddalore, arriving on 4 October. The expected British attack did not happen, and on 12 October, the change in monsoon forced both fleets to shelter in harbour. Hughes anchored at Bombay, while Suffren chose to sail to

Aceh Aceh ( ), officially the Aceh Province ( ace, Nanggroë Acèh; id, Provinsi Aceh) is the westernmost province of Indonesia. It is located on the northernmost of Sumatra island, with Banda Aceh being its capital and largest city. Granted a spe ...

. By choosing Aceh, Suffren avoided both being driven away from the battlefield as he would have by choosing Isle de France, and the climate of Trincomalee which he feared would be detrimental to his crew. The French squadron left Cuddalore on 15 October 1782 and arrived at Aceh on 1 November. ''Pourvoyeuse'' and ''Bellone'' arrived shortly after with spare parts, and the fleet spent the following weeks tending to the sick and effecting repairs. After a while, a corvette arrived from Isle de France, bringing news that a 3-ship squadron under Antoine de Thomassin de Peynier was about to arrive, escorting a convoy ferrying troops and ammunitions, as well as Bussy-Castelnau. Suffren's fleet set sail on 20 December to return to Coromandel. On the way, it raided the British colony of Ganjam, destroying a number of merchantmen. On 12 January 1783, the frigate HMS ''Coventry'', unaware of the presence of the French fleet and mistaking its ships for East Indiamen, approached and had to surrender. From the prisoners, Suffren learnt of Hyder Ali's death. The fleet continued to Cuddalore, arriving there on 1 February. Peynier's squadron of 3 ships and 1 frigate arrived shortly afterwards with 30 transports, survivors of a much larger convoy that had lost a number of ships to the elements and to the British. With the return of favourable weather, Suffren expected and feared Hughes' attack, as his own ships were either damaged after long cruises, or had at best only received field repair at Aceh. He therefore quickly landed his troops at Cuddalore and set sail for Trincomalee. Unfavourable winds made progression difficult and as Suffren's squadron entered the bay, ''Fine'' reported 17 sails closing in. The French squadron retreated into the safety of Trincomalee and started repairing. On 24 May, Hughes' squadron passed off Trincomalee. A few days later, a ship brought letters from Bussy-Castelnau announcing that Cuddalore was besieged and blockaded. Suffren departed Trincomalee on 11 June 1783 and passed off Tharangambadi on 16, when the frigate screen signaled 18 ships in view. Suffren transferred onto the frigate ''Cléopâtre'' to personally reconnoitre the situation. The two fleets approached each other in the evening manoeuvered without engaging. In the morning, the French found themselves at the entrance of Cuddalore Bay, while the British squadron was further off at sea. Suffren anchored his ships and spent the night reinforcing his crew with 1,200 soldiers from ashore. On 18 June, Suffren set sail and the two squadrons chased each other for two days, trying to gain an advantage. Finally, on 20, the two fleets came in contact and engaged, starting the Battle of Cuddalore at 1530. On 25, Hughes retreated to Madras, and on 29, a British frigate came as a cartel, bringing news of the preliminary agreements to the Treaty of Paris that had been signed on 9 February 1783, and Hughes' offer of a cease-fire. Suffren accepted. On 25 July, the frigate ''Surveillante'' arrived from Europe with news of the Peace of Paris and orders to Suffren to return to France, leaving 5 ships under Peynier in the Indian Ocean.

Post-War

Suffren's squadron arrived at Trincomalee on 8 August. Most of it remained there until October. Suffren himself sailed to Pondichéry on 15 September with ''Héros'' and ''Cléopâtre'' to confer with Bussy, arriving on 17. There, he learnt of his promotion to Lieutenant général des Armées navales. He departed for Trincomalee on 26, arriving on 29. The fleet departed for Europe on 6 October. On his way, Suffren called the Cape of Good Hope, and had stayed there for a few days when Hughes' squadron arrived, with unfavourable winds. HMS ''Exeter'' ran aground, and both the British and French ships launched their boats to provide assistance. Suffren arrived at Toulon on 26 March 1784. Summoned to Versailles, he was received by Navy Minister Castrie and by Louis XVI, and much celebrated. A fourth position of Vice-Admiral was created especially for Suffren, the decree stipulating that it would be suppressed after his death. In October 1787, with the implementation of the Eden Agreement, tensions again flared up between France and England, and it was feared that a new conflict was looming. As a precaution, Louis XVI ordered the Brest squadron be readied, and he appointed Suffren to command it, leaving him the choice of his captains. As he prepared for the journey to Brest, Suffren's health suddenly declined. He died in Paris on 8 December 1788.

Legacy

Assessment

Suffren was generally recognised as an able commander. The ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' Eleventh Edition called him "perhaps the ablest sea-commander that France ever produced'. In ''

The Influence of Sea Power upon History ''The Influence of Sea Power upon History: 1660–1783'' is a history of naval warfare published in 1890 by the American naval officer and historian Alfred Thayer Mahan. It details the role of sea power during the seventeenth and eighteenth cent ...

'', Mahan writes: Lacour-Gayet cites Suffren's instructions before the

as reminiscent of Nelson's style, in that he was giving advance instruction for a variety of scenarios and was attempting to take the British in a cross-fire and destroy their squadron. In 1942, Admiral

Ernest King Ernest Joseph King (23 November 1878 – 25 June 1956) was an American naval officer who served as Commander in Chief, United States Fleet (COMINCH) and Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) during World War II. As COMINCH-CNO, he directed the U ...

listed his five favourite admirals of the past as Jervis,

Nelson Nelson may refer to: Arts and entertainment * ''Nelson'' (1918 film), a historical film directed by Maurice Elvey * ''Nelson'' (1926 film), a historical film directed by Walter Summers * ''Nelson'' (opera), an opera by Lennox Berkeley to a lib ...

, Tromp, Suffren and Farragut. On the other hand, Las Cases, who had served as a lieutenant in the navy, described Suffren to Napoléon as "A hard man, very weird, egoistic in the extreme, bad-tempered, poor comrade in arms, liked of no one." More recently,

François Caron François Caron (1600–1673) was a French Huguenot refugee to the Netherlands who served the Dutch East India Company (''Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie'' or VOC) for 30 years, rising from cook's mate to the director-general at Batavia (Ja ...

stated "while Chevalier de Suffren displayed an indisputable bravery and an incomparable tactical insight, an analysis of his action shows it to be banal and disappointing." Rémi Monaque offers a more nuanced assessment, finding Suffren an aggressive and innovative commander comparable to Ruyter and Nelson, but also one whose lack of didactic qualities and social graces made him misunderstood and disliked by his captains, and thus failed to develop his full potential.

Monuments and memorials

Eight ships of the French Navy have been named ''Suffren'' in honour of Suffren de Saint Tropez. A number of streets and avenues through France are named in Suffren's honour. In Paris, the Avenue de Suffren runs alongside the

Champ de Mars The Champ de Mars (; en, Field of Mars) is a large public greenspace in Paris, France, located in the seventh ''arrondissement'', between the Eiffel Tower to the northwest and the École Militaire to the southeast. The park is named after th ...

Sources and references

Notes References Bibliography * * * * * * * * * , CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 * * * * * * * * Iconography * Engraving by Mme de Cernel after an original by Gerard.

External links

* *
Composition de l'escadre sous Suffren aux Indes (1781–1783)
{{DEFAULTSORT:Suffren De Saint Tropez, Pierre Andre De 1729 births 1788 deaths People from Aix-en-Provence French Navy admirals Counts of France French military personnel of the American Revolutionary War