The 8086 (also called iAPX 86)
is a
16-bit
16-bit microcomputers are microcomputers that use 16-bit microprocessors.
A 16-bit register can store 216 different values. The range of integer values that can be stored in 16 bits depends on the integer representation used. With the two mo ...
microprocessor
A microprocessor is a computer processor where the data processing logic and control is included on a single integrated circuit, or a small number of integrated circuits. The microprocessor contains the arithmetic, logic, and control circ ...
chip designed by
Intel
Intel Corporation is an American multinational corporation and technology company headquartered in Santa Clara, California. It is the world's largest semiconductor chip manufacturer by revenue, and is one of the developers of the x86 seri ...
between early 1976 and June 8, 1978, when it was released. The
Intel 8088
The Intel 8088 ("''eighty-eighty-eight''", also called iAPX 88) microprocessor is a variant of the Intel 8086. Introduced on June 1, 1979, the 8088 has an eight-bit external data bus instead of the 16-bit bus of the 8086. The 16-bit registers and ...
, released July 1, 1979,
is a slightly modified chip with an external 8-bit
data bus
In computer architecture, a bus (shortened form of the Latin '' omnibus'', and historically also called data highway or databus) is a communication system that transfers data between components inside a computer, or between computers. This e ...
(allowing the use of cheaper and fewer supporting
ICs),
[Fewer TTL buffers, latches, multiplexers (although the amount of TTL logic was not drastically reduced). It also permits the use of cheap 8080-family ICs, where the 8254 CTC, ]8255
The Intel 8255 (or i8255) Programmable Peripheral Interface (PPI) chip was developed and manufactured by Intel in the first half of the 1970s for the Intel 8080 microprocessor. The 8255 provides 24 parallel input/output lines with a variety of p ...
PIO, and 8259 PIC were used in the IBM PC design. In addition, it makes PCB layout simpler and boards cheaper, as well as demanding fewer (1- or 4-bit wide) DRAM chips. and is notable as the processor used in the original
IBM PC design.
The 8086 gave rise to the
x86
x86 (also known as 80x86 or the 8086 family) is a family of complex instruction set computer (CISC) instruction set architectures initially developed by Intel based on the Intel 8086 microprocessor and its 8088 variant. The 8086 was intr ...
architecture, which eventually became Intel's most successful line of processors. On June 5, 2018, Intel released a limited-edition CPU celebrating the 40th anniversary of the Intel 8086, called the
Intel Core i7-8086K.
History
Background
In 1972, Intel launched the
8008
The Intel 8008 ("''eight-thousand-eight''" or "''eighty-oh-eight''") is an early byte-oriented microprocessor designed by Computer Terminal Corporation (CTC), implemented and manufactured by Intel, and introduced in April 1972. It is an 8-bit ...
, the first 8-bit microprocessor.
[using enhancement load ]PMOS logic
PMOS or pMOS logic (from p-channel metal–oxide–semiconductor) is a family of digital circuits based on p-channel, enhancement mode metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs). In the late 1960s and early 1970s, PMOS lo ...
(requiring 14 V, achieving TTL compatibility by having VCC at +5 V and VDD at −9 V). It implemented an
instruction set designed by
Datapoint Corporation
Datapoint Corporation, originally known as Computer Terminal Corporation (CTC), was a computer company based in San Antonio, Texas, United States. Founded in July 1968 by Phil Ray and Gus Roche, its first products were, as the company's initial ...
with programmable
CRT terminals in mind, which also proved to be fairly general-purpose. The device needed several additional
ICs to produce a functional computer, in part due to it being packaged in a small 18-pin "memory package", which ruled out the use of a separate address bus (Intel was primarily a
DRAM manufacturer at the time).
Two years later, Intel launched the
8080
The Intel 8080 (''"eighty-eighty"'') is the second 8-bit microprocessor designed and manufactured by Intel. It first appeared in April 1974 and is an extended and enhanced variant of the earlier 8008 design, although without binary compatibil ...
,
[Using non-saturated enhancement-load ]NMOS logic
N-type metal-oxide-semiconductor logic uses n-type (-) MOSFETs (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors) to implement logic gates and other digital circuits. These nMOS transistors operate by creating an inversion layer in a p-type t ...
(demanding a higher gate voltage for the load-transistor gates). employing the new 40-pin
DIL package
In microelectronics, a dual in-line package (DIP or DIL), is an electronic component package with a rectangular housing and two parallel rows of electrical connecting pins. The package may be through-hole mounted to a printed circuit board ...
s originally developed for
calculator ICs to enable a separate address bus. It has an extended instruction set that is
source-compatible (not
binary compatible
Binary-code compatibility (binary compatible or object-code-compatible) is a property of a computer system, meaning that it can run the same executable code, typically machine code for a general-purpose computer CPU, that another computer syste ...
) with the 8008 and also includes some
16-bit
16-bit microcomputers are microcomputers that use 16-bit microprocessors.
A 16-bit register can store 216 different values. The range of integer values that can be stored in 16 bits depends on the integer representation used. With the two mo ...
instructions to make programming easier. The 8080 device was eventually replaced by the
depletion-load-based
8085
The Intel 8085 ("''eighty-eighty-five''") is an 8-bit microprocessor produced by Intel and introduced in March 1976. It is software-binary compatible with the more-famous Intel 8080 with only two minor instructions added to support its added i ...
(1977), which sufficed with a single +5 V power supply instead of the three different operating voltages of earlier chips.
[Made possible with depletion-load nMOS logic (the 8085 was later made using HMOS processing, just like the 8086).] Other well known 8-bit microprocessors that emerged during these years are
Motorola 6800
The 6800 ("''sixty-eight hundred''") is an 8-bit microprocessor designed and first manufactured by Motorola in 1974. The MC6800 microprocessor was part of the M6800 Microcomputer System (latter dubbed ''68xx'') that also included serial and para ...
(1974),
General Instrument PIC16X (1975),
MOS Technology 6502
The MOS Technology 6502 (typically pronounced "sixty-five-oh-two" or "six-five-oh-two") William Mensch and the moderator both pronounce the 6502 microprocessor as ''"sixty-five-oh-two"''. is an 8-bit microprocessor that was designed by a small te ...
(1975),
Zilog Z80
The Z80 is an 8-bit microprocessor introduced by Zilog as the startup company's first product. The Z80 was conceived by Federico Faggin in late 1974 and developed by him and his 11 employees starting in early 1975. The first working samples were ...
(1976), and
Motorola 6809
The Motorola 6809 ("''sixty-eight-oh-nine''") is an 8-bit computing, 8-bit microprocessor with some 16-bit computing, 16-bit features. It was designed by Motorola's Terry Ritter and Joel Boney and introduced in 1978. Although source compatible wi ...
(1978).
The first x86 design
![Intel 8086 CPU Die](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Intel_8086_CPU_Die.JPG)
The 8086 project started in May 1976 and was originally intended as a temporary substitute for the ambitious and delayed
iAPX 432 project. It was an attempt to draw attention from the less-delayed 16-bit and
32-bit processors of other manufacturers —
Motorola
Motorola, Inc. () was an American multinational telecommunications company based in Schaumburg, Illinois, United States. After having lost $4.3 billion from 2007 to 2009, the company split into two independent public companies, Motorol ...
,
Zilog, and
National Semiconductor
National Semiconductor was an American semiconductor manufacturer which specialized in analog devices and subsystems, formerly with headquarters in Santa Clara, California. The company produced power management integrated circuits, display dr ...
.
Whereas the 8086 was a 16-bit microprocessor, it used the same
microarchitecture as Intel's 8-bit microprocessors (8008, 8080, and 8085). This allowed
assembly language programs written in 8-bit to
seamlessly migrate.
New instructions and features — such as signed integers, base+offset addressing, and self-repeating operations — were added. Instructions were added to assist source code compilation of
nested function
In computer programming, a nested function (or nested procedure or subroutine) is a function which is defined within another function, the ''enclosing function''. Due to simple recursive scope rules, a nested function is itself invisible outside ...
s in the
ALGOL
ALGOL (; short for "Algorithmic Language") is a family of imperative computer programming languages originally developed in 1958. ALGOL heavily influenced many other languages and was the standard method for algorithm description used by the ...
-family of languages, including
Pascal and
PL/M
The PL/M programming language
(an acronym of ''Programming Language for Microcomputers'')
is a high-level language conceived and developed by
Gary Kildall in 1973 for Hank Smith at Intel for its microprocessors.
Overview
The language incorpor ...
. According to principal architect
Stephen P. Morse, this was a result of a more software-centric approach. Other enhancements included
microcode instructions for the multiply and divide assembly language instructions. Designers also anticipated
coprocessors
A coprocessor is a computer processor used to supplement the functions of the primary processor (the CPU). Operations performed by the coprocessor may be floating-point arithmetic, graphics, signal processing, string processing, cryptography o ...
, such as
8087
The Intel 8087, announced in 1980, was the first x87 floating-point coprocessor for the 8086 line of microprocessors.
The purpose of the 8087 was to speed up computations for floating-point arithmetic, such as addition, subtraction, multi ...
and
8089, so the bus structure was designed to be flexible.
The first revision of the instruction set and high level architecture was ready after about three months,
[Rev.0 of the instruction set and architecture was ready in about three months, according to Morse.] and as almost no CAD tools were used, four engineers and 12 layout people were simultaneously working on the chip.
[Using ]rubylith image:Rubylith two rolls 2012.jpg, 200px, Rolls of lithographer's tape (these rolls are made by 3M). The roll in the back is 1/4 inch, the one in the front, 1/2 inch width. These products are often called "Rubylith" tape because Rubylith has become ...
, light boards, rulers, electric erasers, and a digitizer (according to Jenny Hernandez, member of the 8086 design team, in a statement made on Intel's webpage for its 25th birthday). The 8086 took a little more than two years from idea to working product, which was considered rather fast for a complex design in 1976–1978.
The 8086 was sequenced
[8086 used less microcode than many competitors' designs, such as the MC68000 and others] using a mixture of
random logic Random logic is a semiconductor circuit design technique that translates high-level logic descriptions directly into hardware features such as AND and OR gates. The name derives from the fact that few easily discernible patterns are evident in the a ...
and
microcode and was implemented using depletion-load nMOS circuitry with approximately 20,000 active
transistor
upright=1.4, gate (G), body (B), source (S) and drain (D) terminals. The gate is separated from the body by an insulating layer (pink).
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to Electronic amplifier, amplify or electronic switch, switch ...
s (29,000 counting all
ROM
Rom, or ROM may refer to:
Biomechanics and medicine
* Risk of mortality, a medical classification to estimate the likelihood of death for a patient
* Rupture of membranes, a term used during pregnancy to describe a rupture of the amniotic sac
* ...
and
PLA
PLA may refer to:
Organizations Politics and military
* People's Liberation Army, the armed forces of China and of the ruling Chinese Communist Party
* People's Liberation Army (disambiguation)
** Irish National Liberation Army, formerly called ...
sites). It was soon moved to a new refined nMOS manufacturing process called
HMOS
In integrated circuits, depletion-load NMOS is a form of digital logic family that uses only a single power supply voltage, unlike earlier NMOS (n-type metal-oxide semiconductor) logic families that needed more than one different power supply ...
(for High performance MOS) that Intel originally developed for manufacturing of fast
static RAM products.
[Fast static RAMs in MOS technology (as fast as bipolar RAMs) was an important product for Intel during this period.] This was followed by HMOS-II, HMOS-III versions, and, eventually, a fully static
CMOS version for battery powered devices, manufactured using Intel's
CHMOS
CHMOS refers to one of a series of Intel CMOS processes developed from their HMOS process. (H stands for high-density). It was first developed in 1981.
CHMOS was used in the Intel 80C51BH, a new version of their standard MCS-51 microcontroll ...
processes.
[CHMOS is Intel's name for CMOS circuits manufactured using processing steps very similar to ]HMOS
In integrated circuits, depletion-load NMOS is a form of digital logic family that uses only a single power supply voltage, unlike earlier NMOS (n-type metal-oxide semiconductor) logic families that needed more than one different power supply ...
. The original chip measured 33 mm² and minimum feature size was 3.2 μm.
The architecture was defined by
Stephen P. Morse with some help from Bruce Ravenel (the architect of the 8087) in refining the final revisions. Logic designer Jim McKevitt and John Bayliss were the lead engineers of the hardware-level development team
[Other members of the design team were Peter A.Stoll and Jenny Hernandez.] and Bill Pohlman the manager for the project. The legacy of the 8086 is enduring in the basic instruction set of today's personal computers and servers; the 8086 also lent its last two digits to later extended versions of the design, such as the
Intel 286
The Intel 80286 (also marketed as the iAPX 286 and often called Intel 286) is a 16-bit microprocessor that was introduced on February 1, 1982. It was the first 8086-based CPU with separate, non-multiplexed address and data buses and also the f ...
and the
Intel 386
The Intel 386, originally released as 80386 and later renamed i386, is a 32-bit microprocessor introduced in 1985. The first versions had 275,000 transistors[x86
x86 (also known as 80x86 or the 8086 family) is a family of complex instruction set computer (CISC) instruction set architectures initially developed by Intel based on the Intel 8086 microprocessor and its 8088 variant. The 8086 was intr ...]
family. (Another reference is that the
PCI Vendor ID for Intel devices is 8086
h.)
Details
Buses and operation
All internal registers, as well as internal and external data buses, are 16 bits wide, which firmly established the "16-bit microprocessor" identity of the 8086. A 20-bit external address bus provides a 1
MB physical address space (2
20 = 1,048,576 x 1
byte
The byte is a unit of digital information that most commonly consists of eight bits. Historically, the byte was the number of bits used to encode a single character of text in a computer and for this reason it is the smallest addressable uni ...
). This address space is addressed by means of internal memory "segmentation". The data bus is
multiplexed
In telecommunications and computer networking, multiplexing (sometimes contracted to muxing) is a method by which multiple analog or digital signals are combined into one signal over a shared medium. The aim is to share a scarce resource - a ...
with the address bus in order to fit all of the control lines into a standard 40-pin
dual in-line package. It provides a 16-bit I/O address bus, supporting 64
KB of separate I/O space. The maximum linear address space is limited to 64 KB, simply because internal address/index registers are only 16 bits wide. Programming over 64 KB memory boundaries involves adjusting the segment registers (see below); this difficulty existed until the
80386 architecture introduced wider (32-bit) registers (the memory management hardware in the
80286
The Intel 80286 (also marketed as the iAPX 286 and often called Intel 286) is a 16-bit microprocessor that was introduced on February 1, 1982. It was the first 8086-based CPU with separate, non- multiplexed address and data buses and also the ...
did not help in this regard, as its registers are still only 16 bits wide).
Hardware modes of 8086
Some of the control pins, which carry essential signals for all external operations, have more than one function depending upon whether the device is operated in ''min'' or ''max'' mode. The former mode is intended for small single-processor systems, while the latter is for medium or large systems using more than one processor (a kind of multiprocessor mode). Maximum mode is required when using an 8087 or 8089 coprocessor. The voltage on pin 33 (MN/) determines the mode. Changing the state of pin 33 changes the function of certain other pins, most of which have to do with how the CPU handles the (local) bus.
[The IBM PC and PC/XT use an Intel 8088 running in maximum mode, which allows the CPU to work with an optional 8087 coprocessor installed in the math coprocessor socket on the PC or PC/XT mainboard. (The PC and PC/XT may require maximum mode for other reasons, such as perhaps to support the DMA controller.)] The mode is usually hardwired into the circuit and therefore cannot be changed by software. The workings of these modes are described in terms of timing diagrams in Intel datasheets and manuals. In minimum mode, all control signals are generated by the 8086 itself.
Registers and instruction
The 8086 has eight more or less general 16-bit
registers (including the
stack pointer
In computer science, a call stack is a stack data structure that stores information about the active subroutines of a computer program. This kind of stack is also known as an execution stack, program stack, control stack, run-time stack, or mach ...
but excluding the instruction pointer, flag register and segment registers). Four of them, AX, BX, CX, DX, can also be accessed as twice as many 8-bit registers (see figure) while the other four, SI, DI, BP, SP, are 16-bit only.
Due to a compact encoding inspired by 8-bit processors, most instructions are one-address or two-address operations, which means that the result is stored in one of the operands. At most one of the operands can be in memory, but this memory operand can also be the ''destination'', while the other operand, the ''source'', can be either ''register'' or ''immediate''. A single memory location can also often be used as both ''source'' and ''destination'' which, among other factors, further contributes to a
code density comparable to (and often better than) most eight-bit machines at the time.
The degree of generality of most registers is much greater than in the 8080 or 8085. However, 8086 registers were more specialized than in most contemporary
minicomputers and are also used implicitly by some instructions. While perfectly sensible for the assembly programmer, this makes register allocation for compilers more complicated compared to more orthogonal 16-bit and 32-bit processors of the time such as the
PDP-11,
VAX
VAX (an acronym for Virtual Address eXtension) is a series of computers featuring a 32-bit instruction set architecture (ISA) and virtual memory that was developed and sold by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) in the late 20th century. The V ...
,
68000
The Motorola 68000 (sometimes shortened to Motorola 68k or m68k and usually pronounced "sixty-eight-thousand") is a 16/32-bit complex instruction set computer (CISC) microprocessor, introduced in 1979 by Motorola Semiconductor Products Secto ...
,
32016
The NS32000, sometimes known as the 32k, is a series of microprocessors produced by National Semiconductor. The first member of the family came to market in 1982, briefly known as the 16032 before becoming the 32016. It was the first 32-bit general ...
, etc. On the other hand, being more regular than the rather minimalistic but ubiquitous 8-bit microprocessors such as the
6502
The MOS Technology 6502 (typically pronounced "sixty-five-oh-two" or "six-five-oh-two") William Mensch and the moderator both pronounce the 6502 microprocessor as ''"sixty-five-oh-two"''. is an 8-bit microprocessor that was designed by a small te ...
,
6800,
6809
The Motorola 6809 ("''sixty-eight-oh-nine''") is an 8-bit microprocessor with some 16-bit features. It was designed by Motorola's Terry Ritter and Joel Boney and introduced in 1978. Although source compatible with the earlier Motorola 6800, the ...
,
8085
The Intel 8085 ("''eighty-eighty-five''") is an 8-bit microprocessor produced by Intel and introduced in March 1976. It is software-binary compatible with the more-famous Intel 8080 with only two minor instructions added to support its added i ...
,
MCS-48,
8051, and other contemporary accumulator-based machines, it is significantly easier to construct an efficient
code generator In computing, Code generation denotes software techniques or systems that generate program code which may then be used independently of the generator system in a runtime environment.
Specific articles:
* Code generation (compiler), a mechanism to pr ...
for the 8086 architecture.
Another factor for this is that the 8086 also introduced some new instructions (not present in the 8080 and 8085) to better support stack-based high-level programming languages such as Pascal and
PL/M
The PL/M programming language
(an acronym of ''Programming Language for Microcomputers'')
is a high-level language conceived and developed by
Gary Kildall in 1973 for Hank Smith at Intel for its microprocessors.
Overview
The language incorpor ...
; some of the more useful instructions are
push ''mem-op''
, and ret ''size'', supporting the "Pascal
calling convention
In computer science, a calling convention is an implementation-level (low-level) scheme for how subroutines or functions receive parameters from their caller and how they return a result. When some code calls a function, design choices have bee ...
" directly. (Several others, such as
push ''immed''
and
enter
, were added in the subsequent 80186, 80286, and 80386 processors.)
A 64 KB (one segment)
stack growing towards lower addresses is supported in
hardware; 16-bit words are pushed onto the stack, and the top of the stack is pointed to by SS:SP. There are 256
interrupt
In digital computers, an interrupt (sometimes referred to as a trap) is a request for the processor to ''interrupt'' currently executing code (when permitted), so that the event can be processed in a timely manner. If the request is accepted, ...
s, which can be invoked by both hardware and software. The interrupts can cascade, using the stack to store the
return address
In postal mail, a return address is an explicit inclusion of the address of the person sending the message. It provides the recipient (and sometimes authorized intermediaries) with a means to determine how to respond to the sender of the message i ...
es.
The 8086 has 64 K of 8-bit (or alternatively 32 K of 16-bit word)
I/O port
Memory-mapped I/O (MMIO) and port-mapped I/O (PMIO) are two complementary methods of performing input/output (I/O) between the central processing unit (CPU) and peripheral devices in a computer. An alternative approach is using dedicated I/O pro ...
space.
Flags
The 8086 has a 16-bit
flags register
The FLAGS register is the status register that contains the current state of a x86 CPU. The size and meanings of the flag bits are architecture dependent. It usually reflects the result of arithmetic operations as well as information about restric ...
. Nine of these condition code flags are active, and indicate the current state of the processor:
Carry flag
In computer processors the carry flag (usually indicated as the C flag) is a single bit in a system status register/flag register used to indicate when an arithmetic carry or borrow has been generated out of the most significant arithmetic l ...
(CF),
Parity flag In computer processors the parity flag indicates if the numbers of set bits is odd or even in the binary representation of the result of the last operation. It is normally a single bit in a processor status register.
For example, assume a machine ...
(PF),
Auxiliary carry flag (AF),
Zero flag
The zero flag is a single bit flag that is a central feature on most conventional CPU architectures (including x86, ARM, PDP-11, 68000, 6502, and numerous others). It is often stored in a dedicated register, typically called status register or ...
(ZF),
Sign flag
In a computer central processing unit, processor the negative flag or sign flag is a single bit in a system status (flag) register used to indicate whether the result of the last mathematical operation produced a value in which the most significant ...
(SF),
Trap flag
A trap is a mechanical device used to capture or restrain an animal for purposes such as hunting, pest control, or ecological research.
Trap or TRAP may also refer to:
Art and entertainment Films and television
* ''Trap'' (2015 film), Fil ...
(TF),
Interrupt flag
The Interrupt flag (IF) is a flag bit in the CPU's FLAGS register, which determines whether or not the (CPU) will respond immediately to maskable hardware interrupts. If the flag is set to 1 maskable interrupts are enabled. If reset (set to 0) such ...
(IF),
Direction flag (DF), and
Overflow flag
In computer processors, the overflow flag (sometimes called the V flag) is usually a single bit in a system status register used to indicate when an arithmetic overflow has occurred in an operation, indicating that the signed two's-complement r ...
(OF).
Also referred to as the status word, the layout of the flags register is as follows:
Segmentation
There are also four 16-bit
segment registers (see figure) that allow the 8086
CPU to access one
megabyte of memory in an unusual way. Rather than concatenating the segment register with the address register, as in most processors whose address space exceeds their register size, the 8086 shifts the 16-bit segment only four bits left before adding it to the 16-bit offset (16×segment + offset), therefore producing a 20-bit external (or effective or physical) address from the 32-bit segment:offset pair. As a result, each external address can be referred to by 2
12 = 4096 different segment:offset pairs.
Although considered complicated and cumbersome by many programmers, this scheme also has advantages; a small program (less than 64 KB) can be loaded starting at a fixed offset (such as 0000) in its own segment, avoiding the need for
relocation, with at most 15 bytes of alignment waste.
Compilers for the 8086 family commonly support two types of
pointer, ''near'' and ''far''. Near pointers are 16-bit offsets implicitly associated with the program's code or data segment and so can be used only within parts of a program small enough to fit in one segment. Far pointers are 32-bit segment:offset pairs resolving to 20-bit external addresses. Some compilers also support ''huge'' pointers, which are like far pointers except that
pointer arithmetic
In computer science, a pointer is an object in many programming languages that stores a memory address. This can be that of another value located in computer memory, or in some cases, that of memory-mapped computer hardware. A pointer ''ref ...
on a huge pointer treats it as a linear 20-bit pointer, while pointer arithmetic on a far pointer
wraps around within its 16-bit offset without touching the segment part of the address.
To avoid the need to specify ''near'' and ''far'' on numerous pointers, data structures, and functions, compilers also support "memory models" which specify default pointer sizes. The ''tiny'' (max 64K), ''small'' (max 128K), ''compact'' (data > 64K), ''medium'' (code > 64K), ''large'' (code,data > 64K), and ''huge'' (individual arrays > 64K) models cover practical combinations of near, far, and huge pointers for code and data. The ''tiny'' model means that code and data are shared in a single segment, just as in most 8-bit based processors, and can be used to build ''
.com
The domain name .com is a top-level domain (TLD) in the Domain Name System (DNS) of the Internet. Added at the beginning of 1985, its name is derived from the word ''commercial'', indicating its original intended purpose for domains registere ...
'' files for instance. Precompiled libraries often come in several versions compiled for different memory models.
According to Morse et al.,. the designers actually contemplated using an 8-bit shift (instead of 4-bit), in order to create a 16 MB physical address space. However, as this would have forced segments to begin on 256-byte boundaries, and 1 MB was considered very large for a microprocessor around 1976, the idea was dismissed. Also, there were not enough pins available on a low cost 40-pin package for the additional four address bus pins.
In principle, the address space of the x86 series ''could'' have been extended in later processors by increasing the shift value, as long as applications obtained their segments from the operating system and did not make assumptions about the equivalence of different segment:offset pairs.
[Some 80186 clones did change the shift value, but were never commonly used in desktop computers.] In practice the use of "huge" pointers and similar mechanisms was widespread and the flat 32-bit addressing made possible with the 32-bit offset registers in the 80386 eventually extended the limited addressing range in a more general way.
The instruction stream is fetched from memory as words and is addressed internally by the processor to the byte level as necessary. An instruction stream queuing mechanism allows up to 6 bytes of the instruction stream to be queued while waiting for decoding and execution. The queue acts as a First-In-First-Out (FIFO) buffer, from which the Execution Unit (EU) extracts instruction bytes as required. Whenever there is space for at least two bytes in the queue, the BIU will attempt a word fetch memory cycle. If the queue is empty (following a branch instruction, for example), the first byte into the queue immediately becomes available to the EU.
Porting older software
Small programs could ignore the segmentation and just use plain 16-bit addressing. This allows
8-bit software to be quite easily ported to the 8086. The authors of most
DOS
DOS is shorthand for the MS-DOS and IBM PC DOS family of operating systems.
DOS may also refer to:
Computing
* Data over signalling (DoS), multiplexing data onto a signalling channel
* Denial-of-service attack (DoS), an attack on a communicat ...
implementations took advantage of this by providing an
Application Programming Interface very similar to
CP/M as well as including the simple ''.com'' executable file format, identical to CP/M. This was important when the 8086 and MS-DOS were new, because it allowed many existing CP/M (and other) applications to be quickly made available, greatly easing acceptance of the new platform.
Example code
The following 8086/8088
assembler
Assembler may refer to:
Arts and media
* Nobukazu Takemura, avant-garde electronic musician, stage name Assembler
* Assemblers, a fictional race in the ''Star Wars'' universe
* Assemblers, an alternative name of the superhero group Champions of ...
source code is for a subroutine named
_memcpy
that copies a block of data bytes of a given size from one location to another. The data block is copied one byte at a time, and the data movement and looping logic utilizes 16-bit operations.
The code above uses the BP (base pointer) register to establish a
call frame, an area on the stack that contains all of the parameters and local variables for the execution of the subroutine. This kind of
calling convention
In computer science, a calling convention is an implementation-level (low-level) scheme for how subroutines or functions receive parameters from their caller and how they return a result. When some code calls a function, design choices have bee ...
supports
reentrant and
recursive
Recursion (adjective: ''recursive'') occurs when a thing is defined in terms of itself or of its type. Recursion is used in a variety of disciplines ranging from linguistics to logic. The most common application of recursion is in mathematics ...
code, and has been used by most ALGOL-like languages since the late 1950s.
The above routine is a rather cumbersome way to copy blocks of data. The 8086 provides dedicated instructions for copying strings of bytes. These instructions assume that the source data is stored at DS:SI, the destination data is stored at ES:DI, and that the number of elements to copy is stored in CX. The above routine requires the source and the destination block to be in the same segment, therefore DS is copied to ES. The loop section of the above can be replaced by:
This copies the block of data one byte at a time. The
REP
instruction causes the following
MOVSB
to repeat until CX is zero, automatically incrementing SI and DI and decrementing CX as it repeats. Alternatively the
MOVSW
instruction can be used to copy 16-bit words (double bytes) at a time (in which case CX counts the number of words copied instead of the number of bytes). Most assemblers will properly recognize the
REP
instruction if used as an in-line prefix to the
MOVSB
instruction, as in
REP MOVSB
.
This routine will operate correctly if interrupted, because the program counter will continue to point to the
REP
instruction until the block copy is completed. The copy will therefore continue from where it left off when the interrupt service routine returns control.
Performance
![Intel 8086 block scheme](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Intel_8086_block_scheme.svg)
Although partly shadowed by other design choices in this particular chip, the
multiplexed
In telecommunications and computer networking, multiplexing (sometimes contracted to muxing) is a method by which multiple analog or digital signals are combined into one signal over a shared medium. The aim is to share a scarce resource - a ...
address and
data buses limit performance slightly; transfers of 16-bit or 8-bit quantities are done in a four-clock memory access cycle, which is faster on 16-bit, although slower on 8-bit quantities, compared to many contemporary 8-bit based CPUs. As instructions vary from one to six bytes, fetch and execution are made
concurrent
Concurrent means happening at the same time. Concurrency, concurrent, or concurrence may refer to:
Law
* Concurrence, in jurisprudence, the need to prove both ''actus reus'' and ''mens rea''
* Concurring opinion (also called a "concurrence"), a ...
and decoupled into separate units (as it remains in today's x86 processors): The ''bus interface unit'' feeds the instruction stream to the ''execution unit'' through a 6-byte prefetch queue (a form of loosely coupled
pipelining), speeding up operations on
register
Register or registration may refer to:
Arts entertainment, and media Music
* Register (music), the relative "height" or range of a note, melody, part, instrument, etc.
* ''Register'', a 2017 album by Travis Miller
* Registration (organ), th ...
s and
immediates, while memory operations became slower (four years later, this performance problem was fixed with the
80186
The Intel 80186, also known as the iAPX 186, or just 186, is a microprocessor and microcontroller introduced in 1982. It was based on the Intel 8086 and, like it, had a 16-bit external data bus multiplexed with a 20-bit address bus. The 80188 ...
and
80286
The Intel 80286 (also marketed as the iAPX 286 and often called Intel 286) is a 16-bit microprocessor that was introduced on February 1, 1982. It was the first 8086-based CPU with separate, non- multiplexed address and data buses and also the ...
). However, the full (instead of partial) 16-bit architecture with a full width
ALU meant that 16-bit arithmetic instructions could now be performed with a single ALU cycle (instead of two, via internal carry, as in the 8080 and 8085), speeding up such instructions considerably. Combined with
orthogonalization
In linear algebra, orthogonalization is the process of finding a set of orthogonal vectors that span a particular subspace. Formally, starting with a linearly independent set of vectors in an inner product space (most commonly the Euclidean spa ...
s of operations versus
operand
In mathematics, an operand is the object of a mathematical operation, i.e., it is the object or quantity that is operated on.
Example
The following arithmetic expression shows an example of operators and operands:
:3 + 6 = 9
In the above exam ...
types and
addressing mode
Addressing modes are an aspect of the instruction set architecture in most central processing unit (CPU) designs. The various addressing modes that are defined in a given instruction set architecture define how the machine language instructions i ...
s, as well as other enhancements, this made the performance gain over the 8080 or 8085 fairly significant, despite cases where the older chips may be faster (see below).
* EA = time to compute effective address, ranging from 5 to 12 cycles.
* Timings are best case, depending on prefetch status, instruction alignment, and other factors.
As can be seen from these tables, operations on registers and immediates were fast (between 2 and 4 cycles), while memory-operand instructions and jumps were quite slow; jumps took more cycles than on the simple
8080
The Intel 8080 (''"eighty-eighty"'') is the second 8-bit microprocessor designed and manufactured by Intel. It first appeared in April 1974 and is an extended and enhanced variant of the earlier 8008 design, although without binary compatibil ...
and
8085
The Intel 8085 ("''eighty-eighty-five''") is an 8-bit microprocessor produced by Intel and introduced in March 1976. It is software-binary compatible with the more-famous Intel 8080 with only two minor instructions added to support its added i ...
, and the 8088 (used in the IBM PC) was additionally hampered by its narrower bus. The reasons why most memory related instructions were slow were threefold:
* Loosely coupled fetch and execution units are efficient for instruction prefetch, but not for jumps and random data access (without special measures).
* No dedicated address calculation adder was afforded; the microcode routines had to use the main ALU for this (although there was a dedicated ''segment'' + ''offset'' adder).
* The address and data buses were
multiplex
Multiplex may refer to:
* Multiplex (automobile), a former American car make
* Multiplex (comics), a DC comic book supervillain
* Multiplex (company), a global contracting and development company
* Multiplex (assay), a biological assay which measu ...
ed, forcing a slightly longer (33~50%) bus cycle than in typical contemporary 8-bit processors.
However, memory access performance was drastically enhanced with Intel's next generation of 8086 family CPUs. The
80186
The Intel 80186, also known as the iAPX 186, or just 186, is a microprocessor and microcontroller introduced in 1982. It was based on the Intel 8086 and, like it, had a 16-bit external data bus multiplexed with a 20-bit address bus. The 80188 ...
and
80286
The Intel 80286 (also marketed as the iAPX 286 and often called Intel 286) is a 16-bit microprocessor that was introduced on February 1, 1982. It was the first 8086-based CPU with separate, non- multiplexed address and data buses and also the ...
both had dedicated address calculation hardware, saving many cycles, and the 80286 also had separate (non-multiplexed) address and data buses.
Floating point
The 8086/8088 could be connected to a mathematical coprocessor to add hardware/microcode-based
floating-point performance. The
Intel 8087 was the standard math coprocessor for the 8086 and 8088, operating on 80-bit numbers. Manufacturers like
Cyrix (8087-compatible) and
Weitek
Weitek Corporation was an American chip-design company that originally focused on floating-point units for a number of commercial CPU designs. During the early to mid-1980s, Weitek designs could be found powering a number of high-end designs ...
(''not'' 8087-compatible) eventually came up with high-performance floating-point coprocessors that competed with the 8087.
Chip versions
The clock frequency was originally limited to 5 MHz,
[(IBM PC used 4.77 MHz, 4/3 the standard NTSC ]color burst
Colorburst is an analog video, composite video signal generated by a video-signal generator used to keep the chrominance subcarrier synchronized in a color television signal. By synchronizing an oscillator with the colorburst at the back porc ...
frequency) but the last versions in
HMOS
In integrated circuits, depletion-load NMOS is a form of digital logic family that uses only a single power supply voltage, unlike earlier NMOS (n-type metal-oxide semiconductor) logic families that needed more than one different power supply ...
were specified for 10 MHz. HMOS-III and
CMOS versions were manufactured for a long time (at least a while into the 1990s) for
embedded system
An embedded system is a computer system—a combination of a computer processor, computer memory, and input/output peripheral devices—that has a dedicated function within a larger mechanical or electronic system. It is ''embedded'' ...
s, although its successor, the
80186
The Intel 80186, also known as the iAPX 186, or just 186, is a microprocessor and microcontroller introduced in 1982. It was based on the Intel 8086 and, like it, had a 16-bit external data bus multiplexed with a 20-bit address bus. The 80188 ...
/
80188 (which includes some on-chip peripherals), has been more popular for embedded use.
The 80C86, the CMOS version of the 8086, was used in the
GRiDPad,
Toshiba T1200
The Toshiba T1200 is a discontinued laptop that was manufactured by the Toshiba Corporation, first made in 1987. It is an upgraded version of the Toshiba T1100 Plus.
It is equipped with an Intel 80C86 processor at of which 384 KB can be used f ...
,
HP 110
The Hewlett-Packard HP 110 (aka HP Portable and HP 45710A) is an MS-DOS compatible portable computer released in 1984. It uses a Harris 80C86 running at 5.33 MHz with of RAM. It has an 80 character by 16 line monochrome () l ...
, and finally the 1998–1999
Lunar Prospector.
For the packaging, the Intel 8086 was available both in ceramic and plastic DIP packages.
List of Intel 8086
Derivatives and clones
Compatible—and, in many cases, enhanced—versions were manufactured by
Fujitsu,
Harris
Harris may refer to:
Places Canada
* Harris, Ontario
* Northland Pyrite Mine (also known as Harris Mine)
* Harris, Saskatchewan
* Rural Municipality of Harris No. 316, Saskatchewan
Scotland
* Harris, Outer Hebrides (sometimes called the Isle of ...
/
Intersil
Intersil is an American semiconductor company headquartered in Milpitas, California. As of February 24, 2017, Intersil is a subsidiary of Renesas. The previous Intersil was formed in August 1999 through the acquisition of the semiconductor busin ...
,
OKI
Oki or Ōki may refer to:
Places
*Oki District, Shimane, a district in Shimane Prefecture, Japan
*Oki Islands, an archipelago in the Sea of Japan
*Oki Province, a former province of Japan
*Ōki, Fukuoka, a town in southern Japan
*Oki Airport, the ...
,
Siemens,
Texas Instruments
Texas Instruments Incorporated (TI) is an American technology company headquartered in Dallas, Texas, that designs and manufactures semiconductors and various integrated circuits, which it sells to electronics designers and manufacturers globa ...
,
NEC
is a Japanese multinational information technology and electronics corporation, headquartered in Minato, Tokyo. The company was known as the Nippon Electric Company, Limited, before rebranding in 1983 as NEC. It provides IT and network soluti ...
,
Mitsubishi, and
AMD
Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. (AMD) is an American multinational semiconductor company based in Santa Clara, California, that develops computer processors and related technologies for business and consumer markets. While it initially manufactur ...
. For example, the
NEC V20
The NEC V20 is a microprocessor that was designed and produced by NEC. It is both pin compatible and object code compatible with the Intel 8088, with an instruction set architecture (ISA) similar to that of the Intel 80188 with some extension ...
and
NEC V30
The NEC V20 is a microprocessor that was designed and produced by NEC. It is both pin compatible and object code compatible with the Intel 8088, with an instruction set architecture (ISA) similar to that of the Intel 80188 with some extensio ...
pair were hardware-compatible with the 8088 and 8086 even though NEC made original Intel clones μPD8088D and μPD8086D respectively, but incorporated the instruction set of the 80186 along with some (but not all) of the 80186 speed enhancements, providing a drop-in capability to upgrade both instruction set and processing speed without manufacturers having to modify their designs. Such relatively simple and low-power 8086-compatible processors in CMOS are still used in embedded systems.
The electronics industry of the
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, ...
was able to replicate the 8086 through . The resulting chip,
K1810VM86
The K1810VM86 (russian: К1810ВМ86, italic=yes) is a Soviet 16-bit microprocessor, a clone of the Intel 8086 CPU with which it is binary and pin compatible. It was developed between 1982 and 1985. The original K1810VM86 supported a clock frequen ...
, was binary and pin-compatible with the 8086.
i8086 and i8088 were respectively the cores of the Soviet-made PC-compatible
EC1831 and
EC1832 desktops. (EC1831 is the EC identification of IZOT 1036C and EC1832 is the EC identification of IZOT 1037C, developed and manufactured in Bulgaria. EC stands for Единая Система.) However, the EC1831 computer (IZOT 1036C) had significant hardware differences from the IBM PC prototype. The EC1831 was the first PC-compatible computer with dynamic bus sizing (US Pat. No 4,831,514). Later some of the EC1831 principles were adopted in PS/2 (US Pat. No 5,548,786) and some other machines (UK Patent Application, Publication No. GB-A-2211325, Published June 28, 1989).
Support chips
*
Intel 8237
Intel 8237 is a direct memory access (DMA) controller, a part of the MCS 85 microprocessor family. It enables data transfer between memory and the I/O with reduced load on the system's main processor by providing the memory with control signals a ...
: direct memory access (DMA) controller
*
Intel 8251
The 8251 is a Universal Synchronous/Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (USART) packaged in a 28-pin DIP made by Intel. It is typically used for serial communication and was rated for per second signalling rate.
It is commonly confused with the mu ...
: universal synchronous/asynchronous receiver/transmitter at 19.2 kbit/s
*
Intel 8253
The Intel 8253 and 8254 are programmable interval timers (PITs), which perform timing and counting functions using three 16-bit counters.
The 825x family was primarily designed for the Intel 8080/ 8085-processors, but were later used in x86 ...
: programmable interval timer, 3x 16-bit max 10 MHz
*
Intel 8255
The Intel 8255 (or i8255) Programmable Peripheral Interface (PPI) chip was developed and manufactured by Intel in the first half of the 1970s for the Intel 8080 microprocessor. The 8255 provides 24 parallel input/output lines with a variety of pr ...
: programmable peripheral interface, 3x 8-bit I/O pins used for printer connection etc.
*
Intel 8259
The Intel 8259 is a Programmable Interrupt Controller (PIC) designed for the Intel 8085 and Intel 8086 microprocessors. The initial part was 8259, a later A suffix version was upward compatible and usable with the 8086 or 8088 processor. The 8 ...
: programmable interrupt controller
*
Intel 8279: keyboard/display controller, scans a keyboard matrix and display matrix like
7-seg
*
Intel 8282
The Intel 8282 is an 8-bit latch, which was developed primarily for the Intel-8086/8087/ 8088/ 8089-processors. The component comes in 20-pin DIL package. It was licensed to companies such as NEC and Siemens. With the ROM-less versions of the MCS- ...
/
8283: 8-bit latch
*
Intel 8284
The Intel 8284 is a clock oscillator chip developed primarily for supplying clock signals for the Intel-8086/8087/8088/ 8089 series of processors. The commercial variant of the chip comes in 18-pin DIL and 20-pin PLCC packages, and originally w ...
: clock generator
*
Intel 8286
Intel Corporation is an American multinational corporation and technology company headquartered in Santa Clara, California. It is the world's largest semiconductor chip manufacturer by revenue, and is one of the developers of the x86 seri ...
/
8287: bidirectional 8-bit driver. In 1980 both Intel I8286/I8287 (industrial grade) version were available for US$16.25 in quantities of 100.
*
Intel 8288
The Intel 8288 is a bus controller designed for Intel 8086/8087/8088/ 8089. The chip is supplied in 20-pin DIP package. The 8086 (and 8088) operate in maximum mode, so they are configured primarily for multiprocessor operation or for working wit ...
: bus controller
*
Intel 8289 The Intel 8289 is a Bus arbiter designed for Intel 8086/8087/ 8088/ 8089. The chip is supplied in 20-pin DIP package. The 8086 (and 8088) operate in maximum mode, so they are configured primarily for multiprocessor operation or for working with co ...
: bus arbiter
*
NEC µPD765 or Intel 8272A: floppy controller
Microcomputers using the 8086
* The Intel
Multibus
Multibus is a computer bus standard used in industrial systems. It was developed by Intel Corporation and was adopted as the IEEE 796 bus.
The Multibus specification was important because it was a robust, well-thought out industry standard with ...
-compatible
single-board computer ISBC 86/12 was announced in 1978.
* The
Xerox NoteTaker was one of the earliest
portable computer
A portable computer is a computer designed to be easily moved from one place to another and included a display and keyboard together, with a single plug, much like later desktop computers called '' all-in-ones'' (AIO), that integrate the s ...
designs in 1978 and used three 8086 chips (as CPU, graphics processor, and I/O processor), but never entered commercial production.
*
Seattle Computer Products shipped
S-100 bus
The S-100 bus or Altair bus, IEEE 696-1983 ''(withdrawn)'', is an early computer bus designed in 1974 as a part of the Altair 8800. The bus was the first industry standard expansion bus for the microcomputer industry. computers, consisting of p ...
based 8086 systems (SCP200B) as early as November 1979.
* The Norwegian
Mycron
Mycron was a pioneer manufacturer of microcomputers, located in Oslo, Norway.
Originally named Norsk Data Industri, the company was founded in 1975 by Lars Monrad Krohn, who was also one of the founding fathers of Norsk Data. Among the employ ...
2000, introduced in 1980.
* One of the most influential microcomputers of all, the
IBM PC, used the
Intel 8088
The Intel 8088 ("''eighty-eighty-eight''", also called iAPX 88) microprocessor is a variant of the Intel 8086. Introduced on June 1, 1979, the 8088 has an eight-bit external data bus instead of the 16-bit bus of the 8086. The 16-bit registers and ...
, a version of the 8086 with an 8-bit
data bus
In computer architecture, a bus (shortened form of the Latin '' omnibus'', and historically also called data highway or databus) is a communication system that transfers data between components inside a computer, or between computers. This e ...
(as mentioned above).
* The first
Compaq Deskpro
The Compaq Deskpro is a line of business-oriented personal computers manufactured by Compaq, then discontinued after the merger with Hewlett-Packard. Models were produced containing microprocessors from the 8086 up to the x86-based Intel Pentiu ...
used an 8086 running at 7.16 MHz, but was compatible with add-in cards designed for the 4.77 MHz
IBM PC XT and could switch the CPU down to the lower speed (which also switched in a memory bus buffer to simulate the 8088's slower access) to avoid software timing issues.
* An 8 MHz 8086-2 was used in the
AT&T 6300 PC (built by
Olivetti
Olivetti S.p.A. is an Italian manufacturer of computers, tablets, smartphones, printers and other such business products as calculators and fax machines. Headquartered in Ivrea, in the Metropolitan City of Turin, the company has been par ...
, and known globally under several brands and model numbers), an IBM PC-compatible desktop microcomputer. The M24 / PC 6300 has IBM PC/XT compatible 8-bit expansion slots, but some of them have a proprietary extension providing the full 16-bit data bus of the 8086 CPU (similar in concept to the 16-bit slots of the
IBM PC AT
The IBM Personal Computer/AT (model 5170, abbreviated as IBM AT or PC/AT) was released in 1984 as the fourth model in the IBM Personal Computer line, following the IBM PC/XT and its IBM Portable PC variant. It was designed around the Intel 80 ...
, but different in the design details, and physically incompatible), and all system peripherals including the onboard video system also enjoy 16-bit data transfers. The later Olivetti M24SP featured an 8086-2 running at the full maximum 10 MHz.
* The
IBM PS/2
The Personal System/2 or PS/2 is IBM's second generation of personal computers. Released in 1987, it officially replaced the IBM PC, XT, AT, and PC Convertible in IBM's lineup. Many of the PS/2's innovations, such as the 16550 UART (serial p ...
models 25 and 30 were built with an 8 MHz 8086.
* The
Amstrad PC1512
The Amstrad PC1512 was Amstrad's mostly IBM PC-compatible computer system, first manufactured in 1986. It was later succeeded by the PC1640.
Features
Whereas IBM's PC (and almost all PC compatibles) had a power supply in a corner of the main c ...
,
PC1640, PC2086, PC3086 and PC5086 all used 8086 CPUs at 8 MHz.
* The
NEC PC-9801
The , commonly shortened to PC-98 or , is a lineup of Japanese 16-bit and 32-bit personal computers manufactured by NEC from 1982 to 2000. The platform established NEC's dominance in the Japanese personal computer market, and, by 1999, more th ...
.
* The
Tandy 1000
The Tandy 1000 is the first in a line of IBM PC workalike home computer systems produced by the Tandy Corporation for sale in its Radio Shack and Radio Shack Computer Center chains of stores.
Overview
In December 1983, an executive with Tandy ...
SL-series and RL machines used 9.47 MHz 8086 CPUs.
* The
IBM Displaywriter word processing machine
and the Wang Professional Computer, manufactured by
Wang Laboratories
Wang Laboratories was a US computer company founded in 1951 by An Wang and G. Y. Chu. The company was successively headquartered in Cambridge, Massachusetts (1954–1963), Tewksbury, Massachusetts (1963–1976), and finally in Lowell, Massachuset ...
, also used the 8086.
*
NASA
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA ) is an independent agencies of the United States government, independent agency of the US federal government responsible for the civil List of government space agencies, space program ...
used original 8086 CPUs on equipment for ground-based maintenance of the
Space Shuttle Discovery
Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' ( Orbiter Vehicle Designation: OV-103) is one of the orbiters from NASA's Space Shuttle program and the third of five fully operational orbiters to be built. Its first mission, STS-41-D, flew from August 30 to S ...
until the end of the space shuttle program in 2011. This decision was made to prevent
software regression
A software regression is a type of software bug where a feature that has worked before stops working. This may happen after changes are applied to the software's source code, including the addition of new features and bug fixes. They may also be ...
that might result from upgrading or from switching to imperfect clones.
* KAMAN Process and Area Radiation Monitors
[Kaman Tech. Manual]
See also
*
Transistor count
The transistor count is the number of transistors in an electronic device (typically on a single substrate or "chip"). It is the most common measure of integrated circuit complexity (although the majority of transistors in modern microprocessors ...
*
iAPX
In marketing, iAPX (''Intel Advanced Performance Architecture'' with X standing in for the Greek letter χ (''chi''), romanised as "ch") was a short lived designation used for several Intel microprocessors, including some 8086 family processors. ...
, for the iAPX name
Notes
References
External links
Intel datasheetsList of 8086 CPUs and their clones at CPUworld.comMaximum Mode InterfaceArchived
from the original on July 21, 2011. Retrieved July 10, 2022.
( PDF document)
8086 program codes using emu8086 (Version 4.08) Emulator
*
*
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
{{Authority control
Computer-related introductions in 1978
80086
16-bit microprocessors