Figurative Speech
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A figure of speech or rhetorical figure is a word or phrase that intentionally deviates from ordinary language use in order to produce a
rhetoric Rhetoric () is the art of persuasion, which along with grammar and logic (or dialectic), is one of the three ancient arts of discourse. Rhetoric aims to study the techniques writers or speakers utilize to inform, persuade, or motivate parti ...
al effect. Figures of speech are traditionally classified into '' schemes,'' which vary the ordinary sequence of words, and '' tropes,'' where words carry a meaning other than what they ordinarily signify. An example of a scheme is a
polysyndeton Polysyndeton (from Ancient Greek πολύ ''poly'', meaning "many", and συνδετόν '' syndeton'', meaning "bound together with".) is the deliberate insertion of conjunctions into a sentence for the purpose of "slow ngup the rhythm of the ...
: the repetition of a conjunction before every element in a list, whereas the conjunction typically would appear only before the last element, as in "Lions and tigers and bears, oh my!"—emphasizing the danger and number of animals more than the
prosaic Prose is a form of written or spoken language that follows the natural flow of speech, uses a language's ordinary grammatical structures, or follows the conventions of formal academic writing. It differs from most traditional poetry, where the f ...
wording with only the second "and". An example of a trope is the
metaphor A metaphor is a figure of speech that, for rhetorical effect, directly refers to one thing by mentioning another. It may provide (or obscure) clarity or identify hidden similarities between two different ideas. Metaphors are often compared wit ...
, describing one thing as something that it clearly is not in order to lead the mind to compare them, in "All the world's a stage."


Four rhetorical operations

Classical rhetoric Rhetoric () is the art of persuasion, which along with grammar and logic (or dialectic), is one of the three ancient arts of discourse. Rhetoric aims to study the techniques writers or speakers utilize to inform, persuade, or motivate part ...
ians classified figures of speech into four categories or :Jansen, Jeroen (2008)
Imitatio
''

translated to English by Kristine Steenbergh. Quote from the summary:
Using these formulas, a pupil could render the same subject or theme in a myriad of ways. For the mature author, this principle offered a set of tools to rework source texts into a new creation. In short, the quadripartita ratio offered the student or author a ready-made framework, whether for changing words or the transformation of entire texts. Since it concerned relatively mechanical procedures of adaptation that for the most part could be learned, the techniques concerned could be taught at school at a relatively early age, for example in the improvement of pupils’ own writing.
* addition (), also called repetition/expansion/superabundance * omission (), also called subtraction/abridgement/lack * transposition (), also called transferring * permutation (), also called switching/interchange/substitution/transmutation These categories are often still used. The earliest known text listing them, though not explicitly as a system, is the ''
Rhetorica ad Herennium The ''Rhetorica ad Herennium'' (''Rhetoric for Herennius''), formerly attributed to Cicero or Cornificius, but in fact of unknown authorship, sometimes ascribed to an unnamed doctor, is the oldest surviving Latin book on rhetoric, dating from th ...
'', of unknown authorship, where they are called —addition), —permutation). Quintillian then mentioned them in ''
Institutio Oratoria ''Institutio Oratoria'' (English: Institutes of Oratory) is a twelve-volume textbook on the theory and practice of rhetoric by Roman rhetorician Quintilian. It was published around year 95 AD. The work deals also with the foundational education ...
''.
Philo of Alexandria Philo of Alexandria (; grc, Φίλων, Phílōn; he, יְדִידְיָה, Yəḏīḏyāh (Jedediah); ), also called Philo Judaeus, was a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher who lived in Alexandria, in the Roman province of Egypt. Philo's deplo ...
also listed them as addition ().


Examples

Figures of speech come in many varieties. The aim is to use the language inventively to accentuate the effect of what is being said. A few examples follow: * "Round and round the rugged rocks the ragged rascal ran" is an example of
alliteration Alliteration is the conspicuous repetition of initial consonant sounds of nearby words in a phrase, often used as a literary device. A familiar example is "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers". Alliteration is used poetically in various ...
, where the consonant ''r'' is used repeatedly. "Sister Suzy‘s sewing socks for soldiers" is a particular form of alliteration called
sibilance Sibilants are fricative consonants of higher amplitude and pitch, made by directing a stream of air with the tongue towards the teeth. Examples of sibilants are the consonants at the beginning of the English words ''sip'', ''zip'', ''ship'', and ...
, repeating an ''s'' sound. Both are commonly used in poetry. * "She would run up the stairs and then a new set of curtains" is a variety of zeugma called a
syllepsis In rhetoric, zeugma (; from the Ancient Greek , , lit. "a yoking together"Liddell, H. G. & al. ''A Greek-English Lexicon''"" Perseus Project. Retrieved 24 January 2013.) and syllepsis (; from the Ancient Greek , , lit. "a taking together"''Random ...
. ''Run up'' can refer either to a quick ascent or to manufacture. The effect is enhanced by the momentary suggestion, through a
pun A pun, also known as paronomasia, is a form of word play that exploits multiple meanings of a term, or of similar-sounding words, for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect. These ambiguities can arise from the intentional use of homophoni ...
, that she might be climbing the curtains. The
ellipsis The ellipsis (, also known informally as dot dot dot) is a series of dots that indicates an intentional omission of a word, sentence, or whole section from a text without altering its original meaning. The plural is ellipses. The term origin ...
or omission of the second use of the verb makes the reader think harder about what is being said. * "Painful pride" is an
oxymoron An oxymoron (usual plural oxymorons, more rarely oxymora) is a figure of speech that juxtaposes concepts with opposing meanings within a word or phrase that creates an ostensible self-contradiction. An oxymoron can be used as a rhetorical devi ...
, where two contradictory ideas are placed in the same sentence. *"An Einstein" is an example of
synecdoche Synecdoche ( ) is a type of metonymy: it is a figure of speech in which a term for a part of something is used to refer to the whole (''pars pro toto''), or vice versa (''totum pro parte''). The term comes from Greek . Examples in common Engl ...
, as it uses a particular name to represent a class of people: geniuses. * "I had butterflies in my stomach" is a
metaphor A metaphor is a figure of speech that, for rhetorical effect, directly refers to one thing by mentioning another. It may provide (or obscure) clarity or identify hidden similarities between two different ideas. Metaphors are often compared wit ...
, referring to a nervous feeling as if there were flying insects in one's stomach. :To say "it was like having some butterflies in my stomach" would be a
simile A simile () is a figure of speech that directly ''compares'' two things. Similes differ from other metaphors by highlighting the similarities between two things using comparison words such as "like", "as", "so", or "than", while other metaphors cr ...
, because it uses the word ''like'' which is missing in the metaphor. :To say "It was like having a butterfly farm in my stomach", "It felt like a butterfly farm in my stomach", or "I was so nervous that I had a butterfly farm in my stomach" could be a
hyperbole Hyperbole (; adj. hyperbolic ) is the use of exaggeration as a rhetorical device or figure of speech. In rhetoric, it is also sometimes known as auxesis (literally 'growth'). In poetry and oratory, it emphasizes, evokes strong feelings, and ...
, because it is exaggerated. *"That filthy place was really dirty" is an example of tautology, as there are the two words ('filthy' and 'dirty') having almost the same meaning and are repeated so as to make the text more emphatic.


Types

Scholars of classical Western rhetoric have divided figures of speech into two main categories: schemes and tropes. '' Schemes'' (from the Greek , 'form or shape') are figures of speech that change the ordinary or expected pattern of words. For example, the phrase, "John, my best friend" uses the scheme known as
apposition Apposition is a grammatical construction in which two elements, normally noun phrases, are placed side by side so one element identifies the other in a different way. The two elements are said to be ''in apposition'', and one of the elements is c ...
. '' Tropes'' (from Greek , 'to turn') change the general meaning of words. An example of a trope is irony, which is the use of words to convey the opposite of their usual meaning ("For Brutus is an honorable man; / So are they all, all honorable men"). During the
Renaissance The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass ideas ...
, scholars meticulously enumerated and classified figures of speech. Henry Peacham, for example, in his ''The Garden of Eloquence'' (1577), enumerated 184 different figures of speech. Professor Robert DiYanni, in his book ''Literature: Reading Fiction, Poetry, Drama and the Essay'' wrote: "Rhetoricians have catalogued more than 250 different ''figures of speech'', expressions or ways of using words in a nonliteral sense." For simplicity, this article divides the figures between schemes and tropes, but does not further sub-classify them (e.g., "Figures of Disorder"). Within each category, words are listed alphabetically. Most entries link to a page that provides greater detail and relevant examples, but a short definition is placed here for convenience. Some of those listed may be considered
rhetorical device In rhetoric, a rhetorical device, persuasive device, or stylistic device is a technique that an author or speaker uses to convey to the listener or reader a meaning with the goal of persuading them towards considering a topic from a perspective, ...
s, which are similar in many ways.


Schemes

Schemes are words or phrases whose syntax, sequence, or pattern occurs in a manner that varies from an ordinary usage. *
Accumulatio Accumulatio is a figure of speech, part of the more general group of ''enumeratio'', in which the statements made previously are presented again in a compact, forceful manner. It often uses a climax for the summation of a speech. The word is Latin ...
: accumulating arguments in a concise forceful manner. *
Alliteration Alliteration is the conspicuous repetition of initial consonant sounds of nearby words in a phrase, often used as a literary device. A familiar example is "Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers". Alliteration is used poetically in various ...
: the occurrence of the same letter or sound at the beginning of adjacent or closely connected words. *: Example: "She sells sea shells by the sea shore". *
Anacoluthon An anacoluthon (; from the Greek ''anakolouthon'', from ''an-'': "not" and ἀκόλουθος ''akólouthos'': "following") is an unexpected discontinuity in the expression of ideas within a sentence, leading to a form of words in which there is l ...
: transposition of clauses to achieve an unnatural order in a sentence. *
Anadiplosis Anadiplosis ( ; el, ἀναδίπλωσις, ''anadíplōsis'', "a doubling, folding up") is the repetition of the last word of a preceding clause. The word is used at the end of a sentence and then used again at the beginning of the next sentence ...
: repetition of a word at the end of a clause and then at the beginning of its succeeding clause. * Anaphora: the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses. *
Anastrophe Anastrophe (from the el, ἀναστροφή, ''anastrophē'', "a turning back or about") is a figure of speech in which the normal word order of the subject, the verb, and the object is changed. For example, subject–verb–object ("I like po ...
: changing the
object Object may refer to: General meanings * Object (philosophy), a thing, being, or concept ** Object (abstract), an object which does not exist at any particular time or place ** Physical object, an identifiable collection of matter * Goal, an ...
, subject and verb order in a clause. * Anti-climax: an abrupt descent (either deliberate or unintended) on the part of a speaker or writer from the dignity of idea which he appeared to be aiming at. *: Example: "People, pets, batteries, ... all are dead." *
Anthimeria In rhetoric, anthimeria or antimeria (from grc-gre, ἀντί, links=no, , 'against, opposite', and grc, μέρος, méros, part, label=none), means using one part of speech as another, such as using a noun as a verb: "The little old lady turt ...
: transformation of a word of a certain word class to another word class. *
Antimetabole In rhetoric, antimetabole ( ) is the repetition of words in successive clauses, but in transposed order; for example, "I know what I like, and I like what I know". It is related to, and sometimes considered a special case of, chiasmus. An antimet ...
: a sentence consisting of the repetition of words in successive clauses, but in reverse order. *
Antithesis Antithesis (Greek for "setting opposite", from "against" and "placing") is used in writing or speech either as a proposition that contrasts with or reverses some previously mentioned proposition, or when two opposites are introduced together f ...
: juxtaposition of opposing or contrasting ideas. *
Aphorismus Aphorismus (from the , ''aphorismós'', "a marking off", also "rejection, banishment") is a figure of speech that calls into question if a word is properly used ("How can you call yourself a man?"). It often appears in the form of a rhetorical que ...
: statement that calls into question the definition of a word. *
Aposiopesis Aposiopesis (; Classical Greek: ἀποσιώπησις, "becoming silent") is a figure of speech wherein a sentence is deliberately broken off and left unfinished, the ending to be supplied by the imagination, giving an impression of unwillingness ...
: breaking off or pausing speech for dramatic or emotional effect. *
Assonance Assonance is a resemblance in the sounds of words/syllables either between their vowels (e.g., ''meat, bean'') or between their consonants (e.g., ''keep, cape''). However, assonance between consonants is generally called ''consonance'' in America ...
: repetition of vowel sounds: "Smooth move!" or "Please leave!" or "That's the fact Jack!" *
Asyndeton Asyndeton (, ; from the el, ἀσύνδετον, "unconnected", sometimes called asyndetism) is a literary scheme in which one or several conjunctions are deliberately omitted from a series of related clauses. Examples include ''veni, vidi, vici ...
: omission of conjunctions between related clauses. *
Chiasmus In rhetoric, chiasmus ( ) or, less commonly, chiasm (Latin term from Greek , "crossing", from the Greek , , "to shape like the letter Χ"), is a "reversal of grammatical structures in successive phrases or clauses – but no repetition of wor ...
: two or more clauses are related to each other through a reversal of structures in order to make a larger point. *
Climax Climax may refer to: Language arts * Climax (narrative), the point of highest tension in a narrative work * Climax (rhetoric), a figure of speech that lists items in order of importance Biology * Climax community, a biological community th ...
: arrangement of words in an ascending order. *
Consonance In music, consonance and dissonance are categorizations of simultaneous or successive sounds. Within the Western tradition, some listeners associate consonance with sweetness, pleasantness, and acceptability, and dissonance with harshness, unple ...
: repetition of consonant sounds, most commonly within a short passage of verse. * Correlative verse: matching items in two sequences. *
Diacope Diacope () is a rhetorical term meaning repetition of a word or phrase that is broken up by a single intervening word, or a small number of intervening words. It derives from a Greek word ''diakopḗ,'' which means "cut in two". Examples * "Bond. J ...
: repetition of a word or phrase with one or two intervening words. *
Ellipsis The ellipsis (, also known informally as dot dot dot) is a series of dots that indicates an intentional omission of a word, sentence, or whole section from a text without altering its original meaning. The plural is ellipses. The term origin ...
: omission of words. *
Elision In linguistics, an elision or deletion is the omission of one or more sounds (such as a vowel, a consonant, or a whole syllable) in a word or phrase. However, these terms are also used to refer more narrowly to cases where two words are run toget ...
: omission of one or more letters in speech, making it colloquial. *
Enallage Enallage (; el, ἐναλλαγή, ''enallagḗ'', "interchange") is one type of scheme of rhetorical figures of speech which is used to refer to the use of tense, form, or person for a grammatically incorrect counterpart.Silva Rhetoricae (200 ...
: wording ignoring grammatical rules or conventions. *
Epanalepsis Epanalepsis (from the Greek , ''epanálēpsis'' "repetition, resumption, taking up again") is the repetition of the initial part of a clause or sentence at the end of that same clause or sentence. The beginning and the end of a sentence are two po ...
: ending sentences with their beginning. *
Epistrophe Epistrophe ( el, ἐπιστροφή, "return") is the repetition of the same word or words at the end of successive phrases, clauses or sentences. It is also known as epiphora and occasionally as antistrophe. It is a figure of speech and the co ...
(also known as antistrophe): repetition of the same word or group of words at the end of successive clauses. The counterpart of anaphora. *
Epizeuxis In rhetoric, epizeuxis is the repetition of a word or phrase in immediate succession, typically within the same sentence, for vehemence or emphasis. A closely related rhetorical device is diacope, which involves word repetition that is broken up ...
: repetition of a single word, with no other words in between. *
Hendiadys Hendiadys (; a Latinized form of the Greek phrase (') 'one through two') is a figure of speech used for emphasis—"The substitution of a conjunction for a subordination". The basic idea is to use two words linked by the conjunction "and" instea ...
: use of two nouns to express an idea when it normally would consist of an adjective and a noun. *
Hendiatris Hendiatris (; ) is a figure of speech used for emphasis, in which three words are used to express one idea. The phrases "sun, sea and sand", and "wine, women and song" are examples. A tripartite motto is the conventional English term for a motto ...
: use of three nouns to express one idea. *
Homeoteleuton Homeoteleuton, also spelled homoeoteleuton and homoioteleuton (from the Greek ,Silva Rhetoricae (2006)Rhetorical Figures for Shakespeare and the Scriptures/ref> ''homoioteleuton'', "like ending"), is the repetition of endings in words. Homeoteleuto ...
: words with the same ending. *
Hypallage Hypallage (; from the el, ὑπαλλαγή, ''hypallagḗ'', "interchange, exchange") is a figure of speech in which the syntactic relationship between two terms is interchanged, or – more frequently – a modifier is syntactically linked to an ...
: a transferred epithet from a conventional choice of wording. *
Hyperbaton Hyperbaton , in its original meaning, is a figure of speech in which a phrase is made discontinuous by the insertion of other words.Andrew M. Devine, Laurence D. Stephens, ''Latin Word Order: Structured Meaning and Information'' (Oxford: Oxford Un ...
: two ordinary associated words are detached. The term may also be used more generally for all different figures of speech which transpose natural word order in sentences. *
Hyperbole Hyperbole (; adj. hyperbolic ) is the use of exaggeration as a rhetorical device or figure of speech. In rhetoric, it is also sometimes known as auxesis (literally 'growth'). In poetry and oratory, it emphasizes, evokes strong feelings, and ...
: an exaggeration of a statement. *
Hypozeuxis Hypozeuxis is a rhetorical term for an expression or sentence where every clause has its own independent subject and predicate. If the same words are repeated in each clause, it is also an example of anaphora. *"We shall fight on the beaches. We ...
: every clause having its own independent subject and predicate. *
Hysteron proteron The hysteron proteron (from the el, ὕστερον πρότερον, ''hýsteron próteron'', "later earlier") is a rhetorical device. It occurs when the first key word of the idea refers to something that happens temporally later than the second ...
: the inversion of the usual temporal or causal order between two elements. *
Isocolon Isocolon is a rhetorical scheme in which Parallelism (rhetoric), parallel elements possess the same number of words or syllables. As in any form of Parallelism (rhetoric), parallelism, the pairs or series must enumerate like things to achieve symm ...
: use of parallel structures of the same length in successive clauses. *
Internal rhyme In poetry, internal rhyme, or middle rhyme, is rhyme that occurs within a single line of verse, or between internal phrases across multiple lines. By contrast, rhyme between line endings is known as end rhyme. Internal rhyme schemes can be denoted ...
: using two or more rhyming words in the same sentence. *
Kenning A kenning ( Icelandic: ) is a figure of speech in the type of circumlocution, a compound that employs figurative language in place of a more concrete single-word noun. Kennings are strongly associated with Old Norse-Icelandic and Old English po ...
: using a compound word neologism to form a
metonym Metonymy () is a figure of speech in which a concept is referred to by the name of something closely associated with that thing or concept. Etymology The words ''metonymy'' and ''metonym'' come from grc, μετωνυμία, 'a change of name' ...
. *
Litotes In rhetoric, litotes (, or ), also known classically as ''antenantiosis'' or ''moderatour'', is a figures of speech, figure of speech and form of verbal irony in which understatement is used to emphasize a point by stating a negative to further a ...
: an understatement achieved by negating the opposite statement, such as "not too bad" for "very good", or "she is not a beauty queen" for "she is ugly", yielding an ironical effect. *
Merism Merism ( la, merismus, grc-gre, μερισμός, merismós) is a rhetorical device (or figure of speech) in which a combination of two ''contrasting parts'' of the whole refer to the whole. For example, in order to say that someone "searched e ...
: referring to a whole by enumerating some of its parts. *
Onomatopoeia Onomatopoeia is the process of creating a word that phonetically imitates, resembles, or suggests the sound that it describes. Such a word itself is also called an onomatopoeia. Common onomatopoeias include animal noises such as ''oink'', ''m ...
: word that imitates a real sound (e.g. tick-tock or boom). *
Paradiastole Paradiastole (from Greek παραδιαστολή from παρά ''para'' "next to, alongside", and διαστολή ''diastole'' "separation, distinction") is the reframing of a vice as a virtue, often with the use of euphemism,Silva Rhetoricae (200 ...
: repetition of the disjunctive pair "neither" and "nor". * Parallelism: the use of similar structures in two or more clauses. *
Paraprosdokian A paraprosdokian () is a figure of speech in which the latter part of a sentence, phrase, or larger discourse is surprising or unexpected in a way that causes the reader or listener to reframe or reinterpret the first part. It is frequently used f ...
: an utterance in which the same word is used with two different meanings, creating a pun. *
Paroemion Paroemion is a form of alliteration where nearly every word in a sentence begins with the same consonant. The repetition of initial consonant sounds in neighboring words (as wild and woolly, threatening throngs) is also called head rhyme or initial ...
: alliteration in which every word in a sentence or phrase begins with the same letter. *
Pleonasm Pleonasm (; , ) is redundancy in linguistic expression, such as "black darkness" or "burning fire". It is a manifestation of tautology by traditional rhetorical criteria and might be considered a fault of style. Pleonasm may also be used for em ...
: the use of more words than are needed to express meaning. *
Polyptoton Polyptoton is the stylistic scheme in which words derived from the same root are repeated (such as "strong" and "strength"). A related stylistic device is antanaclasis, in which the same word is repeated, but each time with a different sense. An ...
: repetition of words derived from the same root. *
Polysyndeton Polysyndeton (from Ancient Greek πολύ ''poly'', meaning "many", and συνδετόν '' syndeton'', meaning "bound together with".) is the deliberate insertion of conjunctions into a sentence for the purpose of "slow ngup the rhythm of the ...
: close repetition of conjunctions. *
Pun A pun, also known as paronomasia, is a form of word play that exploits multiple meanings of a term, or of similar-sounding words, for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect. These ambiguities can arise from the intentional use of homophoni ...
: when a word or phrase is used in two (or more) different senses. *
Sibilance Sibilants are fricative consonants of higher amplitude and pitch, made by directing a stream of air with the tongue towards the teeth. Examples of sibilants are the consonants at the beginning of the English words ''sip'', ''zip'', ''ship'', and ...
: repetition of letter 's', it is a form of
consonance In music, consonance and dissonance are categorizations of simultaneous or successive sounds. Within the Western tradition, some listeners associate consonance with sweetness, pleasantness, and acceptability, and dissonance with harshness, unple ...
. *
Spoonerism A spoonerism is an occurrence in speech in which corresponding consonants, vowels, or morphemes are switched (see metathesis) between two words in a phrase. These are named after the Oxford don and ordained minister William Archibald Spooner, w ...
: switching place of syllables within two words in a sentence yielding amusement. * Syncope: omission of parts of a word or phrase. *
Symploce In rhetoric, symploce is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is used successively at the beginning of two or more clauses or sentences and another word or phrase with a similar wording is used successively at the end of them. It is the comb ...
: simultaneous use of anaphora and epistrophe: the repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning and the end of successive clauses. * Synchysis: words that are intentionally scattered to create perplexment. *
Synecdoche Synecdoche ( ) is a type of metonymy: it is a figure of speech in which a term for a part of something is used to refer to the whole (''pars pro toto''), or vice versa (''totum pro parte''). The term comes from Greek . Examples in common Engl ...
: referring to a part by its whole or vice versa. *
Synonymia In rhetoric, synonymia (Greek: syn, "alike" + onoma, "name") is the use of several synonyms together to amplify or explain a given subject or term. It is a kind of repetition that adds emotional force or intellectual clarity. Synonymia often occurs ...
: use of two or more synonyms in the same clause or sentence. * Tautology: redundancy due to superfluous qualification; saying the same thing twice. *
Tmesis In its strictest sense, tmesis (; plural tmeses ; Ancient Greek: ''tmēsis'' "a cutting" < ''temnō'', "I cut") is a word compound that ...
: insertions of content within a compound word. * Zeugma: the using of one verb for two or more actions.


Tropes

Tropes are words or phrases whose contextual meaning differs from the manner or sense in which they are ordinarily used. *
Accismus Accismus is a feigned refusal of something earnestly desired.''Garner's Modern American Usage''p. 877/ref> The 1823 ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' writes that accismus may sometimes be considered a virtue, sometimes a vice.
: expressing the want of something by denying it. *
Adynaton Adynaton (; plural adynata) is a figure of speech in the form of hyperbole taken to such extreme lengths as to insinuate a complete impossibility: I will sooner have a beard grow in the palm of my hand than he shall get one on his cheek. The wor ...
: an extreme form of
hyperbole Hyperbole (; adj. hyperbolic ) is the use of exaggeration as a rhetorical device or figure of speech. In rhetoric, it is also sometimes known as auxesis (literally 'growth'). In poetry and oratory, it emphasizes, evokes strong feelings, and ...
(exaggeration). It the opposite of understatement. *
Allegory As a literary device or artistic form, an allegory is a narrative or visual representation in which a character, place, or event can be interpreted to represent a hidden meaning with moral or political significance. Authors have used allegory th ...
: a
metaphor A metaphor is a figure of speech that, for rhetorical effect, directly refers to one thing by mentioning another. It may provide (or obscure) clarity or identify hidden similarities between two different ideas. Metaphors are often compared wit ...
ic narrative in which the literal elements indirectly reveal a parallel story of symbolic or abstract significance. *
Allusion Allusion is a figure of speech, in which an object or circumstance from unrelated context is referred to covertly or indirectly. It is left to the audience to make the direct connection. Where the connection is directly and explicitly stated (as ...
: covert reference to another work of literature or art. *
Anacoenosis Anacoenosis is a figure of speech in which the speaker poses a question to an audience in a way that demonstrates a common interest. Discussion The term comes from the Greek (''anakoinoûn''), meaning "to communicate, impart". Anacoenosis typi ...
: posing a question to an audience, often with the implication that it shares a common interest with the speaker. *
Analogy Analogy (from Greek ''analogia'', "proportion", from ''ana-'' "upon, according to" lso "against", "anew"+ ''logos'' "ratio" lso "word, speech, reckoning" is a cognitive process of transferring information or meaning from a particular subject ( ...
: a comparison between two things, typically for the purpose of explanation or clarification. *
Anapodoton An anapodoton (from Ancient Greek ''anapódoton'': "that which lacks an apodosis, that is, the consequential clause in a conditional sentence), plural anapodota, is a rhetorical device related to the anacoluthon; both involve a thought being int ...
: leaving a common known saying unfinished. *
Antanaclasis In rhetoric, antanaclasis (; from the el, ἀντανάκλασις, ''antanáklasis'', meaning "reflection", from ἀντί ''anti'', "against", ἀνά ''ana'', "up" and κλάσις ''klásis'' "breaking") is the literary trope in which a si ...
: a form of
pun A pun, also known as paronomasia, is a form of word play that exploits multiple meanings of a term, or of similar-sounding words, for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect. These ambiguities can arise from the intentional use of homophoni ...
in which a word is repeated in two different senses. *
Anthimeria In rhetoric, anthimeria or antimeria (from grc-gre, ἀντί, links=no, , 'against, opposite', and grc, μέρος, méros, part, label=none), means using one part of speech as another, such as using a noun as a verb: "The little old lady turt ...
: a substitution of one part of speech for another, such as noun for a verb and vice versa. *
Anthropomorphism Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human traits, emotions, or intentions to non-human entities. It is considered to be an innate tendency of human psychology. Personification is the related attribution of human form and characteristics t ...
: ascribing human characteristics to something that is not human, such as an animal or a god (see
zoomorphism The word ''zoomorphism'' derives from the Greek ζωον (''zōon''), meaning "animal", and μορφη (''morphē''), meaning "shape" or "form". In the context of art, zoomorphism could describe art that imagines humans as non-human animals. It c ...
). *
Antiphrasis Antiphrasis is the rhetorical device of saying the opposite of what is actually meant in such a way that it is obvious what the true intention is.Bernard Dupriez, tr. Albert W. Halsall, ''A Dictionary of Literary Devices: Gradus, A–Z'', , pp. 49 ...
: a name or a phrase used ironically. * Antistasis: repetition of a word in a different sense. *
Antonomasia In rhetoric, antonomasia is a kind of metonymy in which an epithet or phrase takes the place of a proper name, such as "the little corporal" for Napoleon I; or, conversely, the use of a proper name as an archetypal name, to express a generic idea. ...
: substitution of a proper name for a phrase or vice versa. *
Aphorism An aphorism (from Greek ἀφορισμός: ''aphorismos'', denoting 'delimitation', 'distinction', and 'definition') is a concise, terse, laconic, or memorable expression of a general truth or principle. Aphorisms are often handed down by tra ...
: briefly phrased, easily memorable statement of a truth or opinion, an adage. *
Aporia In philosophy, an aporia ( grc, ᾰ̓πορῐ́ᾱ, aporíā, literally: "lacking passage", also: "impasse", "difficulty in passage", "puzzlement") is a conundrum or state of puzzlement. In rhetoric, it is a declaration of doubt, made for rh ...
: faked or sincere puzzled questioning. *
Apophasis Apophasis (; , ) is a rhetorical device wherein the speaker or writer brings up a subject by either denying it, or denying that it should be brought up. Accordingly, it can be seen as a rhetorical relative of irony. The device is also called p ...
: (Invoking) an idea by denying its (invocation), also known as occupatio or paralipsis. *
Apostrophe The apostrophe ( or ) is a punctuation mark, and sometimes a diacritical mark, in languages that use the Latin alphabet and some other alphabets. In English, the apostrophe is used for two basic purposes: * The marking of the omission of one o ...
: when an actor or speaker addresses an absent third party, often a personified abstraction or inanimate object. *
Archaism In language, an archaism (from the grc, ἀρχαϊκός, ''archaïkós'', 'old-fashioned, antiquated', ultimately , ''archaîos'', 'from the beginning, ancient') is a word, a sense of a word, or a style of speech or writing that belongs to a hi ...
: use of an obsolete, archaic word (a word used in olden language, e.g. Shakespeare's language). *
Bathos Bathos ( ;''Oxford English Dictionary'', 1st ed. "bathos, ''n.'' Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1885. grc-gre, ,  "depth") is a literary term, first used in this sense in Alexander Pope's 1727 essay " Peri Bathous", to describe an ...
: pompous speech with a ludicrously mundane worded anti-climax. * Burlesque metaphor: an amusing, overstated or grotesque comparison or example. *
Catachresis Catachresis (from Greek , "abuse"), originally meaning a semantic misuse or error—e.g., using "militate" for "mitigate", "chronic" for "severe", "travesty" for "tragedy", "anachronism" for "anomaly", "alibi" for "excuse", etc.—is also the na ...
: blatant misuse of words or phrases. *
Cliché A cliché ( or ) is an element of an artistic work, saying, or idea that has become overused to the point of losing its original meaning or effect, even to the point of being weird or irritating, especially when at some earlier time it was consi ...
: overused phrase or theme. *
Dysphemism A dysphemism is an expression with connotations that are derogatory either about the subject matter or to the audience. Dysphemisms contrast with neutral or euphemistic expressions. Dysphemism may be motivated by fear, distaste, hatred, contempt, ...
: substitution of a harsher, more offensive, or more disagreeable term for another. Opposite of
euphemism A euphemism () is an innocuous word or expression used in place of one that is deemed offensive or suggests something unpleasant. Some euphemisms are intended to amuse, while others use bland, inoffensive terms for concepts that the user wishes ...
. *
Ekphrasis The word ekphrasis, or ecphrasis, comes from the Greek for the written description of a work of art produced as a rhetorical or literary exercise, often used in the adjectival form ekphrastic. It is a vivid, often dramatic, verbal descrip ...
: lively describing something you see, often a painting. *
Epanorthosis An epanorthosis is a figure of speech that signifies emphatic word replacement. "Thousands, no, millions!" is a stock example. Epanorthosis as immediate and emphatic self-correction often follows a Freudian slip (either accidental or deliberate). ...
: immediate and emphatic self-correction, often following a
slip of the tongue ''Slip of the Tongue'' is the eighth studio album by the British band Whitesnake, released in 1989. The album peaked at number 10 on both the UK Album Chart and US ''Billboard'' 200. Three singles were released from the album: " Fool for Your ...
. * Epicrisis: mentioning a saying and then commenting on it. * Epiplexis: rhetorical question displaying disapproval or debunks. * Epitrope: initially pretending to agree with an opposing debater or invite one to do something. *
Euphemism A euphemism () is an innocuous word or expression used in place of one that is deemed offensive or suggests something unpleasant. Some euphemisms are intended to amuse, while others use bland, inoffensive terms for concepts that the user wishes ...
: substitution of a less offensive or more agreeable term for another. *
Exclamation An exclamation is an emphatic utterance, the articulate expression of an affect. Exclamation may also refer to: * Exclamation mark, the punctuation mark "!" * Exclamation, an emphatic interjection * Exclamation, a statement against penal interest ...
: a loud calling or crying out. *
Hyperbaton Hyperbaton , in its original meaning, is a figure of speech in which a phrase is made discontinuous by the insertion of other words.Andrew M. Devine, Laurence D. Stephens, ''Latin Word Order: Structured Meaning and Information'' (Oxford: Oxford Un ...
: words that naturally belong together separated from each other for emphasis or effect. *
Hyperbole Hyperbole (; adj. hyperbolic ) is the use of exaggeration as a rhetorical device or figure of speech. In rhetoric, it is also sometimes known as auxesis (literally 'growth'). In poetry and oratory, it emphasizes, evokes strong feelings, and ...
: use of exaggerated terms for emphasis. *
Hypocatastasis Hypocatastasis is a figure of speech that declares or implies a resemblance, representation or comparison. It differs from a metaphor, because in a metaphor the two nouns are both named and given; while, in hypocatastasis, only one is named and th ...
: an implication or declaration of resemblance that does not directly name both terms. *
Hypophora Hypophora, also referred to as anthypophora or antipophora, is a figure of speech in which the speaker poses a question and then answers the question.Silva Rhetoricae (2006)"Anthypophora" Brigham Young University. Hypophora can consist of a single ...
: answering one's own
rhetorical question A rhetorical question is one for which the questioner does not expect a direct answer: in many cases it may be intended to start a discourse, or as a means of displaying or emphasize the speaker's or author's opinion on a topic. A common example ...
at length. *
Hysteron proteron The hysteron proteron (from the el, ὕστερον πρότερον, ''hýsteron próteron'', "later earlier") is a rhetorical device. It occurs when the first key word of the idea refers to something that happens temporally later than the second ...
: reversal of anticipated order of events; a form of hyperbaton. *
Illeism Illeism (from Latin ''ille'' meaning "he, that") is the act of referring to oneself in the third person instead of first person. It is sometimes used in literature as a stylistic device. In real-life usage, illeism can reflect a number of diffe ...
: the act of referring to oneself in the
third person Third person, or third-person, may refer to: * Third person (grammar), a point of view (in English, ''he'', ''she'', ''it'', and ''they'') ** Illeism, the act of referring to oneself in the third person * Third-person narrative, a perspective in p ...
instead of first person. *
Innuendo An innuendo is a hint, insinuation or intimation about a person or thing, especially of a denigrating or derogatory nature. It can also be a remark or question, typically disparaging (also called insinuation), that works obliquely by allusion ...
: having a hidden meaning in a sentence that makes sense whether it is detected or not. *
Irony Irony (), in its broadest sense, is the juxtaposition of what on the surface appears to be the case and what is actually the case or to be expected; it is an important rhetorical device and literary technique. Irony can be categorized into ...
: use of word in a way that conveys a meaning opposite to its usual meaning. *
Litotes In rhetoric, litotes (, or ), also known classically as ''antenantiosis'' or ''moderatour'', is a figures of speech, figure of speech and form of verbal irony in which understatement is used to emphasize a point by stating a negative to further a ...
: emphasizing the magnitude of a statement by denying its opposite. *
Malapropism A malapropism (also called a malaprop, acyrologia, or Dogberryism) is the mistaken use of an incorrect word in place of a word with a similar sound, resulting in a nonsensical, sometimes humorous utterance. An example is the statement attributed to ...
: using a word through confusion with a word that sounds similar. *
meiosis Meiosis (; , since it is a reductional division) is a special type of cell division of germ cells in sexually-reproducing organisms that produces the gametes, such as sperm or egg cells. It involves two rounds of division that ultimately resu ...
: use of understatement, usually to diminish the importance of something. *
Merism Merism ( la, merismus, grc-gre, μερισμός, merismós) is a rhetorical device (or figure of speech) in which a combination of two ''contrasting parts'' of the whole refer to the whole. For example, in order to say that someone "searched e ...
: referring to a whole by enumerating some of its parts. *
Metalepsis Metalepsis (from grc-gre, μετάληψις) is a figure of speech in which a word or a phrase from figurative speech is used in a new context. Examples *"I've got to catch the worm tomorrow." **"The early bird catches the worm" is a common m ...
: figurative speech is used in a new context. *
Metaphor A metaphor is a figure of speech that, for rhetorical effect, directly refers to one thing by mentioning another. It may provide (or obscure) clarity or identify hidden similarities between two different ideas. Metaphors are often compared wit ...
: an implied comparison between two things, attributing the properties of one thing to another that it does not literally possess.Corbett and Connors, 1999. p.60 *
Metonymy Metonymy () is a figure of speech in which a concept is referred to by the name of something closely associated with that thing or concept. Etymology The words ''metonymy'' and ''metonym'' come from grc, μετωνυμία, 'a change of name' ...
: a thing or concept is called not by its own name but rather by the name of something associated in meaning with that thing or concept. *
Neologism A neologism Greek νέο- ''néo''(="new") and λόγος /''lógos'' meaning "speech, utterance"] is a relatively recent or isolated term, word, or phrase that may be in the process of entering common use, but that has not been fully accepted int ...
: the use of a word or term that has recently been created, or has been in use for a short time. Opposite of
archaism In language, an archaism (from the grc, ἀρχαϊκός, ''archaïkós'', 'old-fashioned, antiquated', ultimately , ''archaîos'', 'from the beginning, ancient') is a word, a sense of a word, or a style of speech or writing that belongs to a hi ...
. *
Nosism Nosism, from Latin ''nos'' 'we', is the practice of using the pronoun '' we'' to refer to oneself when expressing a personal opinion. Depending on the person using the nosism different uses can be distinguished: The royal ''we'' or ''pluralis ...
: the practice of using the pronoun '' we'' to refer to oneself when expressing a personal opinion. * Non sequitur: statement that bears no relationship to the context preceding. *
Onomatopoeia Onomatopoeia is the process of creating a word that phonetically imitates, resembles, or suggests the sound that it describes. Such a word itself is also called an onomatopoeia. Common onomatopoeias include animal noises such as ''oink'', ''m ...
: words that sound like their meaning. *
Oxymoron An oxymoron (usual plural oxymorons, more rarely oxymora) is a figure of speech that juxtaposes concepts with opposing meanings within a word or phrase that creates an ostensible self-contradiction. An oxymoron can be used as a rhetorical devi ...
: using two terms together, that normally contradict each other. * Par'hyponoian: replacing in a phrase or text a second part, that would have been logically expected. *
Parable A parable is a succinct, didactic story, in prose or verse, that illustrates one or more instructive lessons or principles. It differs from a fable in that fables employ animals, plants, inanimate objects, or forces of nature as characters, w ...
: extended
metaphor A metaphor is a figure of speech that, for rhetorical effect, directly refers to one thing by mentioning another. It may provide (or obscure) clarity or identify hidden similarities between two different ideas. Metaphors are often compared wit ...
told as an anecdote to illustrate or teach a moral lesson. *
Paradiastole Paradiastole (from Greek παραδιαστολή from παρά ''para'' "next to, alongside", and διαστολή ''diastole'' "separation, distinction") is the reframing of a vice as a virtue, often with the use of euphemism,Silva Rhetoricae (200 ...
: extenuating a vice in order to flatter or soothe. *
Paradox A paradox is a logically self-contradictory statement or a statement that runs contrary to one's expectation. It is a statement that, despite apparently valid reasoning from true premises, leads to a seemingly self-contradictory or a logically u ...
: use of apparently contradictory ideas to point out some underlying truth. *
Paraprosdokian A paraprosdokian () is a figure of speech in which the latter part of a sentence, phrase, or larger discourse is surprising or unexpected in a way that causes the reader or listener to reframe or reinterpret the first part. It is frequently used f ...
: phrase in which the latter part causes a rethinking or reframing of the beginning. *
Parody A parody, also known as a spoof, a satire, a send-up, a take-off, a lampoon, a play on (something), or a caricature, is a creative work designed to imitate, comment on, and/or mock its subject by means of satiric or ironic imitation. Often its subj ...
: humouristic imitation. *
Paronomasia A pun, also known as paronomasia, is a form of word play that exploits multiple meanings of a term, or of similar-sounding words, for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect. These ambiguities can arise from the intentional use of homophonic ...
:
pun A pun, also known as paronomasia, is a form of word play that exploits multiple meanings of a term, or of similar-sounding words, for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect. These ambiguities can arise from the intentional use of homophoni ...
in which similar-sounding words but words having a different meaning are used. *
Pathetic fallacy The phrase pathetic fallacy is a literary term for the attribution of human emotion and conduct to things found in nature that are not human. It is a kind of personification that occurs in poetic descriptions, when, for example, clouds seem sullen ...
: ascribing human conduct and feelings to nature. *
Personification Personification occurs when a thing or abstraction is represented as a person, in literature or art, as a type of anthropomorphic metaphor. The type of personification discussed here excludes passing literary effects such as "Shadows hold their b ...
: attributing or applying human qualities to inanimate objects, animals, or natural phenomena. *
Pleonasm Pleonasm (; , ) is redundancy in linguistic expression, such as "black darkness" or "burning fire". It is a manifestation of tautology by traditional rhetorical criteria and might be considered a fault of style. Pleonasm may also be used for em ...
: the use of more words than is necessary for clear expression. * Procatalepsis: refuting anticipated objections as part of the main argument. *
Proslepsis Apophasis (; , ) is a rhetorical device wherein the speaker or writer brings up a subject by either denying it, or denying that it should be brought up. Accordingly, it can be seen as a rhetorical relative of irony. The device is also called par ...
: extreme form of
paralipsis Apophasis (; , ) is a rhetorical device wherein the speaker or writer brings up a subject by either denying it, or denying that it should be brought up. Accordingly, it can be seen as a rhetorical relative of irony. The device is also called par ...
in which the speaker provides great detail while feigning to pass over a topic. *
Proverb A proverb (from la, proverbium) is a simple and insightful, traditional saying that expresses a perceived truth based on common sense or experience. Proverbs are often metaphorical and use formulaic speech, formulaic language. A proverbial phra ...
: succinct or pithy, often metaphorical, expression of wisdom commonly believed to be true. *
Pun A pun, also known as paronomasia, is a form of word play that exploits multiple meanings of a term, or of similar-sounding words, for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect. These ambiguities can arise from the intentional use of homophoni ...
: play on words that will have two meanings. *
Rhetorical question A rhetorical question is one for which the questioner does not expect a direct answer: in many cases it may be intended to start a discourse, or as a means of displaying or emphasize the speaker's or author's opinion on a topic. A common example ...
: asking a question as a way of asserting something. Asking a question which already has the answer hidden in it. Or asking a question not for the sake of getting an answer but for asserting something (or as in a poem for creating a poetic effect). *
Satire Satire is a genre of the visual, literary, and performing arts, usually in the form of fiction and less frequently non-fiction, in which vices, follies, abuses, and shortcomings are held up to ridicule, often with the intent of shaming ...
: humoristic criticism of society. *
Sesquipedalianism Verbosity or verboseness is speech or writing that uses more words than necessary. The opposite of verbosity is plain language. Some teachers, including the author of ''The Elements of Style'', warn against verbosity; similarly Mark Twain and Er ...
: use of long and obscure words. *
Simile A simile () is a figure of speech that directly ''compares'' two things. Similes differ from other metaphors by highlighting the similarities between two things using comparison words such as "like", "as", "so", or "than", while other metaphors cr ...
: comparison between two things using ''like'' or ''as''. *
Snowclone A snowclone is a cliché and phrasal template that can be used and recognized in multiple variants. The term was coined as a neologism in 2004, derived from Journalese, journalistic clichés that referred to the number of Inuit words for snow. H ...
: alteration of
cliché A cliché ( or ) is an element of an artistic work, saying, or idea that has become overused to the point of losing its original meaning or effect, even to the point of being weird or irritating, especially when at some earlier time it was consi ...
or
phrasal template A phrasal template is a phrase-long collocation that contains one or several empty slots which may be filled by words to produce individual phrases. Description A phrasal template is a phrase-long collocation that contains one or several empty s ...
. *
Syllepsis In rhetoric, zeugma (; from the Ancient Greek , , lit. "a yoking together"Liddell, H. G. & al. ''A Greek-English Lexicon''"" Perseus Project. Retrieved 24 January 2013.) and syllepsis (; from the Ancient Greek , , lit. "a taking together"''Random ...
: the use of a word in its figurative and literal sense at the same time ''or'' a single word used in relation to two other parts of a sentence although the word grammatically or logically applies to only one. *
Synecdoche Synecdoche ( ) is a type of metonymy: it is a figure of speech in which a term for a part of something is used to refer to the whole (''pars pro toto''), or vice versa (''totum pro parte''). The term comes from Greek . Examples in common Engl ...
: form of
metonymy Metonymy () is a figure of speech in which a concept is referred to by the name of something closely associated with that thing or concept. Etymology The words ''metonymy'' and ''metonym'' come from grc, μετωνυμία, 'a change of name' ...
, referring to a part by its whole, or a whole by its part. *
Synesthesia Synesthesia (American English) or synaesthesia (British English) is a perceptual phenomenon in which stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to involuntary experiences in a second sensory or cognitive pathway. People who re ...
: description of one kind of sense impression by using words that normally describe another. * Tautology: superfluous repetition of the same sense in different words Example: The children gathered in a round circle *
Truism A truism is a claim that is so obvious or self-evident as to be hardly worth mentioning, except as a reminder or as a rhetorical or literary device, and is the opposite of falsism. In philosophy, a sentence which asserts incomplete truth conditions ...
: a self-evident statement. * Tricolon diminuens: combination of three elements, each decreasing in size. * Tricolon crescens: combination of three elements, each increasing in size. * Zeugma: use of a single verb to describe two or more actions. *
Zoomorphism The word ''zoomorphism'' derives from the Greek ζωον (''zōon''), meaning "animal", and μορφη (''morphē''), meaning "shape" or "form". In the context of art, zoomorphism could describe art that imagines humans as non-human animals. It c ...
: applying animal characteristics to humans or gods.


See also

*
Idiom An idiom is a phrase or expression that typically presents a figurative, non-literal meaning attached to the phrase; but some phrases become figurative idioms while retaining the literal meaning of the phrase. Categorized as formulaic language, ...
*
List of forms of word play This is a list of techniques used in word play. {{Expand list, date=August 2008 Techniques that involve the ''phonetic values'' of words * Engrish * Chinglish * Homonym: words with same sounds and same spellings but with different meanings * Homog ...
*
Repetition (rhetorical device) Repetition is the simple repeating of a word, within a short space of words (including in a poem), with no particular placement of the words to secure emphasis. It is a multilinguistic written or spoken device, frequently used in English and several ...
*
Rhetorical device In rhetoric, a rhetorical device, persuasive device, or stylistic device is a technique that an author or speaker uses to convey to the listener or reader a meaning with the goal of persuading them towards considering a topic from a perspective, ...
*
Stylistic device In literature and writing, stylistically elements are the use of any of a variety of techniques to give an :wikt:auxiliary, auxiliary meaning, ideas, or feeling to the literalism or written. Figurative language A figure of speech is any way of ...


References


Citations


Sources

* Baldrick, Chris. 2008. ''Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms''. Oxford University Press. New York. . * Corbett, Edward P. J. and Connors, Robert J. 1999. ''Style and Statement''. Oxford University Press. New York, Oxford. . * Kennedy, X.J. et al. 2006. ''The Longman Dictionary of Literary Terms: Vocabulary for the Informed Reader''. Pearson, Longman. New York. . * Forsyth, Mark. 2014. ''The Elements of Eloquence''. Berkley Publishing Group/Penguin Publishing. New York. . * Quinn, Edward. 1999. ''A Dictionary of Literary and Thematic Terms''. Checkmark Books. New York. . *


External links


Figure of speech
by theidioms.com {{Narrative modes Rhetoric