In December 2021, an

eruption A volcanic eruption occurs when material is expelled from a volcanic vent or fissure. Several types of volcanic eruptions have been distinguished by volcanologists. These are often named after famous volcanoes where that type of behavior has ...

began on

Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai () is a submarine volcano in the Pacific Ocean, South Pacific located about south of the submarine volcano of Fonuafo'ou, Fonuafoou and north of Tongatapu, Tonga's main island. It is part of the highly active Kerma ...

, a

submarine volcano Submarine volcanoes are underwater vents or fissures in the Earth's surface from which magma can erupt. Many submarine volcanoes are located near areas of tectonic plate formation, known as mid-ocean ridges. The volcanoes at mid-ocean ridges ...

in the

Tonga Tonga, officially the Kingdom of Tonga, is an island country in Polynesia, part of Oceania. The country has 171 islands, of which 45 are inhabited. Its total surface area is about , scattered over in the southern Pacific Ocean. accordin ...

archipelago An archipelago ( ), sometimes called an island group or island chain, is a chain, cluster, or collection of islands. An archipelago may be in an ocean, a sea, or a smaller body of water. Example archipelagos include the Aegean Islands (the o ...

in the southern

Pacific Ocean The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of Earth's five Borders of the oceans, oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean, or, depending on the definition, to Antarctica in the south, and is ...

. The eruption reached a very large and powerful climax nearly four weeks later, on 15 January 2022. Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai is north of

Tongatapu Tongatapu is the main island of Tonga and the site of its capital, Nukuʻalofa, Nukualofa. It is located in Tonga's southern island group, to which it gives its name, and is the country's most populous island, with 74,611 residents (2016), 70.5% o ...

, the country's main island, and is part of the highly active Tonga–Kermadec Islands volcanic arc, a

subduction zone Subduction is a geological process in which the oceanic lithosphere and some continental lithosphere is recycled into the Earth's mantle at the convergent boundaries between tectonic plates. Where one tectonic plate converges with a second p ...

extending from

New Zealand New Zealand () is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and List of islands of New Zealand, over 600 smaller islands. It is the List of isla ...

Fiji Fiji, officially the Republic of Fiji, is an island country in Melanesia, part of Oceania in the South Pacific Ocean. It lies about north-northeast of New Zealand. Fiji consists of an archipelago of more than 330 islands—of which about ...

.Gupta, Alok K. ''Igneous Rocks'' Mumbai, India: Allied Publishers, 1998 On the

Volcanic Explosivity Index The volcanic explosivity index (VEI) is a scale used to measure the size of explosive volcanic eruptions. It was devised by Christopher G. Newhall of the United States Geological Survey and Stephen Self in 1982. Volume of products, eruption c ...

scale, the eruption was rated at least a VEI-5. Described by scientists as a "

magma Magma () is the molten or semi-molten natural material from which all igneous rocks are formed. Magma (sometimes colloquially but incorrectly referred to as ''lava'') is found beneath the surface of the Earth, and evidence of magmatism has also ...

hammer", the

volcano A volcano is commonly defined as a vent or fissure in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface. On Earth, volcanoes are most oft ...

at its height produced a series of four underwater thrusts, displaced of rock, ash and sediment, and generated the largest atmospheric explosion recorded by modern instrumentation. The eruption produced a

volcanic tsunami A volcanic tsunami, also called a volcanogenic tsunami, is a tsunami produced by volcanic phenomena. About 20–25% of all fatalities at volcanoes during the last 250 years have been caused by volcanic tsunamis. The most devastating volcanic tsun ...

that affected

American Samoa American Samoa is an Territories of the United States, unincorporated and unorganized territory of the United States located in the Polynesia region of the Pacific Ocean, South Pacific Ocean. Centered on , it is southeast of the island count ...

Samoa Samoa, officially the Independent State of Samoa and known until 1997 as Western Samoa, is an island country in Polynesia, part of Oceania, in the South Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main islands (Savai'i and Upolu), two smaller, inhabited ...

Vanuatu Vanuatu ( or ; ), officially the Republic of Vanuatu (; ), is an island country in Melanesia located in the South Pacific Ocean. The archipelago, which is of volcanic origin, is east of northern Australia, northeast of New Caledonia, east o ...

Japan Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...

, the

United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...

, the

Russian Far East The Russian Far East ( rus, Дальний Восток России, p=ˈdalʲnʲɪj vɐˈstok rɐˈsʲiɪ) is a region in North Asia. It is the easternmost part of Russia and the Asia, Asian continent, and is coextensive with the Far Easte ...

Chile Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in western South America. It is the southernmost country in the world and the closest to Antarctica, stretching along a narrow strip of land between the Andes, Andes Mountains and the Paci ...

and

Peru Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the south and west by the Pac ...

. At least four people were killed, some were injured, and some remain possibly missing in Tonga from

tsunami A tsunami ( ; from , ) is a series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large volume of water, generally in an ocean or a large lake. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and underwater explosions (including detonations, ...

waves up to high.

Tsunami A tsunami ( ; from , ) is a series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large volume of water, generally in an ocean or a large lake. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and underwater explosions (including detonations, ...

waves with run-up heights up to struck the uninhabited island of

Tofua Tofua is a volcanic island in Tonga. Located in the Haʻapai island group, it is a steep-sided composite cone with a summit caldera. It is part of the highly active Kermadec-Tonga subduction zone and its associated volcanic arc, which extends ...

. Two people drowned in

when waves struck the coast, while another died of indirect causes in Fiji. It was the largest volcanic eruption since the

1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo The 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines' Luzon Volcanic Arc was the second-largest volcanic eruption of the 20th century, behind only the 1912 eruption of Novarupta in Alaska. Eruptive activity began on April 2 as a series of p ...

NASA The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA ) is an independent agencies of the United States government, independent agency of the federal government of the United States, US federal government responsible for the United States ...

determined that the eruption was "hundreds of times more powerful" than

Little Boy Little Boy was a type of atomic bomb created by the Manhattan Project during World War II. The name is also often used to describe the specific bomb (L-11) used in the bombing of the Japanese city of Hiroshima by the Boeing B-29 Superfortress ...

. The eruption was the largest explosion recorded in the atmosphere by modern instrumentation, far larger than any 20th-century volcanic event or

nuclear bomb A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission (fission or atomic bomb) or a combination of fission and fusion reactions (thermonuclear weapon), producing a nuclear exp ...

test. It is thought that in recent centuries, only the Krakatoa eruption of 1883 rivalled the atmospheric disturbance produced.

Volcanic activity

December 2021

After staying relatively inactive since 2014, the Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai volcano erupted on 20 December 2021, sending particulates into the

stratosphere The stratosphere () is the second-lowest layer of the atmosphere of Earth, located above the troposphere and below the mesosphere. The stratosphere is composed of stratified temperature zones, with the warmer layers of air located higher ...

. A large plume of ash was visible from

Nukuʻalofa Nukualofa ( , ) is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Tonga. It is located on the north coast of the island of Tongatapu, in the country's southernmost island group. History First western records of Nukualofa On 10 June 1777, British ...

, the capital city of Tonga, about from the volcano. The

Volcanic Ash Advisory Center A Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC) is a group of experts responsible for coordinating and disseminating information on atmospheric volcanic ash clouds that may endanger aviation. As at 2019, there are nine Volcanic Ash Advisory Centers located a ...

(VAAC) in

Wellington Wellington is the capital city of New Zealand. It is located at the south-western tip of the North Island, between Cook Strait and the Remutaka Range. Wellington is the third-largest city in New Zealand (second largest in the North Island ...

, New Zealand, issued an advisory notice to airlines. This initial eruption ended at 02:00 on 21 December 2021. On 22 and 23 December 2021, plumes containing

sulfur dioxide Sulfur dioxide (IUPAC-recommended spelling) or sulphur dioxide (traditional Commonwealth English) is the chemical compound with the formula . It is a colorless gas with a pungent smell that is responsible for the odor of burnt matches. It is r ...

drifted to the north-north-east and spread over the

Niuatoputapu Niuatoputapu (''The Sacred Niua'') is a volcanic island in the island nation of Tonga, Pacific Ocean. Its highest point is , and its area is . Its name means ''sacred island''. Older names for the island are Traitors Island or Keppel Island. ...

Haʻapai Haʻapai is a group of islands, islets, reefs, and shoals in the central part of Tonga. It has a combined land area of . The Tongatapu island group lies to its south, and the Vavaʻu group lies to its north. Seventeen of the Haʻapai islands are ...

and

Vavaʻu Vavau is an island group, consisting of one large island (ʻUtu Vavaʻu) and 40 smaller ones, in Tonga. It is part of Administrative divisions of Tonga, Vavaʻu District, which includes several other individual islands. According to tradition, ...

island groups. Surtseyan explosions, steam plumes and steam bursts were recorded by a Tonga Navy crew on 23 December 2021, during which time the first ground-based images of the

were created. Between 24 and 27 December 2021, steam and gas emissions reached altitudes of . Ash plumes reached heights of only , depositing ash only adjacent to the volcano. On 25 December 2021,

satellite imagery Satellite images (also Earth observation imagery, spaceborne photography, or simply satellite photo) are images of Earth collected by imaging satellites operated by governments and businesses around the world. Satellite imaging companies sell im ...

revealed that the island had increased in size by on its eastern side. During 29–30 December 2021, several surges of Surtseyan activity occurred, some of which were witnessed by passengers on a small South Seas Charters boat. Eruption plumes during the second half of December 2021 interrupted air travel to Tonga multiple times.

January 2022

As activity on the island decreased, it was declared dormant by the Tonga Geological Services on 11 January 2022. However, a large eruption commenced on 14 January 2022 at 04:20 local time (15:20 UTC, 13 January), sending clouds of ash into the atmosphere. The government of Tonga issued a

tsunami warning A tsunami warning system (TWS) is used to detect tsunamis in advance and issue the warnings to prevent loss of life and damage to property. It is made up of two equally important components: a network of sensors to detect tsunamis and a communic ...

to residents, and waves of were observed in Nuku'alofa. Later in the afternoon, Tongan geologists near the volcano observed explosions and a ash column between 17:00 and 18:30 local time. A much larger

Plinian eruption Plinian eruptions or Vesuvian eruptions are volcanic eruptions characterized by their similarity to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, which destroyed the ancient Roman cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii. The eruption was described in a le ...

started the following day (15 January 2022) at 17:14 local time (04:14:45

UTC Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) is the primary time standard globally used to regulate clocks and time. It establishes a reference for the current time, forming the basis for civil time and time zones. UTC facilitates international communica ...

, 15 January). The eruption column from this eruption rose into the

mesosphere The mesosphere (; ) is the third layer of the atmosphere, directly above the stratosphere and directly below the thermosphere. In the mesosphere, temperature decreases as altitude increases. This characteristic is used to define limits: it be ...

. The VAAC again issued an advisory notice to airlines. Ash from the eruption made landfall on the main island of Tongatapu, blotting out the

sun The Sun is the star at the centre of the Solar System. It is a massive, nearly perfect sphere of hot plasma, heated to incandescence by nuclear fusion reactions in its core, radiating the energy from its surface mainly as visible light a ...

. Loud explosions were heard away in Nukuʻalofa, and small stones and ash rained down from the sky. Many residents in Tonga were stuck in traffic whilst attempting to flee to higher ground. The explosion was heard in

, roughly away before the sound travelled to more distant countries. Residents in

, more than away, described the sounds of thunder, while the "thump" of the eruption was also reported in

Niue Niue is a self-governing island country in free association with New Zealand. It is situated in the South Pacific Ocean and is part of Polynesia, and predominantly inhabited by Polynesians. One of the world's largest coral islands, Niue is c ...

and

. Tremors and shaking buildings were reported by residents in south-western Niue, around

Alofi Alofi is the capital of the island nation of Niue. With a population of 610 in 2022, Alofi is the second-smallest national capital by population (after Ngerulmud, capital of Palau). It consists of two villages: Alofi North and Alofi South. Th ...

and

Avatele Avatele, formerly known as Oneonepata Matavaihala, is one of the fourteen villages of Niue, located on the southwest coast, with a population of 128 residents as of 2022. Geography Avatele Beach, the village's main sea track, stretches along the ...

. The

United States Geological Survey The United States Geological Survey (USGS), founded as the Geological Survey, is an agency of the U.S. Department of the Interior whose work spans the disciplines of biology, geography, geology, and hydrology. The agency was founded on Mar ...

estimated the eruption at a

surface-wave magnitude The surface wave magnitude (M_s) scale is one of the magnitude scales used in seismology to describe the size of an earthquake. It is based on measurements of Rayleigh surface waves that travel along the uppermost layers of the Earth. This mag ...

of 5.8. The eruption was heard more than away in New Zealand, where the sound arrived two hours later. A series of bangs were heard around 3:30 a.m. local time in and around

Anchorage, Alaska Anchorage, officially the Municipality of Anchorage, is the List of cities in Alaska, most populous city in the U.S. state of Alaska. With a population of 291,247 at the 2020 United States census, 2020 census, it contains nearly 40 percent of ...

, approximately away from the volcano, lasting about 30 minutes. Low-frequency noise persisted for approximately two hours. Booms were heard as far away as

Yukon Yukon () is a Provinces and territories of Canada, territory of Canada, bordering British Columbia to the south, the Northwest Territories to the east, the Beaufort Sea to the north, and the U.S. state of Alaska to the west. It is Canada’s we ...

in Canada, away. explosion caused atmospheric

shockwave In physics, a shock wave (also spelled shockwave), or shock, is a type of propagating disturbance that moves faster than the local speed of sound in the medium. Like an ordinary wave, a shock wave carries energy and can propagate through a me ...

s to propagate around the globe. Satellites visually captured shockwaves propagating across the Pacific Ocean and a very wide

eruption column An eruption column or eruption plume is a cloud of super-heated Volcanic ash, ash and tephra suspended in volcanic gas, gases emitted during an explosive eruption, explosive volcanic eruption. The volcanic materials form a vertical column or Plu ...

. The pressure wave was measured by weather stations in many locations, including New Zealand to a maximum amplitude of about 7

hPa The pascal (symbol: Pa) is the unit of pressure in the International System of Units (SI). It is also used to quantify internal pressure, stress, Young's modulus, and ultimate tensile strength. The unit, named after Blaise Pascal, is an S ...

, and Australia to 6.9 hPa at

Lord Howe Island Lord Howe Island (; formerly Lord Howe's Island) is an irregularly crescent-shaped volcanic remnant in the Tasman Sea between Australia and New Zealand, part of the Australian state of New South Wales. It lies directly east of mainland Port ...

and 3.3 hPa at

Perth Perth () is the list of Australian capital cities, capital city of Western Australia. It is the list of cities in Australia by population, fourth-most-populous city in Australia, with a population of over 2.3 million within Greater Perth . The ...

. Even in Europe, a pressure fluctuation of 2.5 hPa was measured in Switzerland, and of just over 2 hPa when it reached the United Kingdom. Shockwaves were reported as having gone around the Earth as many as four times in Japan and

Utah Utah is a landlocked state in the Mountain states, Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. It is one of the Four Corners states, sharing a border with Arizona, Colorado, and New Mexico. It also borders Wyoming to the northea ...

, and at least twice at the

Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory The Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory in Milton, Massachusetts is the foremost structure associated with the history of weather observations in the United States. Located atop Great Blue Hill about 10 miles south of Boston, Massachusetts, it ...

Massachusetts Massachusetts ( ; ), officially the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, is a U.S. state, state in the New England region of the Northeastern United States. It borders the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Maine to its east, Connecticut and Rhode ...

. The pressure shockwave was also observed in

Chennai Chennai, also known as Madras (List of renamed places in India#Tamil Nadu, its official name until 1996), is the capital city, capital and List of cities in Tamil Nadu by population, largest city of Tamil Nadu, the southernmost states and ...

, India, which is 12,000 km from the eruption site. Intense

lightning Lightning is a natural phenomenon consisting of electrostatic discharges occurring through the atmosphere between two electrically charged regions. One or both regions are within the atmosphere, with the second region sometimes occurring on ...

activity was recorded during the eruption phase. The Vaisala Global Lightning Dataset GLD360 detected lightning in the form of

radio waves Radio waves (formerly called Hertzian waves) are a type of electromagnetic radiation with the lowest frequencies and the longest wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum, typically with frequencies below 300 gigahertz (GHz) and wavelengths ...

. Several hundred to a thousand flashes of lightning were recorded by the system during the two weeks before the eruption. From 14 to 15 January 2022, tens of thousands of lightning flashes occurred. Between 05:00 and 06:00 UTC on 15 January 2022, 200,000 flashes were recorded. Preliminary observations showed that the eruption column ejected a large amount of volcanic material into the stratosphere, leading to speculation that it would cause a temporary climate cooling effect. Later calculations showed it injected an estimated 400,000 tonnes of sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere and was unlikely to have any global cooling effect. Despite this, the eruption had a cooling effect in the Southern Hemisphere, causing slight cooling of winters and spectacular sunsets. People living in the Southern Hemisphere experienced purple sunsets for a few months after the eruption. A cooling effect of was expected to last until spring (September–November) 2022. The eruption was described as a once-in-a-thousand-year event for the Hunga caldera. NASA satellite Aura detected the eruption using its microwave limb sounder. It measures ozone, water vapor and other atmospheric gases, and can penetrate obstacles such as ash clouds. The underwater explosion also sent 146 million tons of water from the South Pacific Ocean into the stratosphere. The amount of water vapor ejected was 10 percent of the stratosphere's typical stock. It was enough to temporarily warm the surface of Earth. It is estimated that an excess of water vapour should remain for 5–10 years.

Academic research

According to a March 2022 paper in the journal ''Earthquake Research Advances'' (''ERA''), Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai's plume reached a peak height of into the atmosphere and sustained heights greater than . The initial explosive event was possibly more powerful than the

Hatepe eruption The Hatepe eruption, named for the Hatepe Plinian pumice tephra layer, sometimes referred to as the Taupō eruption or Horomatangi Reef Unit Y eruption, is dated to 232 CE ± 10 and was Taupō Volcano's most recent major eruption. It is ...

, even though Hatepe ejected over ten times the volume of material in a longer eruption. Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai erupted over a span of 12 hours, releasing of ejecta with an estimated mass of 2,900

teragram Teragram may refer to: * 1012 grams, or 109 kilograms, or 1 megatonne * Teragram Corporation See also * Orders of magnitude (mass) To help compare different ''orders of magnitude'', the following lists describe various ''mass'' levels between ...

s. Although the eruption energy was soon estimated from the acoustic waves and the ash cloud, its ranking on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) is still debated. The ''ERA'' paper says the eruption correlated to a VEI of 5–6. An April 2022 research paper led by Poli and Shapiro and published by the

American Geophysical Union The American Geophysical Union (AGU) is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization of Earth, Atmospheric science, atmospheric, Oceanography, ocean, Hydrology, hydrologic, Astronomy, space, and Planetary science, planetary scientists and enthusiasts that ...

indicates that the eruption is the largest ever observed with modern instrumentation and estimates its VEI to be approximately 6. Meanwhile, Vergoz and others estimate the blast yield to be 100–200 megatons of TNT and place the corresponding VEI at 5.8. Likewise, a study by Diaz and Rigby estimates the energetic output of the eruption to be equivalent to 61 megatons of

TNT Troponin T (shortened TnT or TropT) is a part of the troponin complex, which are proteins integral to the contraction of skeletal and heart muscles. They are expressed in skeletal and cardiac myocytes. Troponin T binds to tropomyosin and helps ...

, making the event more powerful than the largest nuclear bomb ever detonated (

Tsar Bomba The Tsar Bomba (code name: ''Ivan'' or ''Vanya''), also known by the alphanumerical designation "AN602", was a Thermonuclear weapon, thermonuclear aerial bomb, and by far the most powerful nuclear weapon ever created and tested. The Soviet phy ...

). The

Smithsonian Institution The Smithsonian Institution ( ), or simply the Smithsonian, is a group of museums, Education center, education and Research institute, research centers, created by the Federal government of the United States, U.S. government "for the increase a ...

Global Volcanism Program The Smithsonian Institution's Global Volcanism Program (GVP) documents Earth's volcanoes and their eruptive history during the Quaternary Period of Earth's geologic history, with particular emphasis on volcanic activity during the Holocene Epoc ...

rated the eruption at VEI-5, while others have rated the eruption at VEI-4. The ''ERA'' paper also concludes that this eruption resulted in the formation of a new caldera. In May 2022, scientists at the

National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research The National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research or NIWA (), is a Crown Research Institute of New Zealand. Established in 1992, NIWA conducts research across a broad range of disciplines in the environmental sciences. It also maintai ...

(NIWA) released a

bathymetry Bathymetry (; ) is the study of underwater depth of ocean floors ('' seabed topography''), river floors, or lake floors. In other words, bathymetry is the underwater equivalent to hypsometry or topography. The first recorded evidence of wate ...

map indicating a large caldera measuring in width formed from the eruption. Surveys also indicated that the caldera floor is located below sea level. According to a volcanologist, the caldera walls continue to experience ongoing collapses. Surveys of the seafloor around the volcano found large sediment piles, layers of fine mud and ash, and valleys up to from the volcano. The survey indicated that an estimated of debris was added to a seafloor. Scientists also suggest that the volcano may still be erupting underwater. A 2022 study in the journal ''Ocean Engineering'' by Heidarzadeh and others determined the size of the initial tsunami caused by the eruption. The study analyzed data from 22 tide gauges, eight

Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART) is a component of an enhanced tsunami warning system. By logging changes in seafloor temperature and pressure, and transmitting the data via a surface buoy to a ground station by satellit ...

(DART) stations, eight atmospheric pressure time series,

spectral analysis Spectral analysis or spectrum analysis is analysis in terms of a spectrum of frequencies or related quantities such as energies, eigenvalues, etc. In specific areas it may refer to: * Spectroscopy in chemistry and physics, a method of analyzing ...

and

computer simulation Computer simulation is the running of a mathematical model on a computer, the model being designed to represent the behaviour of, or the outcome of, a real-world or physical system. The reliability of some mathematical models can be determin ...

. It was concluded that the eruption displaced 6.6 km³ of seawater, in

amplitude The amplitude of a periodic variable is a measure of its change in a single period (such as time or spatial period). The amplitude of a non-periodic signal is its magnitude compared with a reference value. There are various definitions of am ...

, with a length of . The displacement generated a number of waves in the atmosphere, including

Lamb wave Lamb waves propagate in solid plates or spheres. They are elastic waves whose particle motion lies in the plane that contains the direction of wave propagation and the direction perpendicular to the plate. In 1917, the English mathematician Horace ...

s in the troposphere and

gravity wave In fluid dynamics, gravity waves are waves in a fluid medium or at the interface between two media when the force of gravity or buoyancy tries to restore equilibrium. An example of such an interface is that between the atmosphere and the oc ...

s in higher layers of the atmosphere, which propagated around the world at speeds close to the

speed of sound The speed of sound is the distance travelled per unit of time by a sound wave as it propagates through an elasticity (solid mechanics), elastic medium. More simply, the speed of sound is how fast vibrations travel. At , the speed of sound in a ...

. In mid-May 2024,

University of Rhode Island The University of Rhode Island (URI) is a public land-grant research university with its main campus in Kingston, Rhode Island, United States. It is the flagship public research as well as the land-grant university of Rhode Island. The univer ...

oceanagrapher Roxanne Beinart published a study in the journal ''Nature Communications Earth and Environment'' which concluded that the eruption blanketed the surrounding ocean floor with ash for several months, decimating the local marine wildlife. Beinart had led a research cruise in the South Pacific in April 2022 to research underwater biology living around deep-sea hot springs in the region. She found that the site near the volcano was covered in ash, with some of it even at a depth of underwater. File:Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai on Sentinel-2 L2A 20 December 2021 (cropped).jpg, Hunga Tonga-Hunga Haʻapai in December 2021 File:Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai on Sentinel-2 L2A 21 February 2022 (cropped).jpg, Hunga Tonga-Hunga Haʻapai in February 2022, after the eruption

Climate and atmospheric impact

The eruption produced a massive

, reaching heights of and thus breaking into the

. This is the highest recorded eruption column since Krakatoa’s in 1883, which extended up to high. The column developed two "umbrella"-like clouds, one at in height and the other at , and generated a

terrestrial gamma-ray flash A terrestrial gamma-ray flash (TGF), also known as dark lightning, is a burst of gamma rays produced in Earth's atmosphere. TGFs have been recorded to last 0.2 to 3.5 milliseconds, and have energies of up to 20 million electronvolts. It is spe ...

. The column ejected a large quantity of water into the stratosphere, where it disturbed the local temperature balance and caused the formation of anomalous winds. Large volcanic eruptions can inject large amounts of

into the stratosphere, causing the formation of

aerosol An aerosol is a suspension (chemistry), suspension of fine solid particles or liquid Drop (liquid), droplets in air or another gas. Aerosols can be generated from natural or Human impact on the environment, human causes. The term ''aerosol'' co ...

layers that reflect sunlight and can cause a cooling of the climate. In contrast, during the Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai eruption this sulfur was accompanied by large amounts of water vapour, which by acting as a

greenhouse gas Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are the gases in the atmosphere that raise the surface temperature of planets such as the Earth. Unlike other gases, greenhouse gases absorb the radiations that a planet emits, resulting in the greenhouse effect. T ...

overrode the aerosol effect and caused a net warming of the climate system. One study estimated a 7% increase in the probability that

global warming Present-day climate change includes both global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its wider effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes ...

will exceed in at least one of the next five years, although greenhouse gas emissions and

climate policy The politics of climate change results from different perspectives on how to respond to climate change. Global warming is driven largely by the emissions of greenhouse gases due to human economic activity, especially the burning of fossil fuel ...

to mitigate them remain the major determinant of this risk. Another study estimated that the water vapor will stay in the stratosphere for up to eight years, and influence winter weather in both hemispheres. More recent studies have indicated that the eruption had a slight cooling effect. In September 2023, the Antarctic

ozone hole Ozone depletion consists of two related events observed since the late 1970s: a lowered total amount of ozone in Earth, Earth's upper atmosphere, and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone (the ozone layer) around Earth's polar ...

was one of the largest on record, at 26 million square kilometers. The anomalously large ozone loss may have been a result of the Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai eruption.

Tsunami

Tsunamis are most frequently caused by earthquakes, while those caused by volcanic eruptions are rare. Fewer than 100

s were recorded in the prior two centuries. According to an official at

GNS Science GNS Science (), officially registered as the Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences Limited, is a New Zealand Crown Research Institute. It focuses on geology, geophysics (including seismology and volcanology), and nuclear science (partic ...

, the suspected cause of the tsunami was an undersea eruption that destroyed part of the island on 14 January. This allowed seawater to fill the volcanic vent, causing another undersea explosion the next day. The explosion was so huge that it penetrated through the overlying seawater and triggered the tsunami. Importantly, the atmospheric waves caused by the explosion coupled to the ocean, generating additional tsunamis at large distances from the volcano; volcanic tsunamis normally do not reach far from the edifice. Tsunami forecast models and alert systems which were intended to work for earthquake-generated tsunamis failed to consider the effects of the shockwaves on the tsunami as it radiated outwards. Shockwaves from the eruption caused abnormally high waves along the coasts of Peru and Japan. The tsunami waves also struck the coasts earlier than had been forecast.

Oceania

As a result of the eruption, a tsunami struck the Tongan capital Nukuʻalofa. Tide gauges in the city recorded waves in height. Videos posted on the Internet showed a series of waves hitting the shore and homes, sweeping away debris. Other videos show ashfall and a cloud of ash obscuring the sun. According to a resident in the Tongan capital, a series of initial smaller explosions was heard. It was followed by a tsunami approximately 15 minutes later. The first wave was said to be the largest. A long white wave was observed out at sea approaching the coast. Three waves reportedly struck the coast. In the wake of the tsunami, King

Tupou VI Tupou VI (ʻAho‘eitu ʻUnuakiʻotonga Tukuʻaho; born 12 July 1959) is King of Tonga. The youngest child of King Tāufaʻāhau Tupou IV, he served as Prime Minister of Tonga from 2000 to 2006. Following his elder brother's accession to the ...

was evacuated from the

Royal Palace This is a list of royal palaces, sorted by continent. Africa Americas Asia Europe Oceania {, class="wikitable" width="95%" , - bgcolor="white" !align=center, Residence !align=center, Photo !align=center, City !align=cen ...

and traffic jams formed as locals fled inland or to higher ground. Run-ups of were found in the capital after a survey. The Tongan government, on 18 January 2022, confirmed waves of up to struck the west coast of Tongatapu,

ʻEua ʻEua is an island in the kingdom of Tonga. It is close to Tongatapu, but forms a separate administrative division. It has an area of , and a population in 2021 of 4,903 people. The island leads in agriculture, tourism, and some of the forest ...

and Haʻapai islands. An wave struck Kanokupolu, on Tongatapu. Along the Hihifo Peninsula's steeper coast, the inundation distance was generally shorter than , however, exceeded in places where the waves swept over the entire region. Waves of , swept across Tongatapu's southwestern coast, and along east coast, were over . Waves measuring were reported on islands greater than away. On ʻEua, a survey of its west coast found traces of tsunami waves with a maximum run-up of . On Nomuka Iki, waves with run-ups exceeding stripped the low-lying jungle vegetation and caused major erosion. The nearby island to the north,

Nomuka Nomuka is a small island in the southern part of the Haʻapai, Haapai group of islands in Tonga. It is part of the Nomuka Group of islands, also called the Otu Muomua. Among neighboring islands are Kelefesia, Nukutula, Tonumea, Fonoifua, Telekit ...

, waves greater than struck a village. Satellite imagery,

digital elevation model A digital elevation model (DEM) or digital surface model (DSM) is a 3D computer graphics representation of elevation data to represent terrain or overlaying objects, commonly of a planet, Natural satellite, moon, or asteroid. A "global DEM" refer ...

s and

synthetic aperture radar Synthetic-aperture radar (SAR) is a form of radar that is used to create two-dimensional images or 3D reconstruction, three-dimensional reconstructions of objects, such as landscapes. SAR uses the motion of the radar antenna over a target regi ...

suggest tsunami runups of at the southern coast of Tofua. Disturbances at the coast included landslides, debris fans and flows, and transported trees at elevations of to above sea level. In Fiji, a tidal gauge in

Suva Suva (, ) is the Capital city, capital and the most populous city of Fiji. It is the home of the country's largest metropolitan area and serves as its major port. The city is located on the southeast coast of the island of Viti Levu, in Rew ...

recorded a wave measuring at 17:40 local time. Some tsunami activity was also reported in the

Lau Islands The Lau Islands (also called the Lau Group, the Eastern Group, the Eastern Archipelago) of Fiji are situated in the southern Pacific Ocean, just east of the Koro Sea. Of this chain of about sixty islands and islets, about thirty are inhabited. T ...

. The islands of Moce, Moala,

Kadavu Kadavu may refer to: * Kadavu Island, the fourth largest island in Fiji * Kadavu Group, an archipelago in Fiji including Kadavu Island * Kadavu Province, a province of Fiji including Kadavu Group * Kadavu Airport or Vunisea Airport, an airport on K ...

and

Taveuni Taveuni (pronounced ) is the third-largest island in Fiji, after Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, with a total land area of . The cigar-shaped island, a massive shield volcano which rises from the floor of the Pacific Ocean, is situated east of Vanua ...

were struck by low-level tsunamis that triggered flooding. In American Samoa, a tsunami measuring was recorded by tide gauges. Niue, where residents evacuated coastal areas, reported no tsunami, despite tremors and the island's close proximity to Tonga. Tsunami waves of were observed in several islands in Vanuatu. The Vanuatu Meteorology and Geo-hazards Department said tsunami activity was expected to persist for the night of 15 January 2022. Waves up to in height were recorded in

Hanalei, Hawaii Hanalei is a census-designated place (CDP) in Kauai County, Hawaii, United States. The population was estimated at 299 as of 2019. ''Hanalei'' means " lei making" in Hawaiian. Alternatively, the name ''Hanalei'' also means "crescent bay" and ma ...

. A combination of a cyclone surge from

Cyclone Cody Severe Tropical Cyclone Cody was a strong tropical cyclone in the South Pacific which caused widespread damage in Fiji. The second tropical cyclone and first severe tropical cyclone of the 2021–22 South Pacific cyclone season, Cody was fi ...

and the tsunami caused extensive damage at a marina in

Tutukaka Tutukaka () is a locality on the east coast of Northland, New Zealand, in an area commonly referred to as the Tutukaka Coast which includes Ngunguru and Matapouri. The city of Whangārei is to the southwest. The residential areas of Tutukaka ...

in New Zealand. The waves pulled boats away from their moorings, taking some out into the bay and smashing some together, as well as damaging the structures at the marina. About eight to ten boats were completely sunk, with the total damage amounting to $5.93 million. According to Hauraki Gulf Weather, the tsunami struck on 16 January 2022 at between 01:05 and 01:10 local time on

Great Barrier Island Great Barrier Island () lies in the outer Hauraki Gulf, New Zealand, north-east of central Auckland. With an area of it is the sixth-largest List of islands of New Zealand, island of New Zealand. Its highest point, Mount Hobson, Great Barrier ...

with a height of . The tsunami caused flooding at Mahinepua Bay, where a campsite was located; all 50 individuals at the site were safe. A group of people fishing in

Hokianga The Hokianga is an area surrounding the Hokianga Harbour, also known as the Hokianga River, a long Estuary, estuarine drowned valley on the west coast in the north of the North Island of New Zealand. The original name, still used by local Mā ...

Harbour had to run for their lives to escape the waves, and reported having to drive through water over deep. Unusual waves were recorded in

Port Taranaki Port Taranaki is a port complex located in New Plymouth, New Zealand. It is the only deep water port on the west coast of New Zealand, and is owned by the Taranaki Regional Council. The port handles a wide range of coastal and international ...

New Plymouth New Plymouth () is the major city of the Taranaki region on the west coast of the North Island of New Zealand. It is named after the English city of Plymouth, in Devon, from where the first English settlers to New Plymouth migrated. The New Pl ...

. They lasted 24 hours, with the largest having a peak-to-peak height of at 08:30 local time. There were no casualties reported in New Zealand. In Australia, the

Bureau of Meteorology The Bureau of Meteorology (BOM or BoM) is an executive agency of the Government of Australia, Australian Government that is responsible for providing Weather forecasting, weather forecasts and Meteorology, meteorological services to Australia a ...

said tsunami waves were observed throughout Saturday night on the shores along the east coast of Australia. Maximum tsunami waves of were recorded at

Norfolk Island Norfolk Island ( , ; ) is an States and territories of Australia, external territory of Australia located in the Pacific Ocean between New Zealand and New Caledonia, directly east of Australia's Evans Head, New South Wales, Evans Head and a ...

, at

, at the

Gold Coast, Queensland The Gold Coast, also known by its initials, GC, is a coastal city and region in the state of Queensland, Australia, located approximately south-southeast of the centre of the list of Australian capital cities, state capital, Brisbane. It is ...

, at

Twofold Bay Twofold Bay is an open oceanic embayment that is located in the South Coast region of New South Wales, Australia. The bay was named by George Bass, for its shape of two bights. The northern bight is called Calle Calle Bay; while the southern ...

, New South Wales, and at

Hobart Hobart ( ) is the capital and most populous city of the island state of Tasmania, Australia. Located in Tasmania's south-east on the estuary of the River Derwent, it is the southernmost capital city in Australia. Despite containing nearly hal ...

, Tasmania. The signature of the tsunami was observed beneath the

Ross Ice Shelf The Ross Ice Shelf is the largest ice shelf of Antarctica (, an area of roughly and about across: about the size of France). It is several hundred metres thick. The nearly vertical ice front to the open sea is more than long, and between high ...

Antarctica Antarctica () is Earth's southernmost and least-populated continent. Situated almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle and surrounded by the Southern Ocean (also known as the Antarctic Ocean), it contains the geographic South Pole. ...

through an ice shelf borehole at 82.47°S. Newly installed pressure sensors recorded the atmospheric pulse and subsequent tsunami beneath of ice and snow.

Asia

In Kominato,

Amami, Kagoshima is a Cities of Japan, city located on the island of Amami Ōshima, in Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan. Amami is the most populated municipality on Amami Ōshima. The most urban part of the municipality as well as the island's main port is a sma ...

, Japan, a tsunami was reported at 23:55 on 15 January JST. At

Tosashimizu, Kōchi Tosashimizu City Hall Aerial view of central Tosashimizu City is a city located in the southwest of Kōchi Prefecture, Japan. , the city had an estimated population of 12,407 in 7,004 households, and a population density of 47 persons per km2. T ...

, the tsunami was in height. A tsunami measuring was also reported in

Chichijima is the largest and most populous islands of Japan, island in the Japanese archipelago of Bonin Islands, Bonin or Ogasawara Islands. Chichijima is about north of Iwo Jima. in size, the island is home to about 2,120 people (2021). Connected to ...

Futami. On the Tohoku coast, a wave struck at 00:38 local time, on 16 January 2022. In the

Sendai is the capital Cities of Japan, city of Miyagi Prefecture and the largest city in the Tōhoku region. , the city had a population of 1,098,335 in 539,698 households, making it the List of cities in Japan, twelfth most populated city in Japan. ...

Port, the tsunami measured at 00:08. In

Iwate Prefecture is a Prefectures of Japan, prefecture of Japan located in the Tōhoku region of Honshu. It is the second-largest Japanese prefecture (behind Hokkaido) at , with a population of 1,165,886 (as of July 1, 2023). Iwate Prefecture borders Aomori Pre ...

, a tsunami was recorded at 02:26 on 16 January. The tallest tsunami was recorded at

Amami Ōshima , also known as Amami, is the largest island in the Amami Islands, Amami archipelago between Kyūshū and Okinawa Prefecture, Okinawa. It is one of the Satsunan Islands, all of which belong to Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan. The island, 712.35 ...

, Okinawa. Tsunami waves of less than a metre were reported along the

Hokkaido is the list of islands of Japan by area, second-largest island of Japan and comprises the largest and northernmost prefectures of Japan, prefecture, making up its own list of regions of Japan, region. The Tsugaru Strait separates Hokkaidō fr ...

Pacific coast. The JMA said that the tsunami struck 2.5 hours earlier than predicted. Small tsunami waves were observed on the coast of

Taiwan Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia. The main geography of Taiwan, island of Taiwan, also known as ''Formosa'', lies between the East China Sea, East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocea ...

. The heights of the tsunami were: at Houbi Lake in

Pingtung County Pingtung () is a County (Taiwan), county located in southern Taiwan. It has a warm tropical monsoon climate and is known for its agriculture and tourism. Kenting National Park, Taiwan's oldest national park, is located in the county. The county ...

, followed by . On

Orchid Island Orchid Island, known as Pongso no Tao by the indigenous inhabitants, is a volcanic island located off the southeastern coast of Taiwan, the island and the nearby are governed by Taiwan as in Taitung County, which is one of the county's two ...

Taitung County Taitung () is the third largest county in Taiwan, located primarily on the island's southeastern coast and also including Green Island, Orchid Island and Lesser Orchid Island. The seat is located in Taitung City. Name While its name means "East ...

, in Yilan County, in

Su'ao Suao Township (), alternately romanized as Su-ao or Su'ao, is located in southern Yilan County, Taiwan, is an urban township that is famous for its seafood restaurants and cold springs. It is a terminus of National Highway No. 5, the Suao ...

, and at

Hualien County Hualien () is a County (Taiwan), county on the east coast of Taiwan. It is Taiwan's largest county by area, yet due to its mountainous terrain, has one of the lowest populations in the country. The county seat and largest city is Hualien City. Hu ...

. Waves were also observed at Chenggong with a height of , and at

Kaohsiung Kaohsiung, officially Kaohsiung City, is a special municipality located in southern Taiwan. It ranges from the coastal urban center to the rural Yushan Range with an area of . Kaohsiung City has a population of approximately 2.73 million p ...

for . In

Jeju Island Jeju Island (Jeju language, Jeju/) is South Korea's largest island, covering an area of , which is 1.83% of the total area of the country. Alongside outlying islands, it is part of Jeju Province and makes up the majority of the province. The i ...

, South Korea, there were fluctuations of up to in the sea level. Russia's

Kuril Islands The Kuril Islands or Kurile Islands are a volcanic archipelago administered as part of Sakhalin Oblast in the Russian Far East. The islands stretch approximately northeast from Hokkaido in Japan to Kamchatka Peninsula in Russia, separating the ...

, in the country's far east, had tsunami waves of about . At least two ports were warned.

North America

The highest tsunami waves in the United States were in

Port San Luis Port San Luis is a harbor on the central coast of California, approximately west of Avila Beach in San Luis Obispo County. The harbor is managed by the Port San Luis Harbor District which is responsible for maintaining the surrounding tideland ...

San Luis Obispo County San Luis Obispo County (), officially the County of San Luis Obispo, is a county on the Central Coast of California. As of the 2020 United States census, the population was 282,424. The county seat is San Luis Obispo. Junípero Serra fou ...

(

Southern California Southern California (commonly shortened to SoCal) is a geographic and Cultural area, cultural List of regions of California, region that generally comprises the southern portion of the U.S. state of California. Its densely populated coastal reg ...

) and in both Arena Cove and Crescent City (

Northern California Northern California (commonly shortened to NorCal) is a geocultural region that comprises the northern portion of the U.S. state of California, spanning the northernmost 48 of the state's List of counties in California, 58 counties. Northern Ca ...

). Significant waves hit the

Santa Cruz Harbor The Santa Cruz Small Craft Harbor (also "Santa Cruz Harbor", but see Santa Cruz Harbor#Santa Cruz Anchorage, below) is situated in Santa Cruz, California, on the site of the former Twin Lakes, California, Woods Lagoon. Built in 1962–1963, its ...

, and its parking lot was flooded with about of water, while Soquel Creek in the neighboring city of Capitola flowed backwards. A surfing competition was cancelled. Strong currents in

Half Moon Bay Half Moon Bay is a coastal city in San Mateo County, California, San Mateo County, California, United States, approximately south of San Francisco. Its population was 11,795 2020 United States census, 2020 census. Immediately north of Half Mo ...

were reported, while small waves were observed at Seal Beach. Waves up to in height were recorded in

Nikolski, Alaska Nikolski (''Chalukax̂'' in Aleut; ) is a census-designated place (CDP) on Umnak Island in Aleutians West Census Area, Alaska, United States. The population was 39 at the 2020 census, up from 18 in 2010. Nikolski is on Nikolski Bay, off the sou ...

. There was an unusually high tide along the coasts of

British Columbia British Columbia is the westernmost Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada. Situated in the Pacific Northwest between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains, the province has a diverse geography, with rugged landscapes that ...

and

Vancouver Island Vancouver Island is an island in the northeastern Pacific Ocean and part of the Canadian province of British Columbia. The island is in length, in width at its widest point, and in total area, while are of land. The island is the largest ...

. At 11:55 local time, the

Pacific Tsunami Warning Center The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC), located on Ford Island, Hawaii, is one of two tsunami warning centers in the United States, covering Hawaii, Guam, American Samoa and the Northern Mariana Islands in the Pacific, as well as Puerto Ric ...

(PTWC) said tide levels rose in Winter Harbour. Large logs were pushed up by the high tides and deposited on the beaches. The tsunami was first detected along the coastline of Mexico on 15 January at 12:35 by tide gauges at

Michoacán Michoacán, formally Michoacán de Ocampo, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Michoacán de Ocampo, is one of the 31 states which, together with Mexico City, compose the Political divisions of Mexico, Federal Entities of Mexico. The stat ...

. At the coasts of

Guerrero Guerrero, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Guerrero, is one of the 32 states that compose the administrative divisions of Mexico, 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided into Municipalities of Guerrero, 85 municipalities. The stat ...

Oaxaca Oaxaca, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Oaxaca, is one of the 32 states that compose the political divisions of Mexico, Federative Entities of the Mexico, United Mexican States. It is divided into municipalities of Oaxaca, 570 munici ...

and Baja California Peninsula, sea level rise was reported with waves of to . A tide level of was measured at Manzanillo, Colima, according to the Mareographic Service of the Institute of Geophysics of the

National Autonomous University of Mexico The National Autonomous University of Mexico (, UNAM) is a public university, public research university in Mexico. It has several campuses in Mexico City, and many others in various locations across Mexico, as well as a presence in nine countri ...

. The tsunami had an amplitude of in

Zihuatanejo Zihuatanejo (), and/or Ixtapa-Zihuatanejo, is the fourth largest city in the Mexican state of Guerrero. It was known by 18th-century English mariners as Chequetan and/or Seguataneo. Politically the city belongs to the municipalities of Mexico, m ...

. Waves of just under were recorded in

Acapulco Acapulco de Juárez (), commonly called Acapulco ( , ; ), is a city and Port of Acapulco, major seaport in the Political divisions of Mexico, state of Guerrero on the Pacific Coast of Mexico, south of Mexico City. Located on a deep, semicirc ...

Huatulco Huatulco (; ''wah-TOOL-coh''), formally Bahías de Huatulco, centered on the town of La Crucecita, is a tourist development in Mexico. It is located on the Pacific coast in the state of Oaxaca. Huatulco's tourism industry is centered on its ni ...

and

Salina Cruz Salina Cruz is a major seaport on the Pacific Ocean, Pacific coast of the List of states of Mexico, Mexican state of Oaxaca. It is the state's fourth-largest city and is the municipal seat of the Municipalities of Oaxaca, municipality of the sa ...

. Tsunami activity along the Pacific coast persisted until 20 January. The tsunami measured taller than at

Ensenada Ensenada ("inlet") is a city in Ensenada Municipality, Baja California, situated on the Pacific Coast of Mexico. Located on Bahía de Todos Santos, the city had a population of 279,765 in 2018, making it the third-largest city in Baja Californ ...

, Baja California. Sea level disturbances were recorded at the coast of the

Gulf of Mexico The Gulf of Mexico () is an oceanic basin and a marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean, mostly surrounded by the North American continent. It is bounded on the northeast, north, and northwest by the Gulf Coast of the United States; on the southw ...

and

Caribbean Sea The Caribbean Sea is a sea of the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean in the tropics of the Western Hemisphere, located south of the Gulf of Mexico and southwest of the Sargasso Sea. It is bounded by the Greater Antilles to the north from Cuba ...

. The shockwave-triggered

meteotsunami A meteotsunami or meteorological tsunamiTsunami Glossary 2008
, UNESCO is a

Minor tsunamis were measured as far away as the

and

Texas Texas ( , ; or ) is the most populous U.S. state, state in the South Central United States, South Central region of the United States. It borders Louisiana to the east, Arkansas to the northeast, Oklahoma to the north, New Mexico to the we ...

, with

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA ) is an American scientific and regulatory agency charged with Weather forecasting, forecasting weather, monitoring oceanic and atmospheric conditions, Hydrography, charting the seas, ...

reporting a maximum rise of at the

Isla de Mona Mona Island () is the third-largest island of the Puerto Rican archipelago, after the main island of Puerto Rico and Vieques. It is the largest of three islands in the Mona Passage, the strait between Hispaniola and Puerto Rico, with the othe ...

Puerto Rico ; abbreviated PR), officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, is a Government of Puerto Rico, self-governing Caribbean Geography of Puerto Rico, archipelago and island organized as an Territories of the United States, unincorporated territo ...

at 16:11 UTC. These may have been meteo-tsunamis related to slight atmospheric pressure changes.

South America

In Peru, two people were killed in Lambayeque, where the tsunami measured . Waves measuring were recorded in the port of

Callao Callao () is a Peruvian seaside city and Regions of Peru, region on the Pacific Ocean in the Lima metropolitan area. Callao is Peru's chief seaport and home to its main airport, Jorge Chávez International Airport. Callao municipality consists ...

, in Marcona District and in

Paita Paita is a city in northwestern Peru. It is the capital of the Paita Province which is in the Piura Region. It is a leading seaport in the region. Paita is located 1,089 km northwest of the country's capital Lima, and 57 km northwest of ...

. Significant sea level disturbances were measured off the coast of

Ecuador Ecuador, officially the Republic of Ecuador, is a country in northwestern South America, bordered by Colombia on the north, Peru on the east and south, and the Pacific Ocean on the west. It also includes the Galápagos Province which contain ...

's La Libertad, Esmeraldas and

Manta Manta or mantas may refer to: * Manta ray, large fish belonging to the genus ''Mobula'' Arts and entertainment App & Website * Manta (platform), a Korean digital comics provider Fictional entities * Manta (comics), a character in American Marve ...

. At 02:33 local time, a rise in sea level was measured on the mainland. There were also sea level changes in the Galapagos Islands. Sea level disturbances off the nation's coast persisted for nearly an hour. In northern Chile, waves of up to struck the coastline. Videos and images on social media from the

Los Ríos Region The Los Ríos Region (Spanish: ''Región de Los Ríos'', , ''Region of the Rivers'') is one of Chile's 16 regions, the country's first-order administrative divisions. Its capital is Valdivia. It began to operate as a region on October 2, 20 ...

showed the tsunami damaging piers, carrying boats and hitting beaches. A tsunami of was measured at

Chañaral Chañaral is a small coastal city and commune in the Atacama Region, Chile and capital of the Chañaral Province. The ocean is contaminated by the copper mining activity in the area. Just north of the city lies Pan de Azúcar National Park. It ...

Response

14 January

A tsunami warning was issued on 14 January in Tonga after an eruption was observed. Volcanic activity decreased following that eruption and the warning was lifted in the early morning of 15 January. A wave was observed during the first tsunami warning.

15 January

Another warning was issued to the whole of Tonga on the evening of 15 January following the next eruption. Warning sirens blared in Nukuʻalofa while authorities urged residents to flee to higher ground. The Mineral Resources Department in Fiji issued advisories to people living around the coastal areas to stay away from the shores. Evacuations were made on the

after wave activity was observed in the sea. Fiji's Attorney General

Aiyaz Sayed-Khaiyum Aiyaz Sayed-Khaiyum (born 24 September 1965) is a Fijian politician and a former cabinet minister. He was the Fijian Attorney-General and the Minister for Economy, Civil Service and Communications, and also served as the Minister responsible ...

urged the public to stay indoors and cover household water tanks in the event of rain due to the risk of fallout of

sulfuric acid Sulfuric acid (American spelling and the preferred IUPAC name) or sulphuric acid (English in the Commonwealth of Nations, Commonwealth spelling), known in antiquity as oil of vitriol, is a mineral acid composed of the elements sulfur, oxygen, ...

from the emitted in the air by the eruption. In

Wallis and Futuna Wallis and Futuna, officially the Territory of the Wallis and Futuna Islands (), is a French island territorial collectivity, collectivity in the Oceania, South Pacific, situated between Tuvalu to the northwest, Fiji to the southwest, Tonga t ...

, a tsunami warning was issued, but no damage was reported and the alert was lifted in the evening of 15 January. Tsunami warnings were also issued to

by the PTWC. The PTWC considered the tsunami "hazardous" and warned that changes in sea level, as well as strong currents, could pose a risk along the coast. Samoa later issued a tsunami advisory. The PTWC later cancelled the tsunami warning for American Samoa. The National Emergency Management Agency of New Zealand told residents to expect "strong and unusual currents and unpredictable surges" along the north and east coast of

North Island The North Island ( , 'the fish of Māui', historically New Ulster) is one of the two main islands of New Zealand, islands of New Zealand, separated from the larger but less populous South Island by Cook Strait. With an area of , it is the List ...

, as well as the

Chatham Islands The Chatham Islands ( ; Moriori language, Moriori: , 'Misty Sun'; ) are an archipelago in the Pacific Ocean about east of New Zealand's South Island, administered as part of New Zealand, and consisting of about 10 islands within an approxima ...

. The agency added that the currents have the potential to injure and drown people. A tsunami warning was issued by the

in Australia, with a land warning issued for

and

, and a marine warning for the east coast of Australia,

Tasmania Tasmania (; palawa kani: ''Lutruwita'') is an island States and territories of Australia, state of Australia. It is located to the south of the Mainland Australia, Australian mainland, and is separated from it by the Bass Strait. The sta ...

and

Macquarie Island Macquarie Island is a subantarctic island in the south-western Pacific Ocean, about halfway between New Zealand and Antarctica. It has been governed as a part of Tasmania, Australia, since 1880. It became a Protected areas of Tasmania, Tasmania ...

. On 16 January, at 06:55 AEDT (15 January 2022, 19:55 UTC), tsunami marine warnings were issued to New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria and Tasmania for strong and dangerous currents. The

Japan Meteorological Agency The Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA; ''気象庁, Kishō-chō'') is a division of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism dedicated to the Scientific, scientific observation and research of natural phenomena. Headquartered ...

(JMA) informed residents that a slight disturbance in the sea could occur without any damage. The tsunami would not pose a threat to the Japanese coastline. Officials from the JMA said that sea-level rise of no more than could be expected for 24 hours from 21:00

Japan Standard Time , or , is the standard time zone in Japan, 9 hours ahead of UTC (UTC+09:00). Japan does not observe daylight saving time, though its introduction has been debated on several occasions. During World War II, the time zone was often referred to a ...

(UTC+9). A tsunami warning was issued in the

Amami Islands The The name ''Amami-guntō'' was standardized on February 15, 2010. Prior to that, another name, ''Amami shotō'' (奄美諸島), was also used. is a Japanese archipelago in the Satsunan Islands, which is part of the Ryukyu Islands, and is sout ...

and

Tokara Islands The is an archipelago in the Nansei Islands, and are part of the Satsunan Islands, which is in turn part of the Ryukyu Archipelago. The chain consists of twelve small islands located between Yakushima and Amami-Oshima. The islands have a total ...

by the JMA with forecasted waves of up to . Additional warnings were issued to the east and south-east coast for waves of up to . This was the nation's first tsunami warning since the 2016 Fukushima earthquake. A warning and evacuation order was issued to

, and evacuation orders were also issued to six other prefectures. The

Fire and Disaster Management Agency The (FDMA) is an external agency attached to the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications in Japan. Background The Fire and Disaster Management Agency was established through article 3 paragraph 2 of the 1948 National Government Organizat ...

(FDMA) said 229,000 residents living in eight prefectures were evacuated. Japan downgraded its warnings the following morning. Russia issued a tsunami advisory for the Kuril Islands. The

National Tsunami Warning Center The National Tsunami Warning Center (NTWC) is one of two tsunami warning centers in the United States, covering all coastal regions of the United States and Canada, except Hawaii, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin ...

issued a tsunami advisory along the

West Coast of the United States The West Coast of the United States, also known as the Pacific Coast and the Western Seaboard, is the coastline along which the Western United States meets the North Pacific Ocean. The term typically refers to the Contiguous United States, contig ...

and

, Canada. The advisory contained all U.S. areas along the West Coast from

Alaska Alaska ( ) is a non-contiguous U.S. state on the northwest extremity of North America. Part of the Western United States region, it is one of the two non-contiguous U.S. states, alongside Hawaii. Alaska is also considered to be the north ...

. Beaches were closed, and coastal residents were requested to move to higher ground. A surfing contest with over 100 participants was cancelled in

Santa Cruz, California Santa Cruz (Spanish language, Spanish for "Holy Cross") is the largest city and the county seat of Santa Cruz County, California, Santa Cruz County, in Northern California. As of the 2020 United States census, 2020 census, the city population ...

. Tsunami waves measuring were expected to hit the shores as early as 07:30

Pacific Standard Time The Pacific Time Zone (PT) is a time zone encompassing parts of western Canada, the western United States, and western Mexico. Places in this zone observe standard time by subtracting eight hours from Coordinated Universal Time ( UTC−08:00). ...

(UTC−8) along the Central Coast. San Francisco was expected to receive waves at 8:10. The highest tsunami waves are expected one to two hours after the arrival of the first waves. A tsunami advisory was put in place for the entirety of Hawaii. Advisories in Canada were issued along the North and Central coasts of British Columbia, along with the

Haida Gwaii Haida Gwaii (; / , literally "Islands of the Haida people"), previously known as the Queen Charlotte Islands, is an archipelago located between off the British Columbia Coast, northern Pacific coast in the Canadian province of British Columbia ...

archipelago and

. No evacuation order was issued, but people were urged to avoid beaches and marinas. The warning level was low due to the height of reported waves, as they were below the threshold which would warrant an upgrade. By 12:35 local time, the tsunami advisory for British Columbia would be cancelled. By the evening, the United States lifted advisories for Alaska, Hawaii,

Washington Washington most commonly refers to: * George Washington (1732–1799), the first president of the United States * Washington (state), a state in the Pacific Northwest of the United States * Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States ** A ...

Oregon Oregon ( , ) is a U.S. state, state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. It is a part of the Western U.S., with the Columbia River delineating much of Oregon's northern boundary with Washington (state), Washington, while t ...

and portions of California. They remained in effect in California in parts of the Central and

North Coast North Coast or Northcoast may refer to : Antigua and Barbuda * Major Division of North Coast, an urban area and major division in the parish of Saint John * North Coast, Barbuda, an administrative district of Barbuda Australia * New South Wa ...

until early the following day. No warnings were issued to Peru initially. After the tsunami struck, authorities stopped all maritime activities at the coast. Twenty-two ports along north and central Peru were closed due to tsunami activity. Chile also issued a warning for a "minor tsunami" for most of its coastal area, including the island of

Rapa Nui Easter Island (, ; , ) is an island and special territory of Chile in the southeastern Pacific Ocean, at the southeasternmost point of the Polynesian Triangle in Oceania. The island is renowned for its nearly 1,000 extant monumental statues, ...

; evacuation was declared for twelve other regions. The Hydrographic and Oceanographic Service of the Chilean Navy declared a "State of Precaution" and indicated that there is a possibility of a minor tsunami in the affected regions. Later, coastal evacuation notices were issued in 14 of the 16 regions in Chile. A "Red alert" level was issued to more than of its coastline. The Chilean National Office for Emergency (

ONEMI ONEMI or National Office of Emergency of the Interior Ministry () was a Chilean government agency dedicated to the prevention, organization, coordination and information relative to natural disasters. After the 1960 Valdivia earthquake a committe ...

) said that tsunami activity could persist overnight, so those impacted would need to hold onto their emergency supplies and aid.

issued a warning of maritime disturbance for the

Galápagos Islands The Galápagos Islands () are an archipelago of volcanic islands in the Eastern Pacific, located around the equator, west of the mainland of South America. They form the Galápagos Province of the Republic of Ecuador, with a population of sli ...

. Mexico issued tsunami warnings for the coasts of states of

Baja California Baja California, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Baja California, is a state in Mexico. It is the northwesternmost of the 32 federal entities of Mexico. Before becoming a state in 1952, the area was known as the North Territory of B ...

Jalisco Jalisco, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Jalisco, is one of the 31 states which, along with Mexico City, comprise the 32 Political divisions of Mexico, Federal Entities of Mexico. It is located in western Mexico and is bordered by s ...

Colima Colima, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Colima, is among the 31 states that make up the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It shares its name with its capital and main city, Colima. Colima is a small state of western Mexico on the cen ...

and

Chiapas Chiapas, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Chiapas, is one of the states that make up the Political divisions of Mexico, 32 federal entities of Mexico. It comprises Municipalities of Chiapas, 124 municipalities and its capital and large ...

, urging people to avoid the coasts and entering the sea.

Subsequent days

A tsunami advisory was issued to American Samoa following a new eruption at the volcano on 16 January. The advisory was cancelled almost two hours later. A tsunami alert that was issued to Fiji on 15 January was cancelled. On 17 January, the Department of Environment in Fiji confirmed that the sulfur dioxide concentration in the atmosphere increased overnight. As previously advised, the department urged the public to cover all household water tanks and stay indoors in the event of

acid rain Acid rain is rain or any other form of Precipitation (meteorology), precipitation that is unusually acidic, meaning that it has elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). Most water, including drinking water, has a neutral pH that exists b ...

. The Ministry of Environment also advised the public not to consume rainwater. The first aid planes from New Zealand and Australia arrived on Tonga on 20 January, as phone lines were partially restored. On 2 February, after receiving aid shipments, the country went into a

COVID-19 lockdown During the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic, a number of non-pharmaceutical interventions, particularly lockdowns (encompassing stay-at-home orders, curfews, quarantines, and similar societal restrictions), were implemented in numero ...

, as two port workers in Nukuʻalofa tested positive.

Impact

Tonga

Little information was made available on the extent of damage and casualties from Tonga due to communication issues involving a damaged undersea cable. Video footage showing waves hitting coastal areas in Tonga was reported by

Sky News Sky News is a British free-to-air television news channel, live stream news network and news organisation. Sky News is distributed via an English-language radio news service, and through online channels. It is owned by Sky Group, a division of ...

. Atatā, a small island off the capital city, was reportedly submerged and rescue operations were being carried out. Images confirmed that most of the island have been wiped out; the

New Zealand Defence Force The New Zealand Defence Force (NZDF; , "Line of Defence of New Zealand") is the three-branched military of New Zealand. The NZDF is responsible for the protection of the national security of New Zealand and its realm, promoting its interests, ...

described the damages as "catastrophic". There were some reports of residents in Tonga struggling to breathe as a result of the ash. According to a media release by the government via a tweet, all structures were destroyed on Mango Island. Only two buildings remained intact on Fonoifua Island, and Nomuka Island suffered major damage. Twenty-one homes were destroyed and another 35 were seriously damaged on Tongatapu's west coast. Eight homes were demolished and 20 seriously damaged in Nukuʻalofa.

Island saw the loss of two homes and 45 damaged. An assessment by the

United Nations Institute for Training and Research The United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR) is a dedicated training arm of the United Nations system. UNITAR provides training and capacity development activities to assist mainly developing countries with special attention ...

(UNITAR) revealed extensive damage on Atatā Island; at least 72 buildings were affected by the tsunami and the whole island was blanketed by ash. Early reports said Atatā Island, which is located off the main Tongan island near Nukuʻalofa, was submerged by the tsunami. A Facebook post by the Royal Sunset Island Resort on the island said all residents were accounted for and safely evacuated. On Tongatapu, 50 homes were destroyed and 100 more suffered damage. A New Zealand government official in the capital Nukuʻalofa said extensive damage occurred on the waterfront of the city, as it was severely hit by the tsunami. Acting High Commissioner Peter Lund said that several people were unaccounted for following the eruption and tsunami. Tattoo parlour owner Angela Glover, a British resident in Tonga, was among the people missing, swept away by the tsunami when it hit Nukuʻalofa. Glover's body was later found. Though the extent of the damage in Tonga is still not clear, a blanket of thick ash has contaminated water supplies, cut off communications and prevented surveillance flights, making it difficult for relief efforts to begin. Another fatality was confirmed by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade on 18 January. Lund added that there was an initially unconfirmed third death from the tsunami. This third death was identified as a local resident, and the Tongan government has confirmed three deaths were the result of the tsunami. The Government of Tonga said that the two locals who died were from Mango and Nomuka islands, respectively. A fourth fatality was confirmed by 30 January, but information about this victim was not disclosed. NZDF over Tonga 18 January 2022

On 23 January, the Tongan government confirmed that eight people on Nomuka island were injured, with six others sustaining minor injuries. Photos shared by a resident on the island of

Lifuka Lifuka is an island in the Kingdom of Tonga. It is located within the Haʻapai group in the centre of the country, to northeast of the national capital of Nukuʻalofa. It is the administrative centre of the Haʻapai group of islands with Pangai ...

, north-east of Nukuʻalofa showed minor damage to island communities and a wharf. Damage suggests the island was hit by smaller waves. The islands of

ʻUiha ʻUiha is an island in Lifuka district, in the Haʻapai islands of Tonga. It had a population of 638 in 2006 and an area of . The island has two villages, ʻUiha and Felemea. During the summer of 1863 islanders ambushed the slave ship margarita d ...

and

Haʻano Haano is an island in the Haʻapai islands of Tonga. To the south are the islands of Foa and Lifuka. The island is in area. It is losing population, which dropped from 588 in 1996 to 477 in 2006. The island's four villages are located on the wes ...

also sustained limited damage from the tsunami. Several photographs showed debris left by the tsunami strewn across a road and on grass fields. Owners of the Haʻatafu Beach Resort wrote on Facebook that their beach resort, located at the northern tip of the island of Tongatapu, was completely destroyed. The employees were able to escape. They added that the whole western coastline of the island and Kanokupolu village were destroyed. The

United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) is a United Nations (UN) body established in December 1991 by the General Assembly to strengthen the international response to complex emergencies and natural disaster ...

stated that there was concern for two low-lying islands in the

group, Fonoi and Mango, as a distress beacon had been detected on one of the islands (Fonoi has a population of 69 people, while Mango has 36 residents). A surveillance flight confirmed "substantial property damage" on the two low-lying islands; the Tongan government later confirmed that all homes on Mango Island were destroyed.

Southern Cross Cable The Southern Cross Cable is a trans-Pacific Ocean, Pacific network of telecommunications cables commissioned in 2000. The network is operated by the Bermuda-registered company ''Southern Cross Cables Limited''. The network has of Submarine co ...

reported that the eruption may have broken the

Tonga Cable System Tonga Cable System is a submarine fiber-optic cable system connecting Tonga with Fiji, where it connects to other international networks. It is long and was activated in 2013. It has cable landing points at Sopu, a suburb of Nukuʻalofa in Tonga ...

, which connects Tonga to Southern Cross's trans-Pacific cable in Fiji. Southern Cross cited a fault in the international cable from Nukuʻalofa, and a further fault in a domestic cable from Nukuʻalofa. New Zealand prime minister

Jacinda Ardern Dame Jacinda Kate Laurell Ardern ( ; born 26 July 1980) is a New Zealand politician and activist who was the 40th prime minister of New Zealand and Leader of the New Zealand Labour Party, leader of the Labour Party from 2017 to 2023. She was ...

had earlier stated that an

undersea cable Submarine cable is any electrical cable that is laid on the seabed, although the term is often extended to encompass cables laid on the bottom of large freshwater bodies of water. Examples include: *Submarine communications cable A submarine ...

serving Tonga was affected, probably due to power cuts, and authorities were urgently attempting to restore communications. The chair of the Tonga Cable System, Samiuela Fonua, stated that repair crews would not be cleared to access the site of the faults before volcanic activity ceased at Hunga Tonga; with additional preparation time necessary for the repairs, internet services could be unavailable for over two weeks after the eruption. Limited satellite connectivity was established on 21 January, mobile phone provider

Digicel Digicel is a Jamaican-based Caribbean mobile phone network and home entertainment provider operating in 25 markets worldwide. Digicel has operated in several countries, including Guyana, Fiji, Haiti, Trinidad and Tobago, Samoa, St. Lucia, Surinam ...

established a 2G cell network on Tongatapu using a satellite dish from the

University of the South Pacific The University of the South Pacific (USP) is a public research university with locations spread throughout a dozen countries in Oceania. Established in 1968, the university is organised as an intergovernmental organisation and is owned by the gov ...

. Reuters reported that a specialist cable repair ship would arrive at the Tongan archipelago on 30 January. On 4 February, the Associated Press reported that Fonua stated that repair crews would need to replace of cable, and that he hoped to have it restored the following week. On 8 February, the ''Matangi Tonga'' website reported that more breaks were suspected within the cable, delaying the cable's restoration to 20 February. Agence France-Presse followed up in a report on 15 February, stating that the cable was torn into multiple pieces and that a section of cable had been lost. The report also stated that separate sections of cable had been moved and buried under of silt. The cable being cut repeatedly and moved long distances is consistent with a

turbidity current A turbidity current is most typically an Ocean current, underwater current of usually rapidly moving, sediment-laden water moving down a slope; although current research (2018) indicates that water-saturated sediment may be the primary actor in ...

damaging it, similar to the

1929 Grand Banks earthquake The 1929 Grand Banks earthquake (also called the Laurentian Slope earthquake and the South Shore Disaster) occurred on November 18, 1929. The shock had a moment magnitude of 7.2 and a maximum Rossi–Forel intensity of VI (''Strong tremor'') ...

. The cable connection to Tongatapu was repaired on 22 February. Severe damage on the west coast of Tongatapu was confirmed by the New Zealand High Commission in Tonga on 17 January. Surveillance flights by the Australian Defence Forces reported extensive damage along the west coast. The shores of Nukuʻalofa had substantial damage as debris and rocks were deposited inland by the tsunami waves, according to an early report from the

UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) is a United Nations (UN) body established in December 1991 by the General Assembly to strengthen the international response to complex emergencies and natural disasters ...

(OCHA). A layer of volcanic ash blanketed the capital Nukuʻalofa. Satellite images of Nomuka island showed that nearly a fifth of the structures had been damaged, with more than 40 buildings covered in ash. The Fuaʻamotu International Airport was covered with ash and dirt. There were also reports of water damage in the district of Nukuʻalofa. The Tongan navy that was dispatched to

islands reported significant damage, where a tsunami estimated to be between in height traveled as far as inland. The Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery reported that 600 buildings including 300 homes were damaged or destroyed by the tsunami. The Ministry of Finance estimated the agricultural damage was T$17.3 million (US$7.38 million). The

World Bank The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans and Grant (money), grants to the governments of Least developed countries, low- and Developing country, middle-income countries for the purposes of economic development ...

revealed that 85% of the population was affected by the volcanic eruption and the subsequent tsunami. Damage was amounted to be T$421 million (US$182 million) — about 36.4% of Tonga’s gross domestic product.

Elsewhere

In Fiji, the eruption triggered waves in

Vanua Balavu Vanua Balavu (pronounced ) is the third largest island in Fiji's Lau archipelago, and the main island of the Northern Lau Group. Geography and infrastructure This coral and volcanic island has a land area of . Its maximum elevation is . The isl ...

, Gau and

. In the village of Moce,

, the tsunami severely damaged some homes on the beaches and debris was strewn across the village and boats were dragged inland. One elderly woman in Moce died of exhaustion while trying to escape the tsunami. There was sizeable damage to schools, infrastructure as well as fishing boats in the islands. Two people in Itoman (Okinawa) and Amami City, Japan suffered falls during the evacuations. A number of fishing boats in Kōchi and Mie prefectures capsized or sank. A total of 30 fishing vessels were lost. In Muroto, five small boats sank and another five were lost. A small ship capsized and sank in Owase. The tsunami also damaged fishing nets on the coast of

Tokushima Prefecture is a Prefectures of Japan, prefecture of Japan located on the island of Shikoku. Tokushima Prefecture has a population of 682,439 (1 February 2025) and has a geographic area of 4,146 Square kilometre, km2 (1,601 sq mi). Tokushima Prefecture b ...

. Land, sea and air transportation was affected; 27 domestic flights operated by

Japan Airlines Japan Airlines (JAL) is the flag carrier airline of Japan. JAL is headquartered in Shinagawa, Tokyo. Its main hubs are Tokyo's Narita International Airport, Narita and Haneda Airport, Haneda airports, as well as secondary hubs in Osaka's Kansai ...

were cancelled due to the warnings. The tsunami caused serious material damage to a tour operator at

Kailua-Kona, Hawaii Kailua-Kona is an Unincorporated area#United States, unincorporated community and census-designated place (CDP) in Hawaii County, Hawaii, Hawaii County, Hawaii, United States. It is most commonly referred to simply as Kona (a name it shares wit ...

, where 80 percent of its inventory and gear was lost. Major damage to retail products and the business office totaled at least US$75,000. Beaches and piers were flooded by the surging waves in the city. Canoes belonging to several clubs were damaged and strewn across the beach or on rock walls due to the waves. Boats were dumped inland or on piers after the waves retreated. Two women in northern Peru drowned in the swell when waves hit Naylamp beach, Lambayeque, dragging a truck into the sea. The driver escaped. Twenty-two ports along northern and central Peru were closed due to the tsunami. Substantial material damage was inflicted on coastal businesses and the beach areas. Videos showed the tsunami flooding the streets. Restaurants and boats in Lagunillas beach and San Andrés District were damaged by waves. Many beachgoers were evacuated to safety while businesses closed. Damage to piers and some homes occurred in the capital,

Lima Lima ( ; ), founded in 1535 as the Ciudad de los Reyes (, Spanish for "City of Biblical Magi, Kings"), is the capital and largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón River, Chillón, Rímac River, Rímac and Lurín Rive ...

. In some areas, boat owners dragged their boats onto shore to prevent the waves from damaging them. The Peruvian Civil Defense Institute said on 17 January that an oil spill occurred at the La Pampilla refinery. The spill was caused by tsunami waves moving a ship while transporting oil onto the refinery. The oil spill affected some of sea and of beach-coastal strip, and more than of protected natural areas in Peru. Despite the warnings from officials, some residents in California strayed too close to the sea, and they were swept away by strong surges, such as the situation at

San Gregorio, California San Gregorio (Spanish for " St. Gregory") is an unincorporated community in San Mateo County, California, with a population of 214 people. It is located in the San Francisco Bay Area, south of Half Moon Bay. Just east of Highway 1, it is inla ...

, where four fishermen were swept out to sea by the tsunami. Two men were injured and received medical treatment, while another two were rescued unhurt. A woman was rescued and treated by medical workers at China Beach, San Francisco. San Francisco firefighters and the U.S. Coast Guard rescued three surfers. The tsunami caused extensive damage at

Santa Cruz harbor The Santa Cruz Small Craft Harbor (also "Santa Cruz Harbor", but see Santa Cruz Harbor#Santa Cruz Anchorage, below) is situated in Santa Cruz, California, on the site of the former Twin Lakes, California, Woods Lagoon. Built in 1962–1963, its ...

. Electrical systems, pilings, restrooms and showers were damaged and repair costs were estimated at US$6.5 million. Minor material damage occurred on the coast of

Penco Penco (Mapudungun: See (''Pen''), Water (''Ko'')), is a Chilean city and commune in Concepción Province, Bío Bío Region on the Bay of Concepción. Founded as the city of Concepción del Nuevo Extremo ('beginning of the new extreme') on Febr ...

, and six people were trapped in Coliumo (near

Tomé Tomé () is a port List of cities in Chile, city and Communes of Chile, commune in the Biobío Region of Chile. It is bordered by Coelemu to the north, Ránquil and Florida, Chile, Florida to the east, Penco to the south, and the Pacific Ocean t ...

), in Chile's

Biobío Region The Biobío Region ( ) is one of Chile's sixteen regions (first-order administrative divisions). With a population of 1.5 million, thus being the third most populated region in Chile, it is divided into three provinces: Arauco, Biobío and C ...

. No casualties were reported due to the evacuations. A State of Precaution was still in place in

Atacama The Atacama Desert () is a desert plateau located on the Pacific coast of South America, in the north of Chile. Stretching over a strip of land west of the Andes Mountains, it covers an area of , which increases to if the barren lower slopes ...

, Coquimbo, Ñuble and Biobío as of 16 January 2022. Flights to Tonga and in the surrounding region were disrupted by lingering volcanic ash.

Air New Zealand Air New Zealand Limited () is the flag carrier of New Zealand. Based in Auckland, the airline operates scheduled passenger flights to 20 domestic and 28 international destinations in 18 countries, primarily within the Pacific Rim. The airline h ...

stated that a repatriation flight to Tonga that was originally scheduled for 20 January was postponed indefinitely, and

Fiji Airways Fiji Airways, formerly Air Pacific, is the flag carrier of Fiji. It operates international services from its hubs in Fiji to 27 destinations, and has an extended network of 108 international destinations through its codeshare partners, includi ...

announced that all flights to Tonga were postponed and several services to Australia could face delays and longer flight times. An

Aircalin Société Aircalin, also known as Air Calédonie International, is the flag carrier of the French collectivity of New Caledonia, with its headquarters in Nouméa. It operates scheduled services from its main hub at La Tontouta International A ...

flight from Tokyo to

Nouméa Nouméa () is the capital and largest city of the French Sui generis collectivity, special collectivity of New Caledonia and is also the largest Francophone city in Oceania. It is situated on a peninsula in the south of New Caledonia's main i ...

was diverted to

Brisbane Brisbane ( ; ) is the List of Australian capital cities, capital and largest city of the States and territories of Australia, state of Queensland and the list of cities in Australia by population, third-most populous city in Australia, with a ...

to avoid volcanic ash, with a subsequent flight from Nouméa to

Sydney Sydney is the capital city of the States and territories of Australia, state of New South Wales and the List of cities in Australia by population, most populous city in Australia. Located on Australia's east coast, the metropolis surrounds Syd ...

placed on hold. The ash cloud reached

Queensland Queensland ( , commonly abbreviated as Qld) is a States and territories of Australia, state in northeastern Australia, and is the second-largest and third-most populous state in Australia. It is bordered by the Northern Territory, South Austr ...

on 17 January, creating an "eerie, spectacular and incredible" sunrise. In July, it reached

, causing "stunning" pink and purple skyscapes.

Assistance

New Zealand's prime minister

said officials from the

Ministry of Foreign Affairs In many countries, the ministry of foreign affairs (abbreviated as MFA or MOFA) is the highest government department exclusively or primarily responsible for the state's foreign policy and relations, diplomacy, bilateral, and multilateral r ...

were discussing the provision of aid to Tonga. Ardern described the events in Tonga as "hugely concerning". On 16 January, she announced New Zealand was donating NZ$500,000, which was "very much the starting point". The

Royal New Zealand Navy The Royal New Zealand Navy (RNZN; ) is the maritime arm of the New Zealand Defence Force. The fleet currently consists of eight ships. The Navy had its origins in the Naval Defence Act 1913, and the subsequent acquisition of the cruiser , whi ...

was preparing to sail and a

RNZAF The Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF; ) is the aerial service branch of the New Zealand Defence Force. It was formed initially in 1923 as a branch of the New Zealand Army, being known as the New Zealand Permanent Air Force, becoming an in ...

P-3 Orion The Lockheed P-3 Orion is a four-engined, turboprop anti-submarine and maritime surveillance aircraft developed for the United States Navy and introduced in the 1960s. It is based on the L-188 Electra commercial airliner by Lockheed; it is e ...

would be sent on a reconnaissance flight as soon as it was safe to do so. The ash cloud was estimated at high, well above the Orion's service ceiling. The C-130H Hercules airlift is ready to serve as well. Following reports of no continued ashfall in Tonga, the P-3 Orion left

RNZAF Base Auckland RNZAF Base Auckland is a Royal New Zealand Air Force base located near the upper reaches of the Waitematā Harbour in Auckland, New Zealand. The base formerly comprised two separate airfields, Whenuapai and RNZAF Station Hobsonville. Hobsonvill ...

for Tonga on the morning of 17 January. On 18 January, as an RNZAF

Lockheed C-130 Hercules The Lockheed C-130 Hercules is an American four-engine turboprop military transport aircraft designed and built by Lockheed Corporation, Lockheed (now Lockheed Martin). Capable of using unprepared runways for takeoffs and landings, the C-130 w ...

was unable to land following continued ashfall in Tonga, two Royal New Zealand Navy ships set sail for Tonga. HMNZS ''Wellington'' carried survey equipment and a helicopter, while HMNZS ''Aotearoa'' carried of water and desalination equipment to produce a further per day. On 20 January, New Zealand announced that it would dispatch a third warship, HMNZS ''Canterbury'' with two NH90 helicopters to assist with relief efforts. Tonga accepted an offer by the Australian government of a surveillance flight to assess the damage. Two

Boeing P-8A Poseidon The Boeing P-8 Poseidon is an American maritime patrol and reconnaissance aircraft developed and produced by Boeing Defense, Space & Security. It was developed for the United States Navy as a derivative of the civilian Boeing 737 Next Generati ...

maritime patrol aircraft and a Lockheed C-130J Hercules of the

Royal Australian Air Force The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) is the principal Air force, aerial warfare force of Australia, a part of the Australian Defence Force (ADF) along with the Royal Australian Navy and the Australian Army. Constitutionally the Governor-Gener ...

departed on the morning of 17 January 2022 for Tonga to survey damage to roadways, ports and power lines. The Australian and New Zealand governments also announced they were coordinating their humanitarian response with France and the United States. Assistance from France is provided through the humanitarian aid mechanism of the FRANZ agreement with Australia and New Zealand. Australia would later announce that HMAS ''Adelaide'' would be deployed to Tonga with water purification and humanitarian supplies. The United States dispatched USS ''Sampson'' as well as a

Coast Guard A coast guard or coastguard is a Maritime Security Regimes, maritime security organization of a particular country. The term embraces wide range of responsibilities in different countries, from being a heavily armed military force with cust ...

vessel while the United Kingdom deployed HMS ''Spey''. After 23 crew members of the ''Adelaide'' tested positive for COVID-19 while enroute to Tonga, the ship made a contactless delivery. On 17 January, officials in Tonga called for immediate aid. Speaker of the

Legislative Assembly of Tonga The Legislative Assembly of Tonga () is the unicameral legislature of Tonga. History A Legislative Assembly providing for representation of nobles and commoners was established in 1862 by King George Tupou I. This body met every four years ...

Fatafehi Fakafanua in a social media post wrote that "Tonga needs immediate assistance to provide its citizens with fresh drinking water and food". The

International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement The organized International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement is a Humanitarianism, humanitarian movement with approximately 16million volunteering, volunteers, members, and staff worldwide. It was founded to protect human life and health, to ...

and the

Pacific Islands Forum The Pacific Islands Forum (PIF) is an inter-governmental organisation that aims to enhance cooperation among countries and territories of Oceania, including formation of a trade bloc and regional peacekeeping operations. It was founded in 197 ...

has offered its assistance.

Tearfund Tearfund is an international Christian relief and development agency based in Teddington, UK. It currently works in around 50 countries, with a primary focus on supporting those in poverty and providing disaster relief for disadvantaged communit ...

and

Oxfam Oxfam is a British-founded confederation of 21 independent non-governmental organizations (NGOs), focusing on the alleviation of global poverty, founded in 1942 and led by Oxfam International. It began as the Oxford Committee for Famine Relief ...

provided immediate assistance by supporting people with food and water. Oxfam already had filtering units in Tongatapu which could turn salt water into drinking water.

UNICEF UNICEF ( ), originally the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund, officially United Nations Children's Fund since 1953, is an agency of the United Nations responsible for providing Humanitarianism, humanitarian and Development a ...

will work with the Tongan government to reach affected children and families. The agency was also ready to transport its emergency supplies from Fiji and

. Fiji's Attorney General and Acting Prime Minister

said that Fiji was working with New Zealand and Australia to coordinate regional relief efforts. He added that Fiji had offered to dispatch

Republic of Fiji Military Forces The Republic of Fiji Military Forces (RFMF, formerly the Royal Fiji Military Forces until 1987 when the Dominion of Fiji was overthrown) is the military force of the Pacific Ocean, Pacific island nation of Fiji. With a total manpower of about ...

(RFMF) personnel and engineers that would join the

Australian Defence Force The Australian Defence Force (ADF) is the Armed forces, military organisation responsible for the defence of Australia and its national interests. It consists of three branches: the Royal Australian Navy (RAN), Australian Army and the Royal Aus ...

(ADF). Relief supplies would also be sent to the Lau group that was affected by the tsunami. On 29 January, a chartered commercial vessel was deployed to Tonga. Aboard the vessel were eleven

shipping container A shipping container is a container with strength suitable to withstand shipment, storage, and handling. Shipping containers range from large reusable steel boxes used for intermodal shipments to the ubiquitous corrugated box design, corrugated b ...

s filled with relief supplies. Four containers were from the Tongan Community in Fiji while the rest were from donations by government and non-government organisations. The

International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) is a worldwide humanitarian aid organization that reaches 160 million people each year through its 191 member National Societies. It acts before, during and after disas ...

(IFRC) Asia Pacific said that drinking water were hurriedly distributed to people in need due to the tsunami and ash affecting local water supply. The Tonga Red Cross provided temporary shelters and supplied water to affected communities. Emergency response teams were sent to Mango, Fonoifua and Namuka islands.

International

* : On 17 January, the

Red Cross Society of China The Red Cross Society of China () is the national Red Cross Society in the People's Republic of China. Origins and history before 1949 The Red Cross Society of China was founded as the Shanghai International Red Cross Committee on March 10, 1 ...

decided to provide US$100,000 of emergency humanitarian aid in cash to the Tongan side, while the government of China said it would deliver a batch of disaster relief materials to Tonga at the request of the South Pacific island country. On 19 January, the Chinese government delivered a batch of emergency supplies such as drinking water and food to Tonga through the embassy in Tonga. The Chinese Embassy in Fiji raised another batch of RMB 1 million materials to deliver to Tonga. On 27 and 31 January, the Chinese army dispatched air force transport aircraft Y-20 and naval ships to Tonga to deliver emergency and post-disaster reconstruction materials such as water purifiers, tents,

personal protective equipment Personal protective equipment (PPE) is protective clothing, helmets, goggles, or other garments or equipment designed to protect the wearer's body from injury or infection. The hazards addressed by protective equipment include physical, elect ...

, generators, water pumps, tractors and radio communication equipment in two batches. The two batches of materials were 33 tons and more than 1,400 tons, respectively. They arrived on 28 January and 15 February local time, respectively. * : Israeli Foreign Minister

Yair Lapid Yair Lapid ( ; born 5 November 1963) is an Israeli politician of the centrist Yesh Atid party and a former journalist who has been the Leader of the Opposition (Israel), Leader of the Opposition since January 2023, having previously served in t ...

stated that Israel was exploring ways of providing aid to Tonga through its aid agency Mashav including access to safe drinking water. * : On 18 January, the

Singapore Red Cross Society The Singapore Red Cross (SRC), formally the Singapore Red Cross Society, is a humanitarian aid and community services charity in Singapore. The SRC is a national member of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IF ...

pledged S$50,000 in aid to Tonga and also announced a fundraising effort to raise more help for those affected by the tsunami. * : On 20 January, the

Japanese government The Government of Japan is the central government of Japan. It consists of legislative, executive and judiciary branches and functions under the framework established by the Constitution of Japan. Japan is a unitary state, containing forty- ...

dispatched two

C-130H The Lockheed C-130 Hercules is an American four-engine turboprop military transport aircraft designed and built by Lockheed (now Lockheed Martin). Capable of using unprepared runways for takeoffs and landings, the C-130 was originally designe ...

via Australia to Tonga. Subsequently, the Japanese Ministry of Defense decided to send JS ''Ōsumi'' with of drinking water, high-pressure cleaning devices for removing volcanic ash, and two CH-47J onboard. The Ministry had also deployed its C-2 transport aircraft loaded with additional relief supplies. The Japanese Government has also planned to offer more than ¥114 million (US$1 million) in funds for Tonga. * : On January 22, the EU has allocated €200,000 in emergency humanitarian aid funding. This fund was directed to the Tonga Red Cross Society, with the specific aim of assisting the most severely affected communities. Via the EU Civil Protection Mechanism, the EU coordinate with

France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...

the delivery of humanitarian aid, while the

European Commission The European Commission (EC) is the primary Executive (government), executive arm of the European Union (EU). It operates as a cabinet government, with a number of European Commissioner, members of the Commission (directorial system, informall ...

coordinated the delivery and financed 75% of the transporting costs. * : On 25 January, the

Indian Government The Government of India (ISO: Bhārata Sarakāra, legally the Union Government or Union of India or the Central Government) is the national authority of the Republic of India, located in South Asia, consisting of 36 states and union territor ...

provided an immediate relief assistance of US$200,000 "to support relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts" in Tonga, which it described as "a close friend and partner under the Forum for India-Pacific Islands Cooperation (FIPIC). * : On 25 January, the

U.S. Government The Federal Government of the United States of America (U.S. federal government or U.S. government) is the national government of the United States. The U.S. federal government is composed of three distinct branches: legislative, executi ...

announced $2.5 million of humanitarian assistance, to be delivered through its

USAID The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) is an agency of the United States government that has been responsible for administering civilian United States foreign aid, foreign aid and development assistance. Established in 19 ...

development agency in cooperation with the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies and the Tonga Red Cross Society.

Non-state interventions

On 6 February, ''

The New Zealand Herald ''The New Zealand Herald'' is a daily newspaper published in Auckland, New Zealand, owned by New Zealand Media and Entertainment, and considered a newspaper of record for New Zealand. It has the largest newspaper circulation in New Zealand, ...

'' and the

Fiji Broadcasting Corporation The Fijian Broadcasting Corporation (FBC) is one of the two radio broadcasters in Fiji. It was known as Fiji Broadcasting Commission when it began. It traces its history to 1935 when it first began operating under licence from the Posts and Tele ...

's FBC News reported that

SpaceX Space Exploration Technologies Corp., commonly referred to as SpaceX, is an America, American space technology company headquartered at the SpaceX Starbase, Starbase development site in Starbase, Texas. Since its founding in 2002, the compa ...

engineers were working to restore Internet access in Tonga.

New Zealand National Party The New Zealand National Party (), often shortened to National () or the Nats, is a Centre-right politics, centre-right List of political parties in New Zealand, political party in New Zealand that is the current senior ruling party. It is one ...

Member of Parliament

Shane Reti Shane Raymond Reti (born 5 June 1963) is a New Zealand politician and a member of the New Zealand House of Representatives, and a Cabinet Minister with the roles of Minister for Pacific Peoples, Minister of Science, Innovation, and Technology, ...

had earlier petitioned SpaceX CEO

Elon Musk Elon Reeve Musk ( ; born June 28, 1971) is a businessman. He is known for his leadership of Tesla, SpaceX, X (formerly Twitter), and the Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE). Musk has been considered the wealthiest person in th ...

for assistance in providing

Starlink Starlink is a satellite internet constellation operated by Starlink Services, LLC, an international telecommunications provider that is a wholly owned subsidiary of American aerospace company SpaceX, providing coverage to around 130 countries ...

satellite technology to the island country. In response, Musk had asked on Twitter whether Tonga authorities could inform him on whether Starlink terminals were needed. The Fijian Minister for Communications Aiyaz Sayed-Khaiyum subsequently confirmed that SpaceX engineers would establish and operate a temporary ground station in Fiji to assist with efforts to restore Internet access in Tonga. By 23 February, Tonga Cable had managed to restore Tonga's

fibre-optic cable A fiber-optic cable, also known as an optical-fiber cable, is an assembly similar to an electrical cable but containing one or more optical fibers that are used to carry light. The optical fiber elements are typically individually coated with p ...

with the assistance of SpaceX. On 21 February, repair works on the

were completed, restoring Internet to Tonga. Tongan Olympian flagbearer

Pita Taufatofua Pita Nikolas Taufatofua (born 5 November 1983) is a Tongan athlete in taekwondo, cross-country skiing (sport), cross-country skiing, and Canoeing, canoe. He is also a UNICEF ambassador and motivational speaker and lives in Brisbane, Australia. ...

, who became widely known during the

2016 Summer Olympics The 2016 Summer Olympics (), officially the Games of the XXXI Olympiad () and officially branded as Rio 2016, were an international multi-sport event held from 5 to 21 August 2016 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, with preliminary events i ...

, gathered more than US$330,000 in aid to his native country, after he opened a

GoFundMe GoFundMe is an American for-profit crowdfunding platform that allows people to raise money for events ranging from life events such as celebrations and graduations to challenging circumstances like accidents and illnesses. From 2010 to the ...

fundraising website.

Notes

References

External links

EMSR558: Volcano eruption in Tonga (damage grading maps)
– Copernicus Emergency Management Service
ReliefWeb's main page Tonga: Volcanic Eruption and Tsunami – January 2022

CIMSS Satellite Blog
*
Update on the eruption and consequences
''Nature'' news, 8 June 2022 {{DEFAULTSORT:2022 Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai eruption and tsunami 2022 in American Samoa 2022 in California 2022 disasters in Chile 2022 in Fiji 2022 in Hawaii 2022 in Mexico 2022 in New Zealand 2022 in Niue 2022 in Peru 2022 in Tonga 2022 in Vanuatu 2022 in Wallis and Futuna 2022 tsunamis January 2022 in Asia January 2022 in Oceania January 2022 in the United States January 2022 in South America Tsunamis in Tonga Tsunamis in Fiji Tsunamis in Vanuatu Tsunamis in Japan Tsunamis in American Samoa Tsunamis in the United States Tsunamis in Chile Tsunamis in Peru Tsunamis in Australia Tsunamis in Russia Volcanic eruptions in 2022 Volcanic eruptions in Oceania Volcanism of the Pacific Ocean Volcanic tsunamis Surtseyan eruptions Plinian eruptions 2022 in the environment Tsunamis in Ecuador Tsunamis in Taiwan VEI-5 eruptions VEI-6 eruptions 2022 disasters in Oceania 2022 disasters in Asia 2022 disasters in North America 2022 disasters in South America Articles containing video clips Tsunamis in New Zealand January 2022 in Tonga Tsunamis in Mexico