Minangkabau people ( min, Urang Minang;
Indonesian
Indonesian is anything of, from, or related to Indonesia, an archipelagic country in Southeast Asia. It may refer to:
* Indonesians, citizens of Indonesia
** Native Indonesians, diverse groups of local inhabitants of the archipelago
** Indonesia ...
or
Malay: ''Orang Minangkabau'' or ''Minangkabo'';
Jawi: منڠكبو), also known as Minang, are an
Austronesian
Austronesian may refer to:
*The Austronesian languages
*The historical Austronesian peoples
The Austronesian peoples, sometimes referred to as Austronesian-speaking peoples, are a large group of peoples in Taiwan, Maritime Southeast Asia, M ...
ethnic group native to the
Minangkabau Highlands of
West Sumatra,
Indonesia
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guine ...
. The Minangkabau's West Sumatran homelands was the seat of the
Pagaruyung Kingdom, believed by early historians to have been the cradle of the
Malay race,
and the location of the
Padri War (1821 to 1837).
Minangkabau are the ethnic majority in
West Sumatra and
Negeri Sembilan. Minangkabau are also a recognised minority in other parts of
Indonesia
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guine ...
as well as
Malaysia
Malaysia ( ; ) is a country in Southeast Asia. The federation, federal constitutional monarchy consists of States and federal territories of Malaysia, thirteen states and three federal territories, separated by the South China Sea into two r ...
,
Singapore
Singapore (), officially the Republic of Singapore, is a sovereign island country and city-state in maritime Southeast Asia. It lies about one degree of latitude () north of the equator, off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, borde ...
and the
Netherlands
)
, anthem = ( en, "William of Nassau")
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, subdivision_type = Sovereign state
, subdivision_name = Kingdom of the Netherlands
, established_title = Before independence
, established_date = Spanish Netherl ...
.
Etymology
There are several etymology of the term Minangkabau. While the word "kabau" undisputedly translates to "Water Buffalo", the word "minang" is traditionally known as a pinang fruit that people usually chew along the 'Sirih' leaves. But there is also a folklore that mention that term Minangkabau (
Minangkabau: ''Minang''
Jawi script: منڠ) came from a popular legend that was derived from a territorial dispute between a people and a prince from a neighbouring region. To avoid a battle, the local people proposed a fight to the death between two
water buffalo
The water buffalo (''Bubalus bubalis''), also called the domestic water buffalo or Asian water buffalo, is a large bovid originating in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Today, it is also found in Europe, Australia, North America, S ...
(''kabau'') to settle the dispute. The prince agreed and produced the largest, meanest, most aggressive buffalo. The villagers on other hand produced a hungry baby calf with its small horns ground to be as sharp as knives. Seeing the adult buffalo across the field, the calf ran forward, hoping for milk. The big buffalo saw no threat in the baby buffalo and paid no attention to it, looking around for a worthy opponent. But when the baby thrust his head under the big bull's belly, looking for an udder, the sharpened horns punctured and killed the bull giving the villagers their victory (''menang'', hence ''minang kabau'': "victors of the buffalo" which eventually became ''Minangkabau''). That legend, however, is known to be a mere tale and that the word "minang" is too far from the word "menang" which means 'win'.
The legend however has its rebuttals as the word 'minang' refers to the consumption of
areca nut (''pinang''), yet there hasn't been any popular explanation on the word 'minang' that relates the aforementioned action to the word for "water buffalo".
The first mention of the name Minangkabau as Minanga Tamwan, is in the late 7th century
Kedukan Bukit inscription, describing
Sri Jayanasa sacred journey from Minanga Tamwan accompanied with 20.000 soldiers heading to Matajap and conquering several areas in the southern of Sumatra.
History
The
Minangkabau language is a member of the
Austronesian language family, and is closest to the
Malay language
Malay (; ms, Bahasa Melayu, links=no, Jawi: , Rencong: ) is an Austronesian language that is an official language of Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore, and that is also spoken in East Timor and parts of the Philippines ...
, though when the two languages split from a common ancestor and the precise historical relationship between Malay and Minangkabau culture is not known. Until the 20th century the majority of the Sumatran population lived in the highlands. The highlands are well suited for human habitation, with plentiful fresh water, fertile soil, a cool climate, and valuable commodities. It is probable that
wet rice cultivation evolved in the
Minangkabau Highlands long before it appeared in other parts of Sumatra, and predates significant foreign contact.
Adityawarman, a follower of
Tantric Buddhism
Vajrayāna ( sa, वज्रयान, "thunderbolt vehicle", "diamond vehicle", or "indestructible vehicle"), along with Mantrayāna, Guhyamantrayāna, Tantrayāna, Secret Mantra, Tantric Buddhism, and Esoteric Buddhism, are names referring t ...
with ties to the
Singhasari and
Majapahit kingdoms of Java, is believed to have founded a kingdom in the Minangkabau highlands at
Pagaruyung and ruled between 1347 and 1375.
The establishment of a royal system seems to have involved conflict and violence, eventually leading to a division of villages into one of two systems of tradition, ''
Bodi-Caniago system'' based on
Adat Perpatih and ''
Koto-Piliang system'' based on
Adat Temenggung, the latter having overt allegiances to royalty.
By the 16th century, the time of the next report after the reign of Adityawarman, royal power had been split into three recognised reigning kings. They were the King of the World (''Raja Alam''), the King of Adat (''Raja Adat''), and the King of Religion (''Raja Ibadat''), and collectively they were known as the Kings of the Three Seats (''Rajo Tigo Selo'').
The Minangkabau kings were charismatic or magical figures, but did not have much authority over the conduct of village affairs.
It was around the 16th century that
Islam started to be adopted by the Minangkabau. The first contact between the Minangkabau and western nations occurred with the 1529 voyage of
Jean Parmentier to Sumatra. The
Dutch East India Company first acquired gold at
Pariaman in 1651, but later moved south to
Padang to avoid interference from the Acehnese occupiers. In 1663 the Dutch agreed to protect and liberate local villages from the Acehnese in return for a trading monopoly, and as a result setup trading posts at
Painan and
Padang. Until early in the 19th century the Dutch remained content with their coastal trade of gold and produce, and made no attempt to visit the Minangkabau highlands. As a result of conflict in Europe, the British occupied Padang from 1781 to 1784 during the
Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, and again from 1795 to 1819 during the
Napoleonic Wars
The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) were a series of major global conflicts pitting the French Empire and its allies, led by Napoleon I, against a fluctuating array of European states formed into various coalitions. It produced a period of Fren ...
.
Late in the 18th century the gold supply which provided the economic base for Minangkabau royalty began to be exhausted. Around the same time other parts of the Minangkabau economy had a period of unparalleled expansion as new opportunities for the export of agricultural commodities arose, particularly with coffee which was in very high demand. A civil war started in 1803 with the ''Padri'' fundamentalist Islamic group in conflict with the traditional syncretic groups, elite families and Pagaruyung royals. As a result of a treaty with a number of penghulu and representatives of the Minangkabau royal family, Dutch forces made their first attack on a Padri village in April 1821.
The first phase of the war ended in 1825 when the Dutch signed an agreement with the Padri leader
Tuanku Imam Bonjol to halt hostilities, allowing them to redeploy their forces to fight the
Java War. When fighting resumed in 1832, the reinforced Dutch troops were able to more effectively attack the Padri. The main centre of resistance was captured in 1837, Tuanku Imam Bonjol was captured and exiled soon after, and by the end of the next year the war was effectively over.
With the Minangkabau territories now under the control of the Dutch, transportation systems were improved and economic exploitation was intensified. New forms of education were introduced, allowing some Minangkabau to take advantage of a modern education system. The 20th century marked a rise and cultural and political nationalism, culminating in the demand for Indonesian independence. Later rebellions against the Dutch occupation occurred such as the 1908 Anti-Tax Rebellion and the 1927 Communist uprising. During World War II the Minangkabau territories were occupied by the Japanese, and when the Japanese surrendered in August 1945 Indonesia proclaimed independence. The Dutch attempts to regain control of the area were ultimately unsuccessful and in 1949 the Minangkabau territories became part of Indonesia as the province of Central Sumatra.
In February 1958, dissatisfaction with the centralist and communist-leaning policies of the
Sukarno
Sukarno). (; born Koesno Sosrodihardjo, ; 6 June 1901 – 21 June 1970) was an Indonesian statesman, orator, revolutionary, and nationalist who was the first president of Indonesia, serving from 1945 to 1967.
Sukarno was the leader ...
administration triggered a revolt which was centred in the Minangkabau region of Sumatra, with rebels proclaiming the
Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia (PRRI) in
Bukittinggi. The Indonesian military invaded West Sumatra in April 1958 and had recaptured major towns within the next month. A period of guerrilla warfare ensued, but most rebels had surrendered by August 1961. In the years following, West Sumatra was like an occupied territory with Javanese officials occupying most senior civilian, military and police positions. The policies of centralisation continued under the
Suharto regime. The national government legislated to apply the Javanese ''desa'' village system throughout Indonesia, and in 1983 the traditional Minangkabau ''
nagari'' village units were split into smaller ''jorong'' units, thereby destroying the traditional village social and cultural institutions. In the years following the downfall of the Suharto regime decentralisation policies were implemented, giving more autonomy to provinces, thereby allowing West Sumatra to reinstitute the ''nagari'' system.
Historiography
The traditional
historiography
Historiography is the study of the methods of historians in developing history as an academic discipline, and by extension is any body of historical work on a particular subject. The historiography of a specific topic covers how historians hav ...
of the Minangkabau tells of the development of the Minangkabau World (''alam Minangkabau'') and its ''adat''. These stories are derived from an oral history which was transmitted between generations before the Minangkabau had a written language. The first Minangkabau are said to have arrived by ship and landed on
Mount Marapi when it was no bigger than the size of an egg, which protruded from a surrounding body of water. After the waters receded the Minangkabau proliferated and dispersed to the slopes and valleys surrounding the volcano, a region called the ''darek''. The ''darek'' is composed of three ''luhak'' –
Tanah Datar,
Agam and
Limapuluh Koto
Lima Puluh Kota Regency (meaning ''fifty towns'' in the Minangkabau language) is a regency ''(kabupaten)'' of West Sumatra province, Indonesia. It has an area of 3,354.53 km2 and had a population of 348,249 at the 2010 census and 383,525 at ...
. The ''tambo'' claims the ship was sailed by a descendant of
Alexander the Great
Alexander III of Macedon ( grc, Ἀλέξανδρος, Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip II to ...
(''Iskandar Zulkarnain'').
[Summerfield (1999), pages 48–49]
A division in Minangkabau ''adat'' into two systems is said to be the result of conflict between two half-brothers Datuak Katumangguangan and Datuak Parpatiah nan Sabatang, who were the leaders who formulated the foundations of Minangkabau ''adat''. The former accepted
Adityawarman, a prince from Majapahit, as a king while the latter considered him a minister, and a civil war ensued. The Bodi Caniago/
Adat perpatih system formulated by Datuak Parpatiah nan Sabatang is based upon egalitarian principles with all ''panghulu'' (clan chiefs) being equal while the Koto Piliang /Adat Katumangguangan system is more autocratic with there being a hierarchy of ''panghulu''. Each village (''nagari'') in the ''darek'' was an autonomous "republic", and governed independently of the Minangkabau kings using one of the two ''adat'' systems. After the ''darek'' was settled, new outside settlements were created and ruled using the Koto Piliang system by ''rajo'' who were representatives of the king.
Culture
Minangkabau have large corporate descent groups, but they traditionally reckon descent matrilineally.
[Kuipers, Joel C. "Minangkabau". I]
''Indonesia: A Country Study''
(William H. Frederick and Robert L. Worden, eds.). Library of Congress
The Library of Congress (LOC) is the research library that officially serves the United States Congress and is the ''de facto'' national library of the United States. It is the oldest federal cultural institution in the country. The librar ...
Federal Research Division (2011). A young boy, for instance, has his primary responsibility to his mother's and sisters'
clans.
[ It is considered "customary" and ideal for married sisters to remain in their parental home, with their husbands having a sort of visiting status. Not everyone lives up to this ideal, however.][ In the 1990s, anthropologist Evelyn Blackwood studied a relatively conservative village in Sumatra Barat where only about 22 percent of the households were "matrihouses", consisting of a mother and a married daughter or daughters.][ Nonetheless, there is a shared ideal among Minangkabau in which sisters and unmarried lineage members try to live close to one another or even in the same house.][
Landholding is one of the crucial functions of the ''suku'' (female lineage unit). Because Minangkabau men, like Acehnese men, often migrate to seek experience, wealth, and commercial success, the women's kin group is responsible for maintaining the continuity of the family and the distribution and cultivation of the land.][ These family groups, however, are typically led by a ''penghulu'' (headman), elected by groups of lineage leaders.][ With the agrarian base of the Minangkabau economy in decline, the suku—as a landholding unit—has also been declining somewhat in importance, especially in urban areas.][ Indeed, the position of penghulu is not always filled after the death of the incumbent, particularly if lineage members are not willing to bear the expense of the ceremony required to install a new penghulu.][
The Minangkabau (in short Minang) are also known for their devotion to Islam. A dominant majority of both males and females pray five times a day, fast during the month of Ramadan, and express the desire to make the holy pilgrimage ( Hajj) to Mecca at least once in their lifetime. Each Minangkabau neighbourhood has a ''Musalla'', which means "a temporary place of prayer" in Arabic. In the neighbourhood ''Musalla'', men and women pray together, although separated into their respective gender-designated sections. A high percentage of women and girls wear the headscarf.
As early as the age of 7, boys traditionally leave their homes and live in a '' surau'' (traditionally: the house of men of a village where the boys learn from older men reading, reciting qur'an, simple math, and other survival skills) to learn religious and cultural (]adat
Alesis Digital Audio Tape (ADAT) is a magnetic tape format used for the recording of eight digital audio tracks onto the same S-VHS tape used by consumer VCRs.
Although it is a tape-based format, the term ''ADAT'' now refers to its succe ...
) teachings. At the surau during night time (after the Isyak prayers), these youngsters are taught the traditional Minankabau art of self-defence, which is Silek, or Silat in Malay. When they are teenagers, they are encouraged to leave their hometown to learn from schools or from experiences out of their hometown so that when they are adults they can return home wise and 'useful' for the society and can contribute their thinking and experience to run the family or ''nagari'' (hometown) when they sit as the member of 'council of maternal uncles and maternal granduncles' (ninik-mamak). This tradition has created Minang communities in many Indonesian cities and towns, which nevertheless are still tied closely to their homeland; a state in Malaysia
Malaysia ( ; ) is a country in Southeast Asia. The federation, federal constitutional monarchy consists of States and federal territories of Malaysia, thirteen states and three federal territories, separated by the South China Sea into two r ...
named Negeri Sembilan especially is heavily influenced by Minang culture because Negeri Sembilan was originally Minangkabau's colony. By acquiring property and education through merantau experience, a young man can attempt to influence his own destiny in positive ways.
Increasingly, married couples go off on merantau; in such situations, the woman's role tends to change.[ When married couples reside in urban areas or outside the Minangkabau region and a Minang woman marries a non-Minang man, the woman will rely on the protection provided by the husband more than that of her council of uncles. Because in Minang culture marriage is merely a 'commitment of two people' and not at all a 'union', there is no stigma attached to divorce.][ The Minangkabau were prominent among the intellectual figures in the Indonesian independence movement.] Not only were they strongly embedded themselves surrounding Islamic traditions – which counteracted the influence of the Protestant Dutch – they also had a sense of cultural pride just as like every other Sumatran especially with their traditional belief of egalitarianism of "Standing as tall, sitting as low" (that no body stand or sit on an increased stage). They also speak a language closely related to the Malay variant spoken in newly formed Indonesia, which was considerably freer of hierarchical connotations than Javanese. The tradition of merantau also meant that the Minangkabau developed a cosmopolitan bourgeoisie that readily adopted and promoted the ideas of an emerging nation-state. Due to their culture that stresses the importance of learning, Minang people are over-represented in the educated professions in Indonesia, with many ministers from Minang.
''Adat'' derives in part from the ancient animist and buddhist belief system of the Minangkabau, which existed before the arrival of Islam to Sumatra. When precisely the religion spread across the island and was adopted by the Minangkabau is unclear, though it probably arrived in West Sumatra around the 16th century. It is ''adat'' that guides matrilineal inheritance, and though it seems that such a tradition might conflict with the precepts of Islam, the Minangnese insist that it does not. To accommodate both, the Minangkabau make a distinction between high and low inheritance. "High inheritance" is the property, including the home and land, which passes among women. "Low inheritance" is what a father passes to his children out of his professional earnings. This latter inheritance follows Islamic law, a complex system which dictates, in part, that sons get twice as much as daughters.
Ceremonies and festivals
Minangkabau ceremonies and festivals include:
* ''Turun mandi'' – baby blessing ceremony
* ''Sunat rasul'' – circumcision ceremony
* ''Baralek'' – wedding ceremony
* ''Batagak pangulu'' – clan leader inauguration ceremony. Other clan leaders, all relatives in the same clan and all villagers in the region are invited. The ceremony lasts for seven days or more.
* ''Turun ka sawah'' – community work ceremony
* ''Manyabik'' – harvesting ceremony
* ''Hari Rayo'' – the local observance of Eid al-Fitr
* Adoption ceremony
* Adat ceremony
* Funeral ceremony
* Wild boar hunt ceremony
* ''Maanta pabukoan'' – sending food to mother-in-law for Ramadan
* '' Tabuik'' – local Mourning of Muharram in the coastal village of Pariaman
* ''Tanah Ta Sirah'', inaugurate a new datuk when the old one died in the few hours (no need to proceed to the batagak pangulu, but the clan must invite all datuk in the region.
* ''Mambangkik Batang Tarandam'', inaugurate a new datuk when the old one died in the past 10 or 50 years and even more, attendance in the Batagak Pangulu ceremony is mandatory.
Performing arts
Traditional Minangkabau music includes ''saluang jo dendang'' which consists of singing to the accompaniment of a bamboo flute, and gong-chime music. Dances include the (plate dance), ''tari payung'' (umbrella dance), '' tari indang'' (also known as or ), and '' tari pasambahan''. Demonstrations of the martial art are performed. ''Pidato adat'' are ceremonial orations performed at formal occasions.
''Randai
''Randai'' ( Jawi: رنداي) is a folk theater tradition of the Minangkabau ethnic group in West Sumatra, Indonesia, which incorporates music, singing, dance, drama and the martial art of silat. ''Randai'' is usually performed for traditional ...
'' is a folk theatre tradition which incorporates music, singing, dance, drama and the '' silat'' martial art. ''Randai'' is usually performed for traditional ceremonies and festivals, and complex stories may span a number of nights. It is performed as a theatre-in-the-round to achieve an equality and unity between audience members and the performers. ''Randai'' performances are a synthesis of alternating martial arts dances, songs, and acted scenes. Stories are delivered by the acting and singing and are mostly based upon Minangkabau legends and folktales. ''Randai'' originated early in the 20th century out of fusion of local martial arts, storytelling and other performance traditions. Men originally played male and female characters in the story but, since the 1960s, women have participated.
Crafts
Particular Minangkabau villages specialise in cottage industries producing handicrafts such as woven sugarcane and reed purses, gold and silver jewellery using filigree and granulation
Granulation is the process of forming grains or granules from a powdery or solid substance, producing a granular material. It is applied in several technological processes in the chemical and pharmaceutical industries. Typically, granulation i ...
techniques, woven songket textiles, wood carving, embroidery, pottery, and metallurgy.
Cuisine
The staple ingredients of the Minangkabau diet are rice, fish, coconut, green leafy vegetables and chili. Meat is mainly limited to special occasions, and beef and chicken are most commonly used. Pork is not ''halal
''Halal'' (; ar, حلال, ) is an Arabic word that translates to "permissible" in English. In the Quran, the word ''halal'' is contrasted with '' haram'' (forbidden). This binary opposition was elaborated into a more complex classification k ...
'' and not consumed, while lamb, goat and game are rarely consumed for reasons of taste and availability. Spiciness is a characteristic of Minangkabau food: The most commonly used herbs and spices are chili, turmeric, ginger and galangal. Vegetables are consumed two or three times a day. Fruits are mainly seasonal, although fruits such as banana, papaya and citrus are continually available.
Three meals a day are typical with lunch being the most important, except during the fasting month of Ramadan when lunch is not eaten. Meals commonly consist of steamed rice, a hot fried dish and a coconut milk dish, with a little variation from breakfast to dinner. Meals are generally eaten from a plate using the fingers of the right hand. Snacks are more frequently eaten by people in urban areas than in villages. Western food has had little impact upon Minangkabau consumption and preference.
'' Rendang'' is a dish which is considered to be a characteristic of Minangkabau culture; it is cooked 4–5 times a year. This particular dish is one of the world's renowned dish, especially after crowned the Best Food in CNN's World's 50 Best Foods in 2011 and 2017 by a CNN poll. Other characteristic dishes include '' Asam Padeh'', ''Soto Padang'', '' Sate Padang'', ''Dendeng Balado'' (beef with chili sauce).
Food has a central role in the Minangkabau ceremonies which honour religious and life-cycle rites.
Minangkabau food is popular among Indonesians and restaurants are present throughout Indonesia. ''Nasi Padang'' restaurants, named after the capital of West Sumatra, are known for placing a variety of Minangkabau dishes on a customer's table with rice and billing only for what is taken. ''Nasi Kapau'' is another restaurant variant which specialises in dishes using offal and tamarind to add a sourness to the spicy flavour.
Architecture
( Minangkabau: 'big house') or ( Minangkabau: 'spired roof house') are the traditional homes of the Minangkabau. The architecture, construction, internal and external decoration, and the functions of the house reflect the culture and values of the Minangkabau. A serves as a residence, a hall for family meetings, and for ceremonial activities. The ''rumah gadang'' is owned by the women of the family who live there – ownership is passed from mother to daughter.
The houses have dramatic curved roof structures with multi-tiered, upswept gables. They are also well distinguished by their rooflines which curve upward from the middle and end in points, in imitation of the upward-curving horns of the water buffalo that supposedly eked the people their name (i.e. " victors of the buffalo"). Shuttered windows are built into walls incised with profuse painted floral carvings. The term usually refers to the larger communal homes, however, smaller single residences share many of its architectural elements.
Oral traditions and literature
Minangkabau culture has a long history of oral traditions. One is the (ceremonial orations) which are performed by clan chiefs () at formal occasions such as weddings, funerals, adoption ceremonies, and inaugurations. These ceremonial orations consist of many forms including , aphorisms (), proverbs (), religious advice (, parables (), two-line aphorisms (), and similes ().
Minangkabau traditional folktales (''kaba'') consist of narratives that present the social and personal consequences of either ignoring or observing the ethical teachings and the norms embedded in the ''adat''. The storyteller () recites the story in poetic or lyrical prose while accompanying himself on a .
A theme in Minangkabau folktales is the central role mothers and motherhood has in Minangkabau society, with the folktales ''Rancak di Labuah'' and '' Malin Kundang'' being two examples. ''Rancak di Labuah'' is about a mother who acts as teacher and adviser to her two growing children. Initially her son is vain and headstrong and only after her perseverance does he become a good son who listens to his mother. ''Malin Kundang'' is about the dangers of treating your mother badly. A sailor from a poor family voyages to seek his fortune, becoming rich and marrying. After refusing to recognise his elderly mother on his return home, being ashamed of his humble origins, he is cursed and dies when a storm ensues and turn him along with his ship to stone. The said stone is in Air Manis beach and is known by locals as ''batu Malin Kundang''.
Other popular folktales also relate to the important role of the woman in Minangkabau society. In the ''Cindua Mato'' epic the woman is the source of wisdom, while in the ''Sabai nan Aluih'' she is more a doer than a thinker. ''Cindua Mato'' (Staring Eye) is about the traditions of Minangkabau royalty. The story involves a mythical Minangkabau queen, Bundo Kanduang, who embodies the behaviours prescribed by ''adat''. Cindua Mato, a servant of the queen, uses magic to defeat hostile outside forces and save the kingdom. ''Sabai nan Aluih'' (The genteel Sabai) is about a girl named Sabai who avenges the murder of her father by a powerful and evil ruler from a neighbouring village. After her father's death, her cowardly elder brother refuses to confront the murderer and so Sabai decides to take matters into her own hands. She seeks out the murderer and shoots him in revenge.
Matrilineage
The Minangkabau are the largest matrilineal society in the world, with property, family name and land passing down from mother to daughter, while religious and political affairs are the responsibility of men, although some women also play important roles in these areas. This custom is called Lareh Bodi-Caniago and is known as adat perpatih in Malaysia. Today 4.2 million Minangs live in the homeland of West Sumatra.
As one of the world's most populous (as well as politically and economically influential) matrilineal ethnicities, Minangkabau gender dynamics have been extensively studied by anthropologists. The ''adat'' (Minangkabau: ''Adaik'') traditions have allowed Minangkabau women to hold a relatively advantageous position in their society compared to most patriarchal societies, because though they do not rule, they are at the center of their society.
Language
The Minangkabau language (''Baso Minangkabau'') is an Austronesian language belonging to the Malayic linguistic subgroup, which in turn belongs to the Malayo-Polynesian branch. The Negri Sembilan dialect of Malay used by people in the aforementioned state is closely related to it due to the fact many of the population are descendants of Minangkabau immigrants.
The language has a number of dialects and sub-dialects, but native Minangkabau speakers generally have no difficulty understanding the variety of dialects. The differences between dialects are mainly at the phonological level, though some lexical differences also exist. Minangkabau dialects are regional, consisting of one or more villages (), and usually correspond to differences in customs and traditions. Each sub-village () has its own sub-dialect consisting of subtle differences which can be detected by native speakers. The Padang dialect has become the lingua franca for people of different language regions.
The Minangkabau society has a diglossia
In linguistics, diglossia () is a situation in which two dialects or languages are used (in fairly strict compartmentalization) by a single language community. In addition to the community's everyday or vernacular language variety (labeled " ...
situation, whereby they use their native language for everyday conversations, while the Malay language is used for most formal occasions, in education, and in writing, even to relatives and friends. The Minangkabau language was originally written using the Jawi script, an adapted Arabic alphabet. Romanization of the language dates from the 19th century, and a standardised official orthography of the language was published in 1976.
Despite widespread use of Malay in both Malaysia and Indonesia, they do have their own mother tongue; the Minangkabau language shares many similar words with Malay, yet it has a distinctive pronunciation and some grammatical differences rendering it unintelligible to Malay speakers.
Customs and religion
Prior to conversion to Islam, Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
, especially Tantric Buddhism
Vajrayāna ( sa, वज्रयान, "thunderbolt vehicle", "diamond vehicle", or "indestructible vehicle"), along with Mantrayāna, Guhyamantrayāna, Tantrayāna, Secret Mantra, Tantric Buddhism, and Esoteric Buddhism, are names referring t ...
was popular in the region. Buddhism in central Sumatra is attested by the Padang Roco Inscription, which states that an Avalokiteśvara
In Buddhism, Avalokiteśvara ( Sanskrit: अवलोकितेश्वर, IPA: ) is a bodhisattva who embodies the compassion of all Buddhas. He has 108 avatars, one notable avatar being Padmapāṇi (lotus bearer). He is variably depicte ...
was brought from Java to Dharmasraya, and this act brought great happiness to the people. Influential Buddhist kingdoms thrived in the area, including the Pagaruyung Kingdom and Melayu Kingdom.
Animism
Animism (from Latin: ' meaning 'breath, Soul, spirit, life') is the belief that objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct Spirituality, spiritual essence. Potentially, animism perceives all things—Animal, animals, Plant, plants, Ro ...
had also been an important component of Minangkabau culture. Even after the penetration of Islam into Minangkabau society in the 16th century, animistic beliefs were not extinguished. In this belief system, people were said to have two souls, a real soul and a soul which can disappear called the ''semangat''. ''Semangat'' represents the vitality of life and it is said to be possessed by all living creatures including animals and plants. An illness may be explained as the capture of the ''semangat'' by an evil spirit, and a shaman (''pawang'') may be consulted to conjure invisible forces and bring comfort to the family. Sacrificial offerings can be made to placate the spirits, and certain objects such as amulets are used as protection.
Until the rise of the Padri movement late in the 18th century, Islamic practices such as prayers, fasting and attendance at mosques had been weakly observed in the Minangkabau highlands. The Padri were inspired by the Wahhabi movement in Mecca, and sought to eliminate societal problems such as tobacco and opium smoking, gambling and general anarchy by ensuring the tenets of the Koran were strictly observed. All Minangkabau customs allegedly in conflict with the Koran were abolished. Although the Padri were eventually defeated by the Dutch, during this period the relationship between ''adat'' and religion was reformulated. Previously ''adat'' (customs) were said to be based upon appropriateness and propriety, but this was changed so that ''adat'' was more strongly based upon Islamic precepts.
The Minangkabau strongly profess Islam while at the same time also following their ethnic traditions, or ''adat
Alesis Digital Audio Tape (ADAT) is a magnetic tape format used for the recording of eight digital audio tracks onto the same S-VHS tape used by consumer VCRs.
Although it is a tape-based format, the term ''ADAT'' now refers to its succe ...
''. The Minangkabau ''adat'' was derived from Animist and Buddhist
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...
beliefs before the arrival of Islam. The present relationship between Islam and ''adat'' is described in the saying "traditions 'adat''are founded upon the slamiclaw, and the law founded upon the Qur'an
The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters (pl.: , si ...
" (''adat nan kawi', syara' nan lazim
Alesis Digital Audio Tape (ADAT) is a magnetic tape format used for the recording of eight digital audio tracks onto the same S-VHS tape used by consumer VCRs.
Although it is a tape-based format, the term ''ADAT'' now refers to its succes ...
'').
With the Minangkabau highlands being the heartland of their culture, and with Islam likely entering the region from coast it is said that "custom descended, religion ascended" (''adat manurun, syarak mandaki'').
Demographics
Minangkabau Population Breakdown
This table contains Minangkabau population breakdown in Indonesia
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guine ...
Overseas Minangkabau
Over half of the Minangkabau people can be considered overseas Minangkabaus. They make up the majority of the population of Negeri Sembilan, Saribas (Sarawak
Sarawak (; ) is a state of Malaysia. The largest among the 13 states, with an area almost equal to that of Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak is located in northwest Borneo Island, and is bordered by the Malaysian state of Sabah to the northeast, ...
) (in Malaysia
Malaysia ( ; ) is a country in Southeast Asia. The federation, federal constitutional monarchy consists of States and federal territories of Malaysia, thirteen states and three federal territories, separated by the South China Sea into two r ...
) and Pekanbaru (in Indonesia). They also form a significant minority in the populations of Jakarta, Bandung, Medan, Batam, Surabaya and Palembang in Indonesia as well as Kuala Lumpur
, anthem = ''Maju dan Sejahtera''
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, pushpin_map = Malaysia#Southeast Asia#Asia
, pushpin_map_caption =
, coordinates =
, sub ...
, Malacca, Penang, Singapore and Brunei Darussalam in the rest of the Malay world. Minangkabaus have also emigrated as skilled professionals and merchants to the Netherlands
)
, anthem = ( en, "William of Nassau")
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, subdivision_type = Sovereign state
, subdivision_name = Kingdom of the Netherlands
, established_title = Before independence
, established_date = Spanish Netherl ...
, United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 U.S. state, states, a Washington, D.C., federal district, five ma ...
, Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is a country in Western Asia. It covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula, and has a land area of about , making it the List of Asian countries by area, fifth-largest country in Asia ...
and Australia. In the overseas (''rantau''), they have a reputation for being shrewd merchants. The matrilineal culture and economic conditions in West Sumatra have made the Minangkabau people one of the most mobile ethnic group in Maritime Southeast Asia.
For most of the Minangkabau people, wandering is an ideal way to reach maturity and success; as a consequence, they exercised great influence in the politics of many kingdom and states in Maritime Southeast Asia. Overseas Minangkabau are also great influence developing Malaysian and Singaporean culture, mainly language, culinary, music, and martial art.
Notable Minangkabau
The Minangkabau are famous for their dedication to knowledge, as well as the widespread diaspora of their men throughout southeast Asia, the result being that Minangs have been disproportionately represented in positions of economic and political power throughout the region. The co-founder of the Republic of Indonesia, Mohammad Hatta, was a Minang, as were the first President of Singapore, Yusof bin Ishak, and the first Supreme Head of State or Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia
Malaysia ( ; ) is a country in Southeast Asia. The federation, federal constitutional monarchy consists of States and federal territories of Malaysia, thirteen states and three federal territories, separated by the South China Sea into two r ...
, Tuanku Abdul Rahman.
The Minangkabau are known as a society that places top priority in high education and thus they are widespread across Indonesia and foreign countries in a variety of professions and expertise such as politicians, writers, scholars, teachers, journalists, and businesspeople. Based on a relatively small population, Minangkabau is one of the most successful. According to ''Tempo
In musical terminology, tempo ( Italian, 'time'; plural ''tempos'', or ''tempi'' from the Italian plural) is the speed or pace of a given piece. In classical music, tempo is typically indicated with an instruction at the start of a piece (ofte ...
'' magazine (2000 New Year special edition), six of the top ten most influential Indonesians of the 20th century were Minang. Three out of the four Indonesian founding fathers are Minangkabau people.
Many people of Minangkabau descent have held prominent positions in the Indonesian and Malay nationalist movements. In 1920–1960, the political leadership in Indonesian was replete with Minangkabau people, such as Mohammad Hatta a former Indonesian government prime minister and vice-president, Agus Salim a former Indonesian government minister, Tan Malaka international communist leader and founder of PARI and Murba, Sutan Sjahrir a former Indonesian government prime minister and founder of Socialist Party of Indonesia, Muhammad Natsir a former Indonesian government prime minister and founder of Masyumi, Assaat a former Indonesian president, and Abdul Halim ʻAbd al-Ḥalīm (ALA-LC romanization of ar, عبد الحليم) is a male Muslim given name, and in modern usage, surname. It is built from the Arabic words '' ʻabd'' and ''al-Ḥalīm'', one of the names of God in the Qur'an, which gives rise ...
a former Indonesian government prime minister. During the liberal democracy era, Minangkabau politician dominated Indonesian parliament and cabinets. They were diversely affiliated to all of the existing factions, such as Islamist, nationalist, socialist and communist.
Minangkabau writers and journalists have made significant contributions to modern Indonesian literature. These include authors Marah Roesli, Abdul Muis, Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana, Idrus
Idrus (12 September 1921 – 18 May 1979) was an Indonesian author best known for his realistic short stories and novels. He is known as the representative of the prose of the '45 generation of Indonesian literature.
Biography
Idrus was bor ...
, Hamka, and Ali Akbar Navis; poets Muhammad Yamin, Chairil Anwar, and Taufik Ismail; and journalists Djamaluddin Adinegoro, Rosihan Anwar, and Ani Idrus
Ani Idrus (25 November 1918 – 9 January 1999) was a prominent reporter and co-founder of the ''Waspada'' daily newspaper with her husband Mohamad Said on 1947.
Her career started in 1930 as a writer in the ''Panji Pustaka'' magazine, Jakarta. On ...
. Many prominent Indonesian novels were written by Minangkabau writers and later influenced the development of modern Indonesian language
Indonesian ( ) is the official language, official and national language of Indonesia. It is a standard language, standardized variety (linguistics), variety of Malay language, Malay, an Austronesian languages, Austronesian language that has be ...
.
Moreover, there are also significant number of Minangkabau people in the popular entertainment industry, such as movie directors Usmar Ismail and Nasri Cheppy; movie producer Djamaluddin Malik, screenwriter Arizal and Asrul Sani; actor and actress Soekarno M. Noer
Soekarno M. Noor (Perfected Spelling: Sukarno M. Noor; September 13, 1931 – July 26, 1986) was an Indonesian actor and film producer. He acted in 118 films and dramas.
Biography
His parents, M. Noer and Djanimah, came from Bonjol, West Sumatr ...
, Rano Karno, Camelia Malik, Eva Arnaz, Nirina Zubir
Nirina Raudatul Jannah Zubir or better known as Nirina Zubir (born in Antananarivo, Madagascar on March 12, 1980) is an Indonesian actress and Television presenter of Minangkabau descent.
Early life and career
Nirina was Born in Antananariv ...
, Titi Rajo Bintang, and Dude Herlino
Dude Harlino (born in Jakarta, Indonesia on December 2, 1980) is an Indonesian actor of Minangkabau descent.
Biography
Dude Harlino was born in Jakarta on 2 December 1980 and his name, Dude, is taken from the Indonesian form of his birthdate, Dua ...
, as well as singers Fariz RM, Bunga Citra Lestari, Nazril Irham
Nazril Irham (born September 16, 1981), known professionally as Ariel or Ariel "Noah", is an Indonesian musician, singer and songwriter of Minangkabau ancestry. He is the lead singer of Indonesian band Noah, formerly known as Peterpan.
Ariel f ...
, Dorce Gamalama, Afgansyah Reza and Sherina Munaf
Nowadays, besides Chinese Indonesian, Minangkabau people have made significant contributions to Indonesia's economic activities. Minangkabau businessmen are also notable in hospitality sector, media industry, healthcare, publisher, automotive, and textile trading. Minangkabau businessmen also prominent in traditional Minangkabau cuisine restaurant chains in many cities of Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and Australia. Notable successes include Abdul Latief and Basrizal Koto
Basrizal Koto (born October 11, 1959 in Padang Pariaman, West Sumatra) is a businessman from Indonesia; the owner of a well-known Indonesian conglomerate. Usually addressed as "Basko", he is involved with media, printing, mining, livestock, hospita ...
.
Historically, Minangs had also settled outside West Sumatra, migrating as far as the south Philippines by the 14th century. Raja Bagindo was the leader of the forming polity in Sulu, Philippines
The Philippines (; fil, Pilipinas, links=no), officially the Republic of the Philippines ( fil, Republika ng Pilipinas, links=no),
* bik, Republika kan Filipinas
* ceb, Republika sa Pilipinas
* cbk, República de Filipinas
* hil, Republ ...
, which later turned into the Sultanate of Sulu.[Asian Studies, Volume 16–18; Philippine Center for Advanced Studies, University of the Philippines System, 1978] The Minangkabaus migrated to the Malay peninsula in the 14th century and began to take control of the local politics. In 1773 Raja Melewar was appointed the first head of state of Negeri Sembilan.
Minangkabaus have filled many political positions in Malaysia and Singapore, namely the first President of Singapore, Yusof Ishak
Yusof bin Ishak (12 August 191023 November 1970) was a Singaporean politician and journalist who served as the first president of Singapore from 1965 until his death in 1970.
Prior to becoming head of state, Yusof was a well-known journali ...
; the first Supreme Head of State ('' Yang di-Pertuan Agong'') of the Federation of Malaya
The Federation of Malaya ( ms, Persekutuan Tanah Melayu; Jawi: ) was a federation of what previously had been British Malaya comprising eleven states (nine Malay states and two of the British Straits Settlements, Penang and Malacca)''See'' ...
, Tuanku Abdul Rahman; and many Malaysian government ministers, such as Aishah Ghani, Amirsham Abdul Aziz, Aziz Ishak, Ghazali Shafie, Rais Yatim and Khairy Jamaluddin. They are also great contributing on Malaysian and Singaporean socio-cultural, such as Zubir Said, who composed '' Majulah Singapura'' (the national anthem of Singapore); Wandly Yazid
Hj Wandly Yazid (24 February 1925 – 5 August 2005) is an acclaimed composer, arranger and musician, recognised for his contribution to the Malay film and music industry in the 1940s to the 1960s. He performed as a violinist with the Singapor ...
, the Singaporean musician; the Malaysian film director, U-Wei Haji Saari; the language expert, Zainal Abidin Ahmad; as well as business and economic activities, such as Mohamed Taib bin Haji Abdul Samad, Mokhzani Mahathir, Kamarudin Meranun and Tunku Tan Sri Abdullah.
Notable people of Minangkabau descent outside of Malay world include member of the House of Representatives of the Netherlands, Rustam Effendi
Roestam Effendi (Perfected Spelling: Rustam Effendi; 13 May 1903 – 24 May 1979) was an Indonesian writer and member of the House of Representatives of the Netherlands. He is known for experimenting with the Malay language in the writing ...
; Ahmad Khatib, the imam (head) of the Shafi'i school of law at '' Masjid al-Haram''; and Khatib's grandson Fouad Abdulhameed Alkhateeb as Saudi Arabian ambassador.
See also
* List of Minangkabau clans
List of Minangkabau clans A
* Ampu
* Anak Aceh - in Negeri SembilanIbrahim Abdullah, Struktur Suku di Rembau', dalam Norazit Selat (editor), ''Negeri Sembilan: dahulu dan sekarang''. Kuala Lumpur: Persatuan Muzium Malaysia, Muzium Negara, 19 ...
* Minangkabau Merchants
Minangkabau businesspeople refers to merchants from the Minangkabau Highlands in central Sumatra, Indonesia. Minangkabau are the ethnic majority in West Sumatra and Negeri Sembilan. Minangkabau are also a recognised minority in other parts of Indo ...
* Minangkabau diaspora Minangkabau may refer to:
* Minangkabau culture, culture of the Minangkabau people
* Minangkabau Culture Documentation and Information Center
* Minangkabau Express, an airport rail link service serving Minangkabau International Airport (''see belo ...
References
General
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Notes
Further reading
*
External links
On Culture's Loom
{{DEFAULTSORT:Minangkabau People
Ethnic groups in Indonesia
Ethnic groups in Sumatra
Ethnic groups in Malaysia
Ethnic groups in Singapore
West Sumatra
Minangkabau
Muslim communities of Indonesia
Ethnic groups in the Netherlands
Matriarchy