Alexandru Macedonski

Alexandru Macedonski (; also rendered as Al. A. Macedonski, Macedonschi or Macedonsky; 14 March 1854 – 24 November 1920) was a Romanian poet, novelist, dramatist and literary critic, known especially for having promoted French Symbolism in his native country, and for leading the Romanian Symbolist movement during its early decades. A forerunner of local modernist literature, he is the first local author to have used free verse, and claimed by some to have been the first in modern European literature. Within the framework of Romanian literature, Macedonski is seen by critics as second only to national poet Mihai Eminescu; as leader of a cosmopolitan and aestheticist trend formed around his ''Literatorul'' journal, he was diametrically opposed to the inward-looking traditionalism of Eminescu and his school.

Debuting as a Neoromantic in the Wallachian tradition, Macedonski went through the Realist- Naturalist stage deemed "social poetry", while progressively adapting his style to Symbolism and Parnassianism, and repeatedly but unsuccessfully attempting to impose himself in the Francophone world. Despite having theorized "instrumentalism", which reacted against the traditional guidelines of poetry, he maintained a lifelong connection with Neoclassicism and its ideal of purity. Macedonski's quest for excellence found its foremost expression in his recurring motif of life as a pilgrimage to Mecca, notably used in his critically acclaimed ''Nights'' cycle. The stylistic stages of his career are reflected in the collections ''Prima verba'', '' Poezii'', and ''Excelsior'', as well as in the fantasy novel ''Thalassa, Le Calvaire de feu''. In old age, he became the author of rondels, noted for their detached and serene vision of life, in contrast with his earlier combativeness.

In parallel to his literary career, Macedonski was a civil servant, notably serving as prefect in the Budjak and Northern Dobruja during the late 1870s. As journalist and militant, his allegiance fluctuated between the liberal current and conservatism, becoming involved in polemics and controversies of the day. Of the long series of publications he founded, ''Literatorul'' was the most influential, notably hosting his early conflicts with the ''Junimea'' literary society. These targeted Vasile Alecsandri and especially Eminescu, their context and tone becoming the cause of a major rift between Macedonski and his public. This situation repeated itself in later years, when Macedonski and his ''Forța Morală'' magazine began campaigning against the ''Junimist'' dramatist Ion Luca Caragiale, whom they falsely accused of plagiarism. During World War I, the poet aggravated his critics by supporting the Central Powers against Romania's alliance with the Entente side. His biography was also marked by an enduring interest in esotericism, numerous attempts to become recognized as an inventor, and an enthusiasm for cycling.

The scion of a political and aristocratic family, the poet was the son of General Alexandru Macedonski, who served as Defense Minister, and the grandson of 1821 rebel Dimitrie Macedonski. Both his son Alexis and grandson Soare were known painters.

Biography

Early life and family

The poet's paternal family had arrived in Wallachia during the early 19th century. Of South Slav (Serb or Bulgarian) or AromanianCălinescu, p.517 Virgiliu Z. Teodorescu
"Alexandru Macedonski - 150 de ani de la naștere"
, in '' Cronica Română'', 15 March 2004 origin, they claimed to have descended from Serb insurgents in Ottoman-ruled Macedonia. Alexandru's grandfather Dimitrie and Dimitrie's brother Pavel participated in the 1821 uprising against the Phanariote administration, and in alliance with the Filiki Eteria; Dimitrie made the object of controversy when, during the final stage of the revolt, he sided with the Eteria in its confrontation with Wallachian leader Tudor Vladimirescu, taking an active part in the latter's killing. Both Macedonski brothers had careers in the Wallachian military forces, at a time when the country was governed by Imperial Russian envoys, when the ''Regulamentul Organic'' regime recognized the family as belonging to Wallachia's nobility. Dimitrie married Zoe, the daughter an ethnic Russian or Polish officer; their son, the Russian-educated Alexandru, climbed in the military and political hierarchy, joining the unified Land Forces after his political ally, Alexander John Cuza, was elected ''Domnitor'' and the two Danubian Principalities became united Romania. Both the officer's uncle Pavel and brother Mihail were amateur poets.

Macedonski's mother, Maria Fisența (also ''Vicenț'' or ''Vicența''), was from an aristocratic environment, being the scion of Oltenian boyars. Through her father, she may have descended from Russian immigrants who had been absorbed into Oltenia's nobility. Maria had been adopted by the boyar Dumitrache Pârâianu, and the couple had inherited the Adâncata and Pometești estates in Goiești, on the Amaradia Valley.

Both the poet and his father were dissatisfied with accounts of their lineage, contradicting them with an account that researchers have come to consider spurious. Although adherents of the Romanian Orthodox Church, the Macedonskis traced their origin to Rogala-bearing Lithuanian nobility from the defunct Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. While the writer perpetuated his father's claim, it is possible that he also took pride in investigating his Balkan roots: according to literary historian Tudor Vianu, who, as a youth, was a member of his circle, this tendency is attested by two of Macedonski's poems from the 1880s, where the South Slavs appear as icons of freedom. Vianu's contemporary, literary historian George Călinescu, postulated that, although the family had been absorbed into the ethnic and cultural majority, the poet's origin served to enrich local culture by linking it to a "Thracian" tradition and the spirit of "adventurers".

The family moved often, following General Macedonski's postings. Born in Bucharest, Macedonski-son was the third of four siblings, the oldest of whom was a daughter, Caterina. Before the age of six, he was a sickly and nervous child, who is reported to have had regular tantrums. In 1862, his father sent him to school in Oltenia, and he spent most time in the Amaradia region.Vianu, Vol.II, p.340-341 The nostalgia he felt for the landscape later made him consider writing an ''Amărăzene'' ("Amaradians") cycle, of which only one poem was ever completed. He was attending the Carol I High School in Craiova and, according to his official record, graduated in 1867.

Macedonski's father had by then become known as an authoritarian commander, and, during his time in Târgu Ocna, faced a mutiny which only his wife could stop by pleading with the soldiers (an episode which made an impression on the future poet). A stern parent, he took an active part in educating his children. Having briefly served as Defense Minister, the general was mysteriously dismissed by Cuza in 1863, and his pension became the topic of a political scandal. It ended only under the rule of Carol I, Cuza's Hohenzollern successor, when Parliament voted against increasing the sum to the level demanded by its recipient.Vianu, Vol.II, p.337 Having preserved a negative impression of the 1866 plebiscite, during which Cuza's dethronement had been confirmed,Vianu, Vol.II, p.423 Macedonski remained a committed opponent of the new ruler. As a youth and adult, he sought to revive his father's cause, and included allusions to the perceived injustice in at least one poem. After spending the last months of his life protesting against the authorities, Macedonski-father fell ill and died in September 1869, leaving his family to speculate that he had been murdered by political rivals.

Debut years

Macedonski left Romania in 1870, traveling through Austria-Hungary and spending time in Vienna, before visiting Switzerland and possibly other countries; according to one account, it was here that he may have first met (and disliked) his rival poet Mihai Eminescu, at a time a Viennese student. Mihai Zamfir
"Rivalul lui Eminescu"
, in ''România Literară'', Nr. 27/2009 Macedonski's visit was meant to be preparation for entering the University of Bucharest, but he spent much of his time in the bohemian environment, seeking entertainment and engaging in romantic escapades. He was however opposed to the lifestyle choices of people his age, claiming that they were engaged in "orgy after orgy". Andrei Oișteanu
"Scriitorii români și narcoticele (2). Macedonski și 'literatura stupefiantelor' "
in ''Revista 22'', Nr. 948, May 2008 At around that date, the young author had begun to perfect a style heavily influenced by Romanticism, and in particular by his Wallachian predecessors Dimitrie Bolintineanu and Ion Heliade Rădulescu. He was for a while in Styria, at Bad Gleichenberg, a stay which, George Călinescu believes, may have been the result of a medical recommendation to help him counter excessive nervousness. The landscape there inspired him to write an ode. Also in 1870, he published his first lyrics in George Bariț's Transylvanian-based journal '' Telegraful Român''.

The following year, he left for Italy, where he visited Pisa, Florence, Venice, and possibly other cities. His records of the journey indicate that he was faced with financial difficulties and plagued by disease. Macedonski also claimed to have attended college lectures in these cities, and to have spent significant time studying at Pisa University, but this remains uncertain. He eventually returned to Bucharest, where he entered the Faculty of Letters (which he never attended regularly). According to Călinescu, Macedonski "did not feel the need" to attend classes, because "such a young man will expect society to render upon him its homages."Călinescu, p.519 He was again in Italy during spring 1872, soon after publishing his debut volume '' Prima verba'' (Latin for "First Word"). Having also written an anti-Carol piece, published in ''Telegraful Român'' during 1873, Macedonski reportedly feared political reprisals, and decided to make another visit to Styria and Italy while his case was being assessed. It was in Italy that he met French musicologist Jules Combarieu, with whom he corresponded sporadically over the following decades.Vianu, Vol.II, p.341-342

During that period, Macedonski became interested in the political scene and political journalism, first as a sympathizer of the liberal-radical current—which, in 1875, organized itself around the National Liberal Party. In 1874, back in Craiova, Macedonski founded a short-lived literary society known as ''Junimea'', a title which purposefully or unwittingly copied that of the influential conservative association with whom he would later quarrel. It was then that he met journalist and pedagogue Ștefan Velescu, a meeting witnessed by Velescu's pupil, the future liberal journalist Constantin Bacalbașa, who recorded it in his memoirs. ''Oltul'' magazine, which he had helped establish and which displayed a liberal agenda, continued to be published until July 1875, and featured Macedonski's translations from Pierre-Jean de Béranger, Hector de Charlieu and Alphonse de Lamartine, as well as his debut in travel writing and short story. At age 22, he worked on his first play, a comedy titled ''Gemenii'' ("The Twins").Vianu, Vol.II, p.452 In 1874 that he came to the attention of young journalist future dramatist Ion Luca Caragiale, who satirized him in articles for the magazine '' Ghimpele'', ridiculing his claim to Lithuanian descent, and eventually turning him into the character ''Aamsky'', whose fictional career ends with his death from exhaustion caused by contributing to "for the country's political development". This was the first episode in a consuming polemic between the two figures. Reflecting back on this period in 1892, Macedonski described Caragiale as a "noisy young man" of " sophistic reasoning", whose target audience was to be found in "beer gardens".

1875 trial and office as prefect

In March 1875, Macedonski was arrested on charges of defamation or sedition.Vianu, Vol.II, p.347 For almost a year before, he and ''Oltul'' had taken an active part in the campaign against Conservative Party and its leader, Premier Lascăr Catargiu. In this context, he had demanded that the common man "rise up with weapons in their hands and break both the government agents and the government", following up with similar messages aimed at the ''Domnitor''.Vianu, Vol.II, p.346 He was taken to Bucharest's Văcărești prison and confined there for almost three months. Supported by the liberal press and defended by the most prestigious pro-liberal attorneys (Nicolae Fleva was assigned the post of Premier by Carol, Macedonski embarked on an administrative career. The poet was upset by not being included on the National Liberal list for the 1875 suffrage.Călinescu, p.519; Vianu, Vol.II, p.347 This disenchantment led him into a brief conflict with the young liberal figure Bonifaciu Florescu, only to join him soon afterward in editing ''Stindardul'' journal, alongside Pantazi Ghica and George Fălcoianu. The publication followed the line of Nicolae Moret Blaremberg, made notorious for his radical and republican agenda. Ghica and Macedonski remained close friends until Ghica's 1882 death. Andrei Pippidi
"Acasă la Pantazi Ghica"
, in ''Dilema Veche'', 164/IV, 30 March 2007

The new cabinet eventually appointed him Prefect of Bolgrad region, in the Budjak (at the time part of Romania). In parallel, he published his first translation, a version of ''Parisina'', an 1816 epic poem by Lord Byron,Vianu, Vol.II, p.349 and completed the original works ''Ithalo'' and ''Calul arabului'' ("The Arab's Horse"). He also spoke at the Romanian Atheneum, presenting his views on the state of Romanian literature (1878). His time in office ended upon the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War. At the time, Russian volunteers were amassed on the Budjak border, requesting from the Romanian authorities the right of free passage into the Principality of Serbia. The National Liberal Premier Ion Brătianu, who was negotiating an anti- Ottoman alliance, sent Macedonski signals to let them pass, but the prefect, obeying the official recommendation of Internal Affairs Minister George D. Vernescu, decided against it, and was consequently stripped of his office.

Still determined to pursue a career in the press, Macedonski founded a string of unsuccessful magazines with patriotic content and titles such as ''Vestea'' ("The Announcement"), ''Dunărea'' ("The Danube"), ''Fulgerul'' ("The Lightning") and, after 1880, ''Tarara'' (an onomatopoeia equivalent to "Toodoodoo"). Their history is connected with that of the Russo-Turkish War, at the end of which Romanian participation on the Russian side resulted in her independence.Vianu, Vol.II, p.348 Macedonski remained committed to the anti-Ottoman cause, and, some thirty years later, stated: "We want no Turkey in Europe!" Eugen Lungu
"Islamul la noi acasă. Monologul lui Baiazid"
in '' Revista Sud-Est'', Nr. 2 (48)/2002

By 1879, the poet, who continued to voice criticism of Carol, had several times switched sides between the National Liberals and the opposition Conservatives. That year, while the Budjak was ceded to Russia and Northern Dobruja was integrated into Romania, the Brătianu cabinet appointed him administrator of the Sulina ''plasă'' and the Danube Delta. He had previously refused to be made comptroller in Putna County, believing such an appointment to be beneath his capacity, and had lost a National Liberal appointment in Silistra when Southern Dobruja was granted to the Principality of Bulgaria. During this short interval in office, he traveled to the Snake Island in the Black Sea—his appreciation for the place later motivated him to write the fantasy novel '' Thalassa, Le Calvaire de feu'' and the poem ''Lewki''.

Early ''Literatorul'' years

With the 1880s came a turning point in Alexandru Macedonski's career. Vianu notes that changes took place in the poet's relationship with his public: "Society recognizes in him the nonconformist. ..The man becomes singular; people start talking about his oddities." Macedonski's presumed frustration at being perceived in this way, Vianu notes, may have led him closer to the idea of ''poète maudit'', theorized earlier by Paul Verlaine. In this context, he had set his sight on promoting "social poetry", the merger between lyricism and political militantism. Meanwhile, according to Călinescu, his attacks on the liberals and the "daft insults he aimed at omania'sthrone" had effectively ruined his own chance of political advancement.

In January 1880, he launched his most influential and long-lived publication, '' Literatorul'', which was also the focal point of his eclectic cultural circle, and, in later years, of the local Symbolist school. In its first version, the magazine was co-edited by Macedonski, Bonifaciu Florescu and poet Th. M. Stoenescu. Florescu parted with the group soon after, due to a disagreement with Macedonski, and was later attacked by the latter for allegedly accumulating academic posts.Călinescu, p.529 ''Literatorul'' aimed to irritate ''Junimist'' sensibilities from its first issue, when it stated its dislike for "political prejudice in literature." This was most likely an allusion to the views of ''Junimist'' figure Titu Maiorescu, being later accompanied by explicit attacks on him and his followers. An early success for the new journal was the warm reception it received from Vasile Alecsandri, a Romantic poet and occasional ''Junimist'' whom Macedonski idolized at the time, and the collaboration of popular memoirist Gheorghe Sion.Vianu, Vol.II, p.351 Another such figure was the intellectual V. A. Urechia, whom Macedonski made president of the ''Literatorul'' Society. In 1881, Education Minister Urechia granted Macedonski the ''Bene-Merenti'' medal 1st class, although, Călinescu stresses, the poet had only totaled 18 months of public service. At around that time, Macedonski had allegedly begun courting actress Aristizza Romanescu, who rejected his advances, leaving him unenthusiastic about love matters and unwilling to seek female company.

In parallel, Macedonski used the magazine to publicize his disagreement with the main ''Junimist'' voice, ''Convorbiri Literare''. Among the group of contributors, several had already been victims of Maiorescu's irony: Sion, Urechia, Pantazi Ghica and Petru Grădișteanu. While welcoming the debut of its contributor, Parnassian-Neoclassicist novelist and poet Duiliu Zamfirescu, Macedonski repeatedly attacked its main exponent, the conservative poet Eminescu, claiming not to understand his poetry. However, ''Literatorul'' was also open to contributions from some ''Convorbiri Literare'' affiliates (Zamfirescu, Matilda Cugler-Poni and Veronica Micle).

In November 1880, Macedonski's plays ''Iadeș!'' ("Wishbone!", a comedy first printed in 1882) and ''Unchiașul Sărăcie'' ("Old Man Poverty") premiered at the National Theater Bucharest. A sign of government approval, this was followed by Macedonski's appointment to a minor administrative office, as Historical Monuments Inspector. Nevertheless, both plays failed to impose themselves on public perception, and were withdrawn from the program by 1888.Vianu, Vol.II, p.462 Călinescu asserts that, although Macedonski later claimed to have always been facing poverty, his job in the administration, coupled with other sources of revenue, ensured him a comfortable existence.

In 1881, Macedonski published a new collection of poetry. Titled '' Poezii'', it carries the year "1882" on its original cover. Again moving away from liberalism, Macedonski sought to make himself accepted by ''Junimea'' and Maiorescu. He consequently attended the ''Junimea'' sessions, and gave a public reading of ''Noaptea de noiembrie'' ("November Night"), the first publicized piece in his lifelong '' Nights'' cycle. It reportedly earned him the praise of historian and poet Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu, who, although an anti-''Junimist'', happened to be in the audience. Despite rumors according to which he had applauded Macedonski, Maiorescu himself was not impressed, and left an unenthusiastic account of the event in his private diary.

Against Alecsandri and Eminescu

Macedonski's open conflict with ''Junimea'' began in 1882, when he engaged in a publicized polemic with Alecsandri. It was ignited when, through Macedonski's articles, ''Literatorul'' criticized Alecsandri for accepting Romanian Academy prizes despite being its member, and later involved Sion (whose replies on behalf of the academy were derided by Macedonski). Macedonski also took distance from Alecsandri's style, publishing a "critical analysis" of his poetry in one issue of ''Literatorul''. In turn, Alecsandri humiliated his young rival by portraying him as Zoilus, the prototype of slanderers, and himself as the model poet Horace in the 1883 play '' Fântâna Blanduziei''. The two were eventually reconciled, and Macedonski again spoke of Alecsandri as his ideological and stylistic predecessor.Vianu, Vol.II, p.353

In April 1882, Eminescu had also replied to Macedonski in ''Timpul'' journal, referring to an unnamed poet who "barely finishes high-school, comes over to Bucharest selling nick-nacks and makeup nd goes intoliterary dealership". Reproaching Macedonski's attacks on Alecsandri, Eminescu makes a nationalist comment about the young poet bearing "the bastard instincts of those foreigners who were Romanianized only yesterday", and attributes him "the physiognomy of a hairdresser". Through the articles of Petru Th. Missir, ''Convorbiri Literare'' gave ''Poezii'' a negative review, deemed "malevolent" by literary historian Mircea Anghelescu.Anghelescu, p.15 At the other end of the political and cultural spectrum, Macedonski faced opposition from the intellectuals attracted to socialism, in particular ''Contemporanul'' editors Constantin Mille and Ioan Nădejde, with whom he was engaged in an extended polemic.

In the meantime, Macedonski published his own play, which had Cuza for its main character and was eponymously titled ''Cuza-Vodă'', and completed translations for ''Literatorul''—from Maurice Rollinat, whom he helped impose as a main cultural reference in Romanian Symbolism, and from the Greek poet Akhillefs Paraskhos. In 1883, he also contributed his first sketch story, ''Casa cu nr. 10'' ("The House at Number 10"). In early 1883, he married Ana Rallet-Slătineanu. Wealthy and supposedly related to Romanian aristocrats, she would bear him five children in all: the painter Alexis was the eldest, followed by Nikita; the three youngest were two sons (Panel and Constantin Macedonski) and a daughter, Anna (also known as Nina). His heterosexual lifestyle notwithstanding, Macedonski remained a self-avowed admirer of male beauties, and was rumored to be a closeted homosexual.

In July 1883, Macedonski undertook one of his most controversial anti-''Junimist'' actions. That month, ''Literatorul'' published an epigram signed with the pseudonym ''Duna'', deriding an unnamed author who had lost his mind. Mihai Eminescu—whom many had already come to see as Romania's national poet—had by then developed a mental disorder which had become known to the general public. Ever since that moment, Macedonski has generally been believed to be ''Duna'', and as a result, was faced with much criticism from both readers and commentators. The intense anti-''Literatorul'' press campaign was initiated in August, when writer Grigore Ventura issued an article condemning Macedonski's attitude (published in the Bucharest-based newspaper '' L'Indépendance Roumaine''), with Macedonski responding in the National Liberal organ ''Românul''. During one evening, Macedonski is reported to have been assaulted by anonymous supporters of Eminescu. His previous conflict with Nădejde was also affected by this renewed controversy: while opposed to ''Junimist'' policies, the socialists at ''Contemporanul'' voiced their admiration for Eminescu's art.

Late in 1883, Macedonski and his friends unveiled Ion Georgescu's statue of their mentor Bolintineanu in the National Theater lobby. The circumstances in which this took place rose suspicion of foul play; on this grounds, Macedonski was ridiculed by his former friend Zamfirescu in the journal ''România Liberă'', which left him embittered. Călinescu proposes that, although such negative reactions were invoked by Macedonski's supporters as a sign of their mentor having been marginalized, Macedonski had expressed his dissatisfaction with the cultural environment long before that moment, and was still a respected figure even after the incidents took place.

First Paris sojourn and ''Poezia viitorului''

Having been stripped of his administrative office by the new Brătianu cabinet, Macedonski faced financial difficulties, and was forced to move into a house on the outskirts of Bucharest, and later moved between houses in northern Bucharest. According to Călinescu, the poet continued to cultivate luxury and passionately invested in the decorative arts, although his source of income, other than the supposed assistance "of uropeanruling houses", remains a mystery. Arguing that Macedonski was "always in need of money" to use on his luxury items, poet Victor Eftimiu claimed: "He did not shy away from sending emphatic notes to the potentates of his day .. flattering some, threatening others. He would marry off or simply mate some of his disciples with aging and rich women, and then he would squeeze out their assets.""Ready Made"
, in ''Dilema Veche'', Vol. IV, Nr. 154, January 2007

Macedonski eventually left Romania in 1884, visiting Paris. On his way there, he passed through Craiova, where he met aspiring author Traian Demetrescu, whose works he had already hosted in ''Literatorul'' and who was to become his friend and protégé. Demetrescu later recalled being gripped by "tremors of emotion" upon first catching sight of Macedonski.Vianu, Vol.II, p.361 In France, Macedonski set up contacts within the French literary environment, and began contributing to French or Francophone literary publications—including the Belgian Symbolist platforms ''La Wallonie'' and '' L'Élan littéraire''. His collaboration with ''La Wallonie'' alongside Albert Mockel, Tudor Vianu believes, makes Alexandru Macedonski one in the original wave of European Symbolists. This adaptation to Symbolism also drew on his marked Francophilia, which in turn complemented his tendencies toward cosmopolitanism. He became opposed to Carol I, who, in 1881, had been granted the Crown of the Romanian Kingdom. In addition to his admiration for Cuza and the 1848 Wallachian revolutionaries, the poet objected to the King's sympathy for France's main rival, the German Empire. In January 1885, after having returned from the voyage, he announced his retirement from public life, claiming that German influence and its exponents at ''Junimea'' had "conquered" Romanian culture, and repeating his claim that Eminescu lacked value.Călinescu, p.521

In the meantime, ''Literatorul'' went out of print, although new series were still published at irregular intervals until 1904 (when it ceased being published altogether). The magazine was reportedly hated by the public, causing Macedonski, Stoenescu, Florescu, Urechia and educator Anghel Demetriescu to try to revive it as ''Revista Literară'' ("The Literary Review", published for a few months in 1885). The poet attempted to establish other magazines, all of them short-lived, and, in 1887, handed for print his Naturalist novella ''Dramă banală'' ("Banal Drama")Vianu, Vol.II, p.421 while completing one of the most revered episodes in the ''Nights'' series, ''Noaptea de mai'' ("May Night").Vianu, Vol.II, p.363 Also in 1886, he worked on his other Naturalist novellas: ''Zi de august'' ("August Day"), ''Pe drum de poștă'' ("On the Stagecoach Trail"), ''Din carnetul unui dezertor'' ("From the Notebook of a Deserter"), ''Între cotețe'' ("Amidst Hen Houses") and the eponymous ''Nicu Dereanu''.

By 1888, he was again sympathetic toward Blaremberg, whose dissident National Liberal faction had formed an alliance with the Conservatives, editing ''Stindardul Țărei'' (later ''Straja Țărei'') as his supporting journal. However, late in the same year, he returned to the liberal mainstream, being assigned a weekly column in ''Românul'' newspaper.Vianu, Vol.II, p.365 Two years later, he attempted to relaunch ''Literatorul'' under the leadership of liberal figure Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu, but the latter eventually settled for founding his own '' Revista Nouă''. Around 1891, he saluted ''Junimea''s own break with the Conservatives and its entry into politics at the Conservative-Constitutional Party, before offering an enthusiastic welcome to the 1892 ''Junimist'' agitation among university students. In 1894, he would speak in front of student crowds gathered at a political rally in University Square, and soon after made himself known for supporting the cause of ethnic Romanians and other underrepresented groups of Austria-Hungary.Vianu, Vol.II, p.367

His literary thesis of the time was titled ''Poezia viitorului'' ("The Poetry of the Future"). It upheld Symbolist authors as the models to follow, while Macedonski personally began producing what he referred to as "instrumentalist" poems, composed around musical and onomatopoeic elements, and showing a preference for internal rhymes. Such an experimental approach was soon after parodied and ridiculed by Ion Luca Caragiale, who had by then affiliated and parted with ''Junimea'', in his new '' Moftul Român'' magazine. The poet sought to reconcile with his rival, publicizing a claim that Caragiale was being unjustly ignored by the cultural establishment, but this attempt failed to mend relations between them, and the conflict escalated further.

While, in 1893, ''Literatorul'' hosted fragments of ''Thalassa'' in its Romanian-language version,Vianu, Vol.II, p.436 Cornel Moraru
"Un mare roman simbolist"
in ''Observator Cultural'', Nr. 41, December 2000 the author also launched a daily, ''Lumina'' ("The Light"). It was also at that stage that Alexandru Macedonski associated with Cincinat Pavelescu, the noted epigrammarian, who joined him in editing ''Literatorul'', and with whom he co-authored the 1893 verse tragedy depicting the Biblical hero Saul, and named after him. Although showcased by the National Theater with star actor Constantin Nottara in the title role, it failed to register success with the public. Two years later, the two ''Literatorul'' editors made headlines as pioneers of cycling. An enthusiastic promoter of the sport, Macedonski joined fellow poet Constantin Cantilli on a marathon, pedaling from Bucharest across the border into Austria-Hungary, all the way down to Brașov.

Late 1890s

Macedonski also returned with a new volume of poetry, ''Excelsior'' (consecutive editions in 1895 and 1896), and founded ''Liga Ortodoxă'' ("The Orthodox League"), a magazine noted for hosting the debut of Tudor Arghezi, later one of the most celebrated figures in Romanian literature. Macedonski commended his new protégé for reaching "the summit of poetry and art" at "an age when I was still prattling verses". ''Liga Ortodoxă'' also hosted articles against Caragiale, which Macedonski signed with the pseudonym ''Sallustiu'' ("Sallustius"). The magazine was additional proof of Macedonski's return to conservatism, and largely dedicated to defending the cause of Romanian Orthodox Metropolitan Ghenadie, deposed by the Romanian Synod following a political scandal. It defended Ghenadie up until he chose to resign, and subsequently went out of print. Macedonski was shocked to note that Ghenadie had given up his own defense. Ion Georgescu
"Presa periodică și publiciștii români"
in ''Vestitorul'', Nr. 4/1937, p.41 (digitized by the Babeș-Bolyai Universitybr>Transsylvanica Online Library

In 1895, his ''Casa cu nr. 10'' was translated into French by the ''Journal des Débats'', whose editors reportedly found it picturesque. Two years later, Macedonski himself published French-language translations of his earlier poetry under the title ''Bronzes'', a volume prefaced by his disciple, the critic and promoter Alexandru Bogdan-Pitești. Although it was positively reviewed by ''Mercure de France'' magazine, ''Bronzes'' was largely unnoticed by the French audience, a fact which Tudor Vianu attributes to Bogdan-Pitești's lack of qualification for the cultural mission Macedonski had trusted him with. By that time, his circle had come to be frequented with regularity by Bogdan-Pitești's friend and collaborator, the celebrated painter Ștefan Luchian, who was in the Symbolist and Art Nouveau stage of his career.

By 1898, Macedonski was again facing financial difficulties, and his collaborators resorted to organizing a fundraiser in his honor.Vianu, Vol.II, p.371 His rejection of the Orthodox establishment was documented by his political tract, published that year as '. Between that time and 1900, he focused on researching esoteric, occult and pseudoscientific subjects. Traian Demetrescu, who recorded his visits with Macedonski, recalled his former mentor being opposed to his positivist take on science, claiming to explain the workings of the Universe in "a different way", through "imagination", but also taking an interest in Camille Flammarion's astronomy studies. Macedonski was determined to interpret death through parapsychological means, and, in 1900, conferenced at the Atheneum on the subject ''Sufletul și viața viitoare'' ("The Soul and the Coming Life"). The focal point of his vision was that man could voluntarily stave off death with words and gestures, a concept he elaborated upon in his later articles. In one such piece, Macedonski argued: "man has the power ..to compact the energy currents known as thoughts to the point where he changes them, according to his own will, into objects or soul-bearing creatures." He also attempted to build a machine for extinguishing chimney fires.Călinescu, p.523 Later, Nikita Macedonski registered the invention of nacre-treated paper, which is sometimes attributed to his father.

Caion scandal and expatriation

The few issues of ''Literatorul'' that were printed in 1899-1900 saw the circle being joined by the young Symbolist poet Ștefan Petică. In 1902, he published ''Cartea de aur'' ("The Golden Book"), comprising his sketch stories and novellas. In parallel, Macedonski returned to the public scene, founding '' Forța Morală'' magazine. It was through this venue that he began responding to Ion Luca Caragiale's earlier attacks. This he did by hosting the articles of aspiring journalist Constantin Al. Ionescu-Caion, who accused Caragiale of having plagiarized a Hungarian author by the name of Kemény in his tragedy play '' Năpasta''. Kemény turned out to be non-existent. According to Vianu, Macedonski had no prior knowledge of the fraud, but had also been "blinded" by his resentments instead of displaying "discernment", and had even showed evidence of "insanity". Most in Macedonski's own series of anti-Caragiale articles were unsigned, or signed with pseudonyms such as ''Luciliu'' ("Gaius Lucilius").

Like in the case of Eminescu's conflict with Macedonski, the polemic enlisted a negative response from the public. The poet's associate Th. M. Stoenescu convinced himself that Caragiale was being framed, and refused to allow ''Revista Literară'' to be used for endorsing Caion, which caused Macedonski to shun him. Macedonski refused to withdraw his support for the cause even after Caragiale sued Caion, but ''Forța Morală'' soon went out of print. Before it did so, the journal hosted some of Macedonski's most renowned poems, including ''Lewki'' and ''Noaptea de decemvrie'' ("December Night"), together with his article on Remy de Gourmont's thoughts on poetics.

In his article of 1903, titled ' ("Toward Occultism. Later Orientations toward Theosophy and Social Philosophy"), the poet envisaged making his interest in esoteric subjects the basis of a new literary movement.Cernat, p.11 Also that year, poet George Bacovia began attending the literary circle, and gave a reading of his celebrated ''Plumb'' poem, being welcomed by Macedonski with a flattering epigram.Anghelescu, p.12 Macedonski's series of short-lived periodicals resumed in 1905, when he founded ''Le Beau Danube Bleu'' (French for "The Beautiful Blue Danube") and ''Liga Conservatoare'' ("The Conservative League"). He registered more success in 1906, when his ''Thalassa'' was published, as ''Le Calvaire de feu'', by Edward Sansot's Paris-based publishing house. This followed intense self-promotion within the French literary environment, as well as advertisements in the French press. Part of this involved Macedonski sending his book to be reviewed by Émile Faguet, Jean Mounet-Sully, Joséphin Péladan, Pierre Quillard and Jean Richepin, who replied with what Vianu deems "the politeness of circumstance." The volume was nonetheless favorably reviewed by the prestigious magazines ''Mercure de France'' and ''Gil Blas''.Vianu, Vol. II, p.438-439

Also in 1906, ''La Revue Musicale'' published his interview with Combarieu, through which the latter aimed to verify supposed connections between literary inspiration and musical sensitivity. By 1907, he was concentrating on experiments in physics, and eventually publicized his claim to have discovered that light does not travel through vacuum. He sent a paper on astronomy subjects to be reviewed by the Société Astronomique de France, of which he subsequently became a member. The same year, he drafted the plan for a world government, announcing that he had found sympathy for the cause throughout Europe. Macedonski also introduced himself to an Italophone public, when two of his sonnets were published by '' Poesia'', the magazine of Futurist theorist Filippo Tommaso Marinetti.

Between 1910 and 1912, Macedonski was again in Paris. Seeking to withdraw himself from Romania's public life due to what he perceived as injustice,Vianu, Vol.III, p.352 he had by then completed work on the French-language tragicomedy ''Le Fou?'' ("The Madman?"), which was only published after his death. He was actively seeking to establish his reputation in French theater, reading his new play to a circle which included Louis de Gonzague Frick and Florian-Parmentier, while, at home, newspapers reported rumors that his work was going to be staged by Sarah Bernhardt's company. His efforts were largely fruitless, and, accompanied by his son Alexis, the poet left France, spent some time in Italy, and eventually returned to Romania.Vianu, Vol.II, p.379 Passing through the German Empire, he learned of Ion Luca Caragiale's sudden death, and wrote ''Adevărul'' daily an open letter, which showed that he had come to revise his stance, notably comparing the deceased author's style and legacy to those of Mark Twain.

During Macedonski's absence, his style and work had come to be reviewed more positively, in particular by the young authors I. Dragoslav, Horia Furtună, Ion Pillat, Anastasie Mândru, Al. T. Stamatiad, as well as by post-''Junimist'' critic Mihail Dragomirescu, who offered Macedonski a good reception in his '' Convorbiri Critice'' magazine. Tudor Vianu, who cites contemporary statements by Dragoslav, concludes that, upon arrival, Macedonski was enthusiastically received by a public who had missed him. Also in 1912, one of his poems was published as an homage by ''Simbolul'', a magazine published by the young and radical Symbolists Tristan Tzara, Ion Vinea and Marcel Janco. Around that time, Macedonski also collaborated with the Iași-based moderate Symbolist magazine '' Versuri și Proză''. Polemics surrounding his case nevertheless continued: in late 1912, as part of a National Theater adaptation of Alphonse Daudet's '' Sapho'', actor Cazimir Belcot borrowed from Macedonski's appearance and mannerisms to portray a failure.Vianu, Vol.II, p.381

Return and World War I years

Macedonski and his protégés had become regular frequenters of Bucharest cafés. Having a table permanently reserved for him at Imperial Hotel's Kübler Coffeehouse, he was later a presence in two other such establishments: High-Life and Terasa Oteteleșanu.Mioara Ioniță, "Cafenele de altădată. Terasa Oteteleșanu", in ''Magazin Istoric'', October 2003 He is said to have spent part of his time at Kübler loudly mocking the traditionalist poets who gathered at an opposite table. Meanwhile, the poet's literary club, set up at his house in Dorobanți quarter, had come to resemble a mystical circle, over which he held magisterial command. Vianu, who visited the poet together with Pillat, compares this atmosphere with those created by other "mystics and magi of poetry" (citing as examples Joséphin Péladan, Louis-Nicolas Ménard, Stéphane Mallarmé and Stefan George). The hall where seances were hosted was only lit by candles, and the tables were covered in red fabric. Macedonski himself was seated on a throne designed by Alexis, and adopted a dominant pose. The apparent secrecy and the initiation rites performed on new members were purportedly inspired by Rosicrucianism and the Freemasonry. By then, Macedonski was rewarding his followers' poems with false gemstones.

The poet founded ''Revista Critică'' ("The Critical Review"), which again closed after a short while, and issued the poetry volume '' Flori sacre'' ("Sacred Flowers"). Grouping his ''Forța Morală'' poems and older pieces, it was dedicated to his new generation of followers, whom Macedonski's preface referred to as "the new Romania." He continued to hope that ''Le Fou?'' was going to be staged in France, especially after he received some encouragement in the form of articles in ''Mercure de France'' and ''Journal des Débats'', but was confronted with the general public's indifference. In 1914, ''Thalassa'' was published in a non-definitive version by Constantin Banu's magazine ''Flacăra'', which sought to revive overall interest in his work. At a French Red Cross conference in September, Macedonski paid his final public homage to France, which had just become entangled in World War I. It was also in 1914 that Macedonski commissioned for print his very first rondels and completed work on a tragedy play about Renaissance poet Dante Aligheri—known as ''La Mort de Dante'' in its French original, and ''Moartea lui Dante'' in the secondary Romanian version (both meaning "Dante's Death"). The aging poet was by then building connections with the local art scene: together with artist Alexandru Severin, he created (and probably presided over) ''Cenaclul idealist'' ("The Idealist Club"), which included Symbolist artists and was placed under the honorary patronage of King Carol.

1916 was also the year when Romania abandoned her neutrality and, under a National Liberal government, rallied with the Entente Powers. During the neutrality period, Macedonski had shed his lifelong Francophilia to join the Germanophiles, who wanted to see Romanian participation on the Central Powers' side. In 1915, he issued the journal ''Cuvântul Meu'' ("My Word"). Entirely written by him,Anghelescu, p.13 it published ten consecutive issues before going bankrupt, and notably lashed out against France for being "bourgeois" and "lawyer-filled", demanding from Romania not to get involved in the conflict. Commentators and researchers of his work have declared themselves puzzled by this change in allegiance.

Macedonski further alienated public opinion during the Romanian Campaign, when the Central Powers armies entered southern Romania and occupied Bucharest. Alexis was drafted and became a war artist, but Macedonski Sr, who received formal protection from the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Bucharest, chose to stay behind while the authorities and many ordinary citizens relocated to Iași, where resistance was still being organized. His stance was interpreted as collaborationism by his critics. However, Macedonski reportedly faced extreme poverty throughout the occupation. Having by then begun to attend the circle of Alexandru Bogdan-Pitești, his promoter and fellow Germanophile, he was once rewarded by the latter with a turkey filled with gold coins.

Late polemics, illness and death

''Literatorul'' resumed print in June 1918, once Romania capitulated to the Central Powers under the Treaty of Bucharest. A controversial incident occurred soon afterwards, when, going against the counsel of his friend and collaborator Stamatiad, Macedonski signed a ''Literatorul'' article where the German military administrator August von Mackensen, who was about to lead his troops out of Romania, was presented in a positive light. In a manner deemed "excessive" by historian Lucian Boia, the Romanian writer was paying homage not just to Mackensen, but also, indirectly, to German Emperor Wilhelm II and the ''Reichsheer''. Soon after reading the piece, Romanian Academy member and fellow Symbolist promoter Ovid Densusianu withdrew his own nomination of Macedonski for an academy seat.Vianu, Vol.II, p.384 During summer, Macedonski also joined the group of public figures who saluted the senior Conservative Germanophile Petre P. Carp (deeming Carp "the veteran of character, honesty and Romanianism"), and, in September, joined Ioan Slavici and Gala Galaction as a contributor to the occupation magazine ''Rumänien in Wort und Bild'', where he prophesied an anti-French "political renaissance" of Romania.

Alexandru Macedonski faced problems after the Romanian government resumed its control over Bucharest, and during the early years of Greater Romania. What followed the Mackensen article, Vianu claims, was Macedonski's ''bellum contra omnes'' ("war against all"). However, the poet made efforts to accommodate himself with the triumphal return of the Iași authorities: in December 1918, ''Literatorul'' celebrated the extension of Romanian rule "from the Tisza to the Dniester" as a success of the National Liberals, paying homage to Francophile political leaders Ion I. C. Brătianu and Take Ionescu. Macedonski also envisaged running in the 1918 election for a seat in the new Parliament (which was supposed to vote a document to replace the 1866 Constitution as the organic law), but never registered his candidature. According to Vianu, he had intended to create a joke political party, the "intellectual group", whose other member was an unnamed coffeehouse acquaintance of his. ''Literatorul'' was revived for a final time in 1919.

His health deteriorated from heart disease, which is described by Vianu as an effect of constant smoking. By that stage, Vianu recalls, Macedonski also had problems coming to terms with his age. His last anthumous work was the pamphlet ''Zaherlina'' (named after the Romanian version of "Zacherlin"; also known as ''Zacherlina'' or ''Zacherlina în continuare'', "Zacherlin Contd."), completed in 1919 and published the following year. It notably attacked Densusianu, who had become Macedonski's personal enemy. Some other polemical texts he had authored late in life saw print only after his death, under the title ''Mustrări postume către o generație neînțelegătoare'' ("Posthumous Reprimands for an Obtuse Generation").

1920 was also the year when the People's Party cabinet attempted to pension him off from his office at the Historical Monuments Commission, but the publicized protest of Macedonski's fellow writers in Bucharest made it reconsider. Confined to his home by illness and old age, Macedonski was still writing poems, some of which later known as his ''Ultima verba'' ("Last Words"). The writer died on 24 November, at three o'clock in the afternoon. Having come to develop an addiction to floral fragrances, he was inhaling a rose petal extract during his last hours. He was buried in Bucharest's Bellu.

Work

General characteristics

Although Alexandru Macedonski frequently changed his style and views on literary matters, a number of constants have been traced throughout his work. Thus, a common perception is that his literature had a strongly visual aspect, the notion being condensed in Cincinat Pavelescu's definition of Macedonski: "Poet, therefore painter; painter, therefore poet."Vianu, Vol.II, p.409 Traian Demetrescu too recalled that his mentor had been dreaming of becoming a visual artist, and had eventually settled for turning his son Alexis into one. This pictorial approach to writing created parallels between Macedonski and his traditionalist contemporaries Vasile Alecsandri and Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea.

Following the tenets of Dimitrie Bolintineanu and Théophile Gautier, the writer repeatedly called for purity in versification, and upheld it as an essential requirement, while progressively seeking to verify the quality of his poetry through phonaesthetics. A characteristic of Macedonski's style is his inventive use of Romanian. Initially influenced by Ion Heliade Rădulescu's introduction of Italian-based words to the Romanian lexis, Macedonski himself later infused poetic language with a large array of neologisms from several Romance sources. Likewise, Vianu notes, Macedonski had a tendency for comparing nature with the artificial, the result of this being a "document" of his values. Macedonski's language alternated neologisms with barbarisms, many of which were coined by him personally. They include ''claviculat'' ("clavicled", applied to a shoulder), ''împălăriată'' ("enhatted", used to define a crowd of hat-wearing tourists), and ''ureichii'' (instead of ''urechii'', "to the ear" or "of the ear").Călinescu, p.525 His narratives nevertheless take an interest in recording direct speech, used as a method of characterization. However, Călinescu criticizes Macedonski for using a language which, "although grammatically correct .. seems to have been learned only recently", as well as for not following other Romanian writers in creating a lasting poetic style.

The writer's belief in the effects of sheer willpower, notably present in his comments on esoteric subjects, was itself a defining characteristic of his perspective on literature. In 1882, he wrote about progression in one's career: "We are all poets at birth, but only those who shape themselves through study will become poets." Vianu, who notes Macedonski's "exclusivity" and "fanaticism", places such statements in connection with Macedonski's personal ambition, "pride" and "the willingness to carry out ventured actions .. in stated opposition with the entire surrounding and with contempt for the foreseeable reaction."

Almost all periods of Macedonski's work reflect, in whole or in part, his public persona and the polemics he was involved in. George Călinescu's emits a verdict on the relation between his lifetime notoriety and the public's actual awareness of his work: "Macedonski asa poet well-known for being an unknown poet." According to literary critic Matei Călinescu, the innovative aspects of his impact on Romanian literature were not as much related to his "literary ideology", as much as to his "contradictory spirit" and "essential nonconformism". However, literary researcher Adrian Marino proposes that Macedonski was one of the first modern authors to illustrate the importance of "dialectic unity" through his views on art, in particular by having argued that poetry needed to be driven by "an idea". Having theorized once, while questioning ''Junimist'' rigor, that "the logic of poetry is ''absurdity'' itself talics in the original, the poet also said: "Poetry is the chaos of spirit and matter, of the cries of distress and mad laughter. From the sublime to the trivial, that is what it should be." He later revised part of this verdict, and, making explicit his adoption of aestheticism, spoke against trivial subjects and in favor of the sublime.Sandqvist, p.200

While Macedonski also discarded the concept of "social poetry" not long after postulating it, its spirit, Tudor Vianu believes, can still be found in his later contributions. This, the critic notes, was owed to his "social temperament", whose "fundamental experience is that of the social." Discussing this sociable and extrovert character, other critics see in the poet's life and work the imprint of "quixotism".Alexandru Ruja, chronological table, in Păstorel Teodoreanu, ''Tămâie și otravă'', Editura de Vest, Timișoara, 1994, p.14-15. Also according to Vianu, this contrasted with Macedonski's failures in communicating with the public, an experience which made him "misanthropic" and contributed to his ultimate vision of death as freedom. Literary historian Pompiliu Constantinescu concluded: "Macedonski could not resign; his one martyrdom was for Art, as the sole liberation from a tormented life." Other commentators have defined the poet's perspective on life as a result of "neurosis".

In Vianu's perspective, Macedonski's stance is dominated by a mixture of nostalgia, sensuality, lugubrious-grotesque imagery, and "the lack of bashfulness for antisocial sentiments" which compliments his sarcasm. In respect to the latter characteristic, Vianu notes "no one in Romanian literature has laughed the same way as Macedonski", whereas critic Ștefan Cazimir argues: " acedonski waslacking the sense of relativity in principles, and implicitly a sense of humor." Cazimir adds: "Only when he aged did acedonskilearn to smile".Ștefan Cazimir, preface to ''Antologia umorului liric'', Editura Minerva, Bucharest, 1977, p.XVII. George Călinescu himself believes Macedonski to have been "fundamentally a spiritual man with lots of humor", speculating that he was able to see the "uselessness" of his own scientific ventures.

Critics note that, while Macedonski progressed from one stage to the other, his work fluctuated between artistic accomplishment and mediocrity. Tudor Vianu believes "failure in reaching originality" and reliance on "soppy-conventional attributes of the day" to be especially evident wherever Macedonski tried to emulate epic poetry. He also notes that Macedonski's love-themed pieces "cannot be listed among ismost fortunate".Vianu, Vol.II, p.398 At his best, commentators note, he was one of the Romanian literature's classics. Macedonski is thus perceived as the author second only to Eminescu, and as his ideal counterpart—a relation Vianu describes as "the internal dualism onfrontingtwo familiar gods". Various critics have compared Eminescu's poetic discourse with that of the Symbolist leader, concluding that the two poets often display very similar attitudes. Călinescu writes that, while Macedonski's work is largely inferior to that of his ''Junimist'' rival, it forms the best "reply" ever conceived within their common setting.Călinescu, p.527

''Prima verba'' and other early works

With Ion Catina, Vasile Păun and Grigore H. Grandea, young Macedonski belonged to late Romanian Romanticism, part of a Neoromantic generation which had for its mentors Heliade Rădulescu and Bolintineanu. Other early influences were Pierre-Jean de Béranger and Gottfried August Bürger, together with Romanian folklore, motifs from them being adapted by Macedonski into pastorals and ballades of ca. 1870–1880. The imprint of Romanticism and such other sources was evident in '' Prima verba'', which groups pieces that Macedonski authored in his early youth, the earliest of them being written when he was just twelve.Vianu, Vol.II, p.344 Critics generally argue that the volume is without value. The poems display his rebellious attitude, self-victimization and strong reliance on autobiographical elements, centering on such episodes as the death of his father. In one piece inspired by the ideology of Heliade Rădulescu, Vianu notes, Macedonski sings "the French Revolution's love for freedom and equality, otherwise proclaimed from his nobleman's perspective."Vianu, Vol.II, p.343 It reads:

In parallel, Macedonski used erotic themes, completing a series which, although written on the model of idylls, is noted for its brute details of sexual exploits. The poet probably acknowledged that posterity would reject them, and did not republish them in any of his collected poetry volumes.

During his time at ''Oltul'' (1873–1875), Macedonski published a series of poems, most of which were not featured in definitive editions of his work. In addition to odes written in the Italian-based version of Romanian, it includes lyrics which satirize Carol I without mentioning his name. Following his arrest, Macedonski also completed ''Celula mea de la Văcărești'' ("My Cell in Văcărești"), which shows his attempt to joke about the situation. In contrast to this series, some of the pieces written during Macedonski's time in the Budjak and Northern Dobruja display a detachment from contemporary themes. At that stage, he was especially inspired by Lord Byron, whom Vianu calls "the sovereign poet of acedonski'syouth." In ''Calul arabului'', Macedonski explores exotic and Levantine settings, using symbols which announce George Coșbuc's '' El-Zorab'', and the Venetian-themed ''Ithalo'', which centers on episodes of betrayal and murder. Others were epic and patriotic in tone, with subjects such as Romanian victories in the Russo-Turkish War or the Imperial Roman sites along the Danube. One of these pieces, titled ''Hinov'' after the village and stone quarry in Rasova, gives Macedonski a claim to being the first modern European poet to have used free verse, ahead of the French Symbolist Gustave Kahn. Macedonski himself later voiced the claim, and referred to such a technique as "symphonic verse", "proteic verse", or, in honor of composer Richard Wagner, "Wagnerian verse".

While editing ''Oltul'', Macedonski also completed his first prose writings. These were the travel account ''Pompeia și Sorento'' ("Pompeia and Sorento", 1874) and a prison-themed story described by Vianu as "a tearjerker", titled ''Câinele din Văcărești'' ("The Dog in Văcărești", 1875). These were later complemented by other travel works, which critic Mihai Zamfir likens to the verbal experiments of Impressionist literature, pioneering in the Romanian prose poetry genre. The short comedy ''Gemenii'' was his debut work for the stage, but, according to Vianu, failed to show any merit other than a "logical construction" and a preview into Macedonski's use of sarcasm. These writings were followed in 1876 by a concise biography of Cârjaliul, an early 19th-century hajduk. In line with his first Levant-themed poems, Macedonski authored the 1877 story ''Așa se fac banii'' ("This Is How Money Is Made", later retold in French as ''Comment on devient riche et puissant'', "How to Become Rich and Powerful"), a fable of fatalism and the Muslim world—it dealt with two brothers, one hard-working and one indolent, the latter of whom earns his money through a series of serendipitous events. Likewise, his verse comedy ''Iadeș!'' borrowed its theme from the widely circulated collection of Persian literature known as ''Sindipa''.Vianu, Vol.II, p.452-453 The setting was however modern, and, as noted by French-born critic Frédéric Damé, the plot also borrowed much from Émile Augier's ''Gabrielle'' and from other morality plays of the period. Part of the text was an ironic treatment of youth in liberal professions, an attitude which Macedonski fitted in his emerging anti-bourgeois discourse.

With the first poems in his '' Nights'' cycle, Macedonski still showed his allegiance to Romanticism, and in particular to Alphonse de Lamartine, and the supposed inventor of this theme, Alfred de Musset. ''Noaptea de noiembrie'' opens with a violent condemnation of his adversaries, and sees Macedonski depicting his own funeral. The poem is commended by Călinescu, who notes that, in contrast to the "apparently trivial beginning", the main part, where Macedonski depicts himself in flight over the Danube, brings the Romanian writer close to the accomplishments of Dante Aligheri.Călinescu, p.528 The writer himself claimed that the piece evidenced "the uttermost breath of inspiration I have ever felt in my life." Another poem, ''Noaptea de aprilie'' ("April Night"), was probably his testimony of unrequited love for Aristizza Romanescu.

Realism and Naturalism

By the 1880s, Macedonski developed and applied his "social poetry" theory, as branch of Realism. Explained by the writer himself as a reaction against the legacy of Lamartine, it also signified his brief affiliation with the Naturalist current, a radical segment of the Realist movement. Traian Demetrescu thus noted that Macedonski cherished the works of French Naturalists and Realists such as Gustave Flaubert and Émile Zola. During this phase, Macedonski made known his sympathy for the disinherited, from girls forced into prostitution to convicts sentenced to penal labor on salt mines, and also spoke out against the conventionalism of civil marriages. His ''Ocnele'' ("The Salt Mines") includes the verdict:

Naturalist depiction was also the main element in his prose pieces of the early 1880s. Among them was the first of several sketch stories using still life techniques, ''Casa cu nr. 10'' (according to Zamfir, a prime sample of Macedonski's "ornamental" genre). With ''Între cotețe'', ''Dramă banală'' and later ''Cometa lui Odorescu'' ("Odorescu's Comet"), Macedonski speaks about his own biography. The former has for a protagonist Pandele Vergea, a thirty-five-year-old man who is consumed by an avicultural obsession, who dreams of turning into a bird, and who is eventually maimed by his overcrowded fowls. In contrast, Dereanu is a bohemian university student, possessed by dreams of military and political glory, and who meditates about his future in front of Heliade Rădulescu's statue or in Bucharest cafés. Also a bohemian, Odorescu announces his discovery of a comet, before being proved wrong by his aunt, an ordinary woman. Some pieces also double as memoirs: in ''Dramă banală'', the plot revolves around Macedonski's recollection of the 1866 plebiscite. Vianu draws attention to the picturesque depiction of historic Bucharest, a contributing element in ''Cometa...'', ''Casa cu nr. 10'' and ''Între cotețe''.

With ''Unchiașul Sărăcie'' (also written in verse), Macedonski took Naturalist tenets into the field of drama. Frédéric Damé believed it an imitation of a play by Ernest d'Hervilly and Alfred Grévin, but, Vianu argues, the Romanian text was only loosely based on theirs: in Macedonski's adaptation, the theme became fairy tale-like, and used a speech style based on Romanian folklore. Around the time of its completion, Macedonski was also working on a similarly loose adaptation of William Shakespeare's ''Romeo and Juliet'', which notably had the two protagonists die in each other's arms. Another such play is ''3 decemvrie'' ("December 3"), which partly retells Friedrich Ludwig Zacharias Werner's ''Der 24 Februar'' using Naturalist devices. By contrast, the homage-play ''Cuza-Vodă'' is mainly a Romantic piece, where Alexander John Cuza finds his political mission validated by legendary figures in Romanian history.

In parallel, Macedonski was using poetry to carry out his polemics. In an 1884 epigram, he reacted against Alecsandri's '' Fântâna Blanduziei'', but, in Vianu's definition, "his regular causticity seems to be restrained." The piece he had earlier written, presumably against Eminescu, scandalized the public by mocking the rival's mental ruin:

According to Tudor Vianu, Macedonski was mostly motivated by his disappointment in ''Junimea'', and in particular by Eminescu's response to his public persona. Vianu contends that, although Macedonski "never was familiar with the resigned and patient attitudes", he was "by no means an evil man." On one occasion, the poet defended himself against criticism, noting that the epigram had not been specifically addressed to Eminescu, but had been labeled as such by the press, and claiming to have authored it years before its ''Literatorul'' edition. However, the later piece ''Viața de apoi'' ("The Afterlife") still displays resentments he harbored toward Eminescu.

By 1880–1884, particularly after the Eminescu scandal, Macedonski envisaged prioritizing French as his language of expression. According to Vianu, Macedonski had traversed "the lowest point" of his existence, and had been subject to "one of the most delicate mysteries of poetic creation." Among his pieces of the period is the French-language sonnet ''Pârle, il me dit alors'' ("Speak, He Then Said to Me"), where, Vianu notes, "one discovers the state of mind of a poet who decides to expatriate himself."

Adoption of Symbolism

According to Mihai Zamfir, at the end of his transition from the "mimetic and egocentric" verse to Symbolist poetry, Macedonski emerged a "remarkable, often extraordinary" author. In the early 20th century, fellow poet and critic N. Davidescu described Macedonski, Ion Minulescu and other Symbolists from Wallachia as distinct from their Moldavian counterparts in both style and themes. Endorsing the theory and practice of Symbolism for much of his life, Macedonski retrospectively claimed to have been one of its first exponents. His version of Symbolism, critic Paul Cernat notes, clashed with that advocated by many of his contemporaries in that it rejected merit to the Decadent movement, and represented the "decorative" aestheticist trend of Paranassian spirit within the Romanian Symbolist current.

Within ''Poezia viitorului'', Macedonski invoked as his models to follow some important or secondary Symbolist and Parnassian figures: Charles Baudelaire, Joséphin Péladan, Maurice Maeterlinck, Stéphane Mallarmé and Jean Moréas. In his review of ''Bronzes'' for ''Mercure de France'', Pierre Quillard remarked the "irreproachable" technique, but criticized the poet for being too indebted to both Baudelaire and Leconte de Lisle; other Symbolist figures whom Macedonski is known to have borrowed from are José María de HerediaCălinescu, p.526 and Iwan Gilkin. While undergoing this transition, to what linguist Manuela-Delia Suciu argues is a mostly Parnassian phase, Macedonski was still referencing Naturalism, and considered it compatible with Symbolism.

With the adoption of such tenets came a succession of Symbolist poems, where the focus is on minutely-observed objects, usually items of luxury, partly reflecting themes he had explored in the Naturalist stage. Commenting on them, Tudor Vianu argues that no such works had ever been produced in Romanian literature up until that moment.Vianu, Vol.II, p.410 In his ''Ospățul lui Pentaur'' ("The Feast of Pentaur"), the poet reflected on civilization itself, as reflected in inanimate opulence. The motif was also developed in descriptive prose fragments later grouped in ''Cartea de aur'', collectively titled ''nuvele fără oameni'' ("novellas without people") and compared by Călinescu with the paintings of Theodor Aman.

Also during that stage, Macedonski was exploring the numerous links between Symbolism, mysticism and esotericism. Earlier pieces had already come to explore macabre themes characteristic for an early branch of Symbolism. Influenced by Maurice Rollinat, they include the somber ''Vaporul morții'' ("The Ship of Death") and ''Visul fatal'' ("The Fatal Dream"). Likewise, the piece titled ''Imnul lui Satan'' ("Satan's Hymn") was placed by critics in connection with '' Les Litanies de Satan'' (part of Baudelaire's ''Les Fleurs du mal''), but, Vianu argues, the source of Macedonski's satanic themes may have been lodged in his own vision of the world. This interest also reflected in his 1893 ''Saul'', where Cincinat Pavelescu's contribution is supposedly minimal. Echoing satanic themes, Ernest Legouvé's dramatic version of the ''Medea'' myth (which Macedonski translated at some point in his life) and the classical work of Jean Racine, it shows the dark powers of political conflict intervening between the eponymous king and his ''ephebos''-like protégé David, the latter of whom turns out to be the agent of spiritual revolution.

' ("August Night"), outlines a monistic belief probably inspired by Rosicrucianism, stressing the unity between soul and matter and depicting Macedonski's own journey into a transcendental space. Following the examples of Baudelaire's '' Les paradis artificiels'', but also echoing his readings from Paul Verlaine and Théophile Gautier, Macedonski left poems dealing with narcotics and substance abuse, at least some of which reflected his personal experience with nicotine and possibly other unnamed drugs. Also at that stage, Macedonski also began publishing the "instrumentalist" series of his Symbolist poems. This form of experimental poem was influenced by the theories of René Ghil and verified through his encounter with Remy de Gourmont's views. In parallel, it reaffirmed Macedonski's personal view that music and the spoken word were intimately related (a perspective notably attested by his 1906 interview with Jules Combarieu). Romanian critic Petre Răileanu theorized that such elements evidenced Macedonski's transition to "metaliterature". On a different level, they echoed an older influence, that of Gottfried August Bürger.

''Excelsior''

Despite having stated his interest in innovation, Macedonski generally displayed a more conventional style in his ''Excelsior'' volume. It included ''Noaptea de mai'', which Vianu sees as "one of the ernacular'smost beautiful poems" and as evidence of "a clear joy, without any torment whatsoever". A celebration of spring partly evoking folkloric themes, it was made famous by the recurring refrain, ''Veniți: privighetoarea cântă și liliacul e-nflorit'' ("Come along: the nightingale is singing and the lilac is in blossom"). Like ''Noaptea de mai'', ''Lewki'' (named after and dedicated to the Snake Island), depicts intense joy, completed in this case by what Vianu calls "the restorative touch of nature." The series also returned to Levant settings and Islamic imagery, particularly in ''Acșam dovalar'' (named after the Turkish version of ''Witr''). Also noted within the volume is his short "Modern Psalms" series, including the piece ''Iertare'' ("Forgiveness"), which is addressed to God:

''Excelsior'' also included ''Noaptea de ianuarie'' ("January Night"), which encapsulates one of his best-known political statements. Anghelescu reads it as a "meditation on disillusionment that culminates in a vitality-laden exhortation of action." Its anti-bourgeois attitude, literary historian Z. Ornea argues, was one of the meeting points between Macedonski and ''Junimism''. In what is seen as its most acid section, the text notably reads:

At the same time as being engaged in his most violent polemics, Macedonski produced meditative and serene poems, which were later judged to be among his best. ''Noaptea de decemvrie'' is the synthesis of his main themes and influences, rated by commentators as his "masterpiece". Partly based on an earlier poem (''Meka'', named after the Arab city), it tells the story of an emir, who, left unsatisfied by the shallow and opulent life he leads in Baghdad, decides to leave on pilgrimage. While critics agree that it is to be read as an allegory of Macedonski's biography, the ironic text does not make it clear whether the emir actually reaches his target, nor if the central metaphor of Mecca as a mirage means that the goal is not worth sacrificing for. While Mircea Anghelescu comments that Macedonski illustrates "unusual tension" by rigorously amplifying references to the color red, seen as a symbol of suffering, Călinescu notes that the sequence of lyrics has a studied "delirious" element, and illustrates this with the quote:

Late prose works

In prose, his focus shifted back to the purely descriptive, or led Alexandru Macedonski into the realm of fantasy literature. These stories, most of which were eventually collected in ''Cartea de aur'', include memoirs of his childhood in the Amaradia region, nostalgic portrayals of the Oltenian boyar environment, idealized depictions of Cuza's reign, as well as a retrospective view on the end of Rom slavery (found in his piece ''Verigă țiganul'', "Verigă the Gypsy"). The best known among them is ''Pe drum de poștă'', a third-person narrative and thinly disguised memoir, where the characters are an adolescent Alexandru Macedonski and his father, General Macedonski. The idyllic outlook present in such stories is one of the common meeting points between his version of Symbolism and traditionalist authors such as Barbu Ștefănescu Delavrancea. Vianu indicates the connection, but adds: "Macedonski descended, through memory, in the world of the village, with the tremor of regret for the peace and plenty of the old settlements, so well polished that each person, landowner as well as peasant, lived within a framework that nature itself seemed to have granted. ..in depicting rural environments, Macedonski presents the point of view of a conservative."

'' Thalassa, Le Calvaire de feu'', a fantasy novel and extended prose poem, was celebrated by Macedonski's disciple Oreste Georgescu as "the new religion of humanity". The volume carried the mocking dedication "To France, this Chaldea" (thought by Vianu to reference Péladan's views on the decay of civilization). It has affinities with writings by the Italian Decadent author Gabriele d'Annunzio, as well as echoes from Anatole France.Suciu, p.106 The hero Thalassa, a Greek boy, works as a lighthouse-keeper on Snake Island, fantasizing about the golden age of mankind. His fate is changed by a shipwreck, during which a girl, Caliope, reaches the island's shore. Thalassa and Caliope fall in love, but are mysteriously unable to seal their union through sexual intercourse: the boy attributes this failure to the "curse" of human individuality. Seeking to achieve a perfect union with his lover, he eventually kills her and drowns himself in the Black Sea.

In her review for ''Mercure de France'', novelist Rachilde argued: "Very difficult to read, entirely developed in Symbolist manner ndalmost impossible to recount, obviously written in French but nevertheless obviously conceived by a Romanian (and what a spirited Romanian!)." Rachilde believed the work to display "the fragrance of Oriental spices ..rose marmalade and a slice of bear meat." According to Vianu, the book builds on Macedonski's earlier themes, replacing Naturalist observation with a metaphysical speculation about idealism. One other aspect of Macedonski's stylistic exploration took him to attempt recording synesthesia. His manuscript is written in ink of several colors, which, he believed, was to help readers get a full sense of its meaning. Like other synesthetic aspects of his novel, this is believed to have been inspired by the techniques of Baudelaire and Arthur Rimbaud.

''Thalassa, Le Calvaire de feu'' is noted for its numerous cultural references, and especially for using a wide range of metaphors. Such aspects have been reviewed negatively by modern critics. Tudor Vianu writes: "the poet makes such waste of gemstones that we feel like saying some of them must be false", while Călinescu, who notes that some fragments reveal "an incomparable artist" and "a professional metaphorist", notes that "in the end, such virtuosities become a bore." According to Manuela-Delia Suciu, ''Thalassa'' is "prolix" and "too polished", traits believed by Zamfir to be less irritating in the Romanian version. Critic Cornel Moraru found that, in the background, ''Thalassa'', a "great Symbolist novel", confronts Ancient Greek and Christian mythology, but "abuses" the religious vocabulary. Another part of the novel's imagery is erotic, and includes an elaborate and aestheticized description of male genitalia.

The four-act tragicomedy ''Le Fou?'' is seen by Vianu as comparable in subject matter and depth to ''Enrico IV'', a celebrated 1922 play by Luigi Pirandello. The plot reflects Macedonski's confrontation with his critics, and his acceptance of the fact that people saw in him an eccentric. The central figure is a banker, Dorval, who identifies himself with Napoleon Bonaparte to the point where he sees episodes in his biography as mirrors of early 19th-century battles. Unlike patients with dissociative identity disorder, Dorval does not actually imagine his life has become Napoleon's, but rather joins with him on an intellectual level. Witnesses of this disorder are divided into family, who seek to have Dorval committed, and close friends, who come to see his take on life as a manifestation of genius. The spectator is led to believe that the latter interpretation is the correct one. At a larger level, Vianu indicates, the play is also Macedonski's critique of capitalism, and, using Parisian argot, makes allusive references to famous people of the day.

Particularly during the 1890s, Macedonski was a follower of Edgar Allan Poe and of Gothic fiction in general, producing a Romanian version of Poe's ''Metzengerstein'' story, urging his own disciples to translate other such pieces, and adopting "Gothic" themes in his original prose. Indebted to Jules Verne and H. G. Wells

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