Stockholm, Sweden

Stockholm (; ) is the capital and most populous city of Sweden, as well as the largest urban area in the Nordic countries. Approximately 1 million people live in the municipality, with 1.6 million in the urban area, and 2.5 million in the metropolitan area. The city stretches across fourteen islands where Lake Mälaren flows into the Baltic Sea. Outside the city to the east, and along the coast, is the island chain of the Stockholm archipelago. The area has been settled since the Stone Age, in the 6th millennium BC, and was founded as a city in 1252 by Swedish statesman Birger Jarl. The city serves as the county seat of Stockholm County.

Stockholm is the cultural, media, political, and economic centre of Sweden. The Stockholm region alone accounts for over a third of the country's GDP, and is among the top 10 regions in Europe by GDP per capita. Considered a global city, it is the largest in Scandinavia and the main centre for corporate headquarters in the Nordic region. The city is home to some of Europe's top-ranking universities, such as the Karolinska Institute (medicine), KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm School of Economics and Stockholm University. It hosts the annual Nobel Prize ceremonies and banquet at the Stockholm Concert Hall and Stockholm City Hall. One of the city's most prized museums, the Vasa Museum, is the most visited museum in Scandinavia. The Stockholm metro, opened in 1950, is well known for the decor of its stations; it has been called the longest art gallery in the world. The city was the host of the 1912 Summer Olympics, and has played host to several other international sports events since.

Stockholm is Sweden's primary financial centre, one of the largest in Scandinavia, and hosts several of Sweden's largest companies. Furthermore, the headquarters of most of Sweden's largest banks are in Stockholm. Stockholm is one of Europe's major tech centres; the city has sometimes been called Europe's innovation hub. The Stockholm region has a GDP of around $180 billion, and Stockholm County has the highest GDP per capita of all counties in Sweden.

Stockholm is the seat of the Swedish government and most of its agencies, including the highest courts in the judiciary, and the official residences of the Swedish monarch and the prime minister. The government has its seat in the Rosenbad building, the Riksdag (Swedish parliament) is seated in the Parliament House, and the prime minister's residence is adjacent at the Sager House. Stockholm Palace is the official residence and principal workplace of the Swedish monarch, while Drottningholm Palace in neighbouring Ekerö serves as the Royal Family's private residence.

History

The location of Stockholm appears in Norse sagas as Agnafit, and in Heimskringla in connection with the legendary king Agne. Birka, located near Stockholm, was one of Sweden's major trade centres during the Viking Age, and its restored remains are one of Stockholm County's most-visited sites.

The earliest written mention of the name Stockholm dates from 1252, by which time the mines in Bergslagen made it an important site in the iron trade. The first part of the name () means log in Swedish, although it may also be connected to an old German word () meaning fortification. The second part of the name () means islet and is thought to refer to the islet Helgeandsholmen in central Stockholm. One theory for the name is that it refers to pile barrages. According to '' Erik's Chronicle'' the city is said to have been founded by Birger Jarl to protect Sweden from sea invasions made by Karelians after the pillage of Sigtuna on Lake Mälaren in the summer of 1187.

Stockholm's core, the present Old Town (Gamla Stan) was built on the central island next to Helgeandsholmen from the mid-13th century onward. The city originally rose to prominence as a result of the Baltic trade of the Hanseatic League. Stockholm developed strong economic and cultural linkages with Lübeck, Hamburg, Gdańsk (Danzig), Visby, Tallinn (Reval), and Riga during this time.

Stockholm's oldest preserved charter, the ''Letter of Privilege from the Privy Council (')'', was issued by the Privy Council of Sweden on 1 May 1436 as a reward for the city's loyalty and service to the realm. The document granted Stockholm significant rights and freedoms, affirming its role as the political and economic centre of Sweden. It is regarded as marking the beginning of Stockholm's status as the de facto capital of Sweden.

The strategic and economic importance of the city made Stockholm an important factor in relations between the rulers of the Kalmar Union and the Swedish anti-unionist movement in the fifteenth century and early sixteenth century. The Danish union monarch Christian II was able to enter the city in 1520 and on 8 November of that year, a massacre of opposition figures called the Stockholm Bloodbath took place and set off further uprisings that eventually led to the breakup of the Kalmar Union with the reattainment of Swedish independence. With the accession of Gustav Vasa in 1523 and the establishment of royal power, the population of Stockholm began to grow, reaching 10,000 by 1600.

The seventeenth century saw Sweden grow into a major European power, reflected in the development of the city of Stockholm. From 1610 to 1680 the population multiplied sixfold. In 1634, Stockholm became the official capital of the Swedish empire. Trading rules were also created that gave Stockholm an essential monopoly over trade between foreign merchants and other Swedish, Baltic and Scandinavian territories. In 1697, Tre Kronor Castle burned down and was replaced eventually by Stockholm Palace; the time of the Swedish Empire also saw several architectural modernisations of the city.

The beginning of the Swedish Empire saw a renaissance in the arts and sciences; the new queen, Christina, was a strong supporter of science and culture. René Descartes, one of the most prominent European philosophers of his time, died in Stockholm; he had been hosted by the queen for several years prior to his death. Inventors, like Christopher Polhem, moved to the city during the time of the Swedish Empire. Academics also spent much time in Stockholm, like Olaus Rudbeck, rector of the Uppsala University.

Throughout Sweden's history, walls were created in Stockholm to defend the city from attacks. These defensive walls were modified throughout the 13th to the 16th century. In 1625, the Great Stockholm Fire of 1625 destroyed the southwestern section of Stadsholmen, an island in the centre of Stockholm. The amount of destruction led to the beginning of the demolition of the Stockholm walls. Today, most of the younger city walls cannot be found anywhere above ground. However, parts of the northern city walls are preserved in the modern Museum of Medieval Stockholm.

In 1710, a plague killed about 20,000 (36 percent) of the population. After the end of the Great Northern War the city stagnated; population growth halted and economic growth slowed. The city was in shock after having lost its place as the capital of a great power. However, Stockholm maintained its role as Sweden's political centre and continued to develop as the country's economic and cultural capital.

During the Age of Enlightenment in the late eighteenth century, the city flourished. The new monarch, Gustav III, proved an able and energetic regnant; his economic policies helped the Swedish economy develop, and his partially successful war against Russia restored some of Sweden's international reputation. The king was an avid patron of the arts, and scientists and cultural figures flocked to Stockholm on a scale unprecedented since the reign of Queen Christina.

During this time, Carl Michael Bellman and Joseph Martin Kraus helped develop the city's music, a process further accelerated by the founding of the Royal Swedish Opera. Various artists and writers became prominent, funded by the king and other cultural patrons like Carl Gustaf Tessin; the two aforementioned figures laid the base for Sweden's Nationalmuseum at this time. Science also became prevalent; renowned figures like Carl Linnaeus and Anders Celsius spent time in Stockholm, and various research institutes, like the Stockholm Observatory, were founded.

The early nineteenth century saw a major economic decline of Stockholm and Sweden as a whole, but by the second half of the nineteenth century, Stockholm had regained its leading economic role. New industries emerged with industrialisation and Stockholm was transformed into an important trade and service centre as well as a key gateway point within Sweden. The population also grew dramatically during this time, mainly through immigration. At the end of the nineteenth century, less than 40% of the residents were Stockholm-born, with most migrants being from poorer rural Sweden; major settlement began to expand outside the historical city limits. The nineteenth century also saw the establishment of a number of scientific institutes and universities, including the Karolinska Institutet and KTH Royal Institute of Technology. The General Art and Industrial Exposition was held in 1897, drawing international attention. From 1887 to 1953 the Old Stockholm telephone tower was a landmark; originally built to link phone lines, it became redundant after these were buried, and it was later used for advertising before its demolition in the twentieth century. The early twentieth century also saw the creation of the Nobel Prizes, some of Stockholm's most renowned institutions.

Stockholm became a modern and ethnically diverse city in the latter half of the 20th century. Many historical buildings were torn down during the modernist era, including substantial parts of the historical district of Klara (which caused major controversy), and replaced with modern architecture. However, in many other parts of Stockholm (such as in Gamla stan, Södermalm, Östermalm, Kungsholmen and Vasastan), many older buildings, blocks and streets built before the modernism and functionalism movements survived this era of demolition. Throughout the century, many industries shifted away from industrial activities into more high-tech and service industry areas, which still dominate the city's economy today.

Stockholm's metropolitan area has become one of the fastest-growing regions in Europe. In 2020 alone, Stockholm's population increased by 1,477. As a result of this massive population growth, there has been a proposal to build densely packed high-rise buildings in the city centre connected by elevated walkways, though these have been opposed by several groups.

Geography

Location

Stockholm is located on Sweden's east coast at the 59th parallel north, where the freshwater Lake Mälaren—Sweden's third-largest lake—flows out into the Baltic Sea. The central parts of the city consist of fourteen islands that are continuous with the Stockholm archipelago. The geographical city centre is situated on the water, in Riddarfjärden bay. Over 30% of the city area is made up of waterways and another 30% is made up of parks and green spaces.

Positioned at the eastern end of the Central Swedish lowland and near the Bergslagen region, the city's location reflects the early orientation of Swedish trade toward the Baltic region.

Stockholm belongs to the Temperate deciduous forest biome, which means the climate is very similar to that of the far northeastern area of the United States and coastal Nova Scotia in Canada. The average annual temperature is . The average rainfall is per year. The deciduous forest has four distinct seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and winter. In the autumn the leaves change color. During the winter months, the trees lose their leaves.

For details about the other municipalities in the Stockholm area, see the pertinent articles. North of Stockholm Municipality: Järfälla, Solna, Täby, Sollentuna, Lidingö, Upplands Väsby, Österåker, Sigtuna, Sundbyberg, Danderyd, Vallentuna, Ekerö, Upplands-Bro, Vaxholm, and Norrtälje. South of Stockholm: Huddinge, Nacka, Botkyrka, Haninge, Tyresö, Värmdö, Södertälje, Salem, Nykvarn and Nynäshamn.

Stockholm Municipality

Stockholm Municipality is an administrative unit defined by geographical borders. The semi-official name for the municipality is ''City of Stockholm'' (''Stockholms stad'' in Swedish). As a municipality, the City of Stockholm is subdivided into district councils, which carry responsibility for primary schools, social, leisure and cultural services within their respective areas. The municipality is usually described in terms of its three main parts: Innerstaden (Stockholm City Centre), Söderort (Southern Stockholm) and Västerort (Western Stockholm). The districts of these parts are:

Stockholm City Centre

* Gamla Stan
* Kungsholmen
* Norrmalm
* Södermalm
* Vasastan
* Östermalm

Söderort

* Enskede-Årsta-Vantör
* Farsta
* Hägersten-Liljeholmen
* Skarpnäck
* Skärholmen
* Älvsjö

Västerort

* Bromma
* Hässelby-Vällingby
* Rinkeby-Kista
* Spånga-Tensta

The modern centre Norrmalm (concentrated around the town square Sergels torg) is the largest shopping district in Sweden. It is the most central part of Stockholm in business and shopping.

Climate

Stockholm has a humid continental climate in the 0 °C isotherm (Köppen: ''Dfb'') bordering on an oceanic climate (''Cfb'') in the -3 °C isotherm. Although winters are cold, average temperatures generally remain above 0 °C for much of the year. Summers are pleasantly warm, and precipitation occurs throughout the year.

Due to the city's high northerly latitude, the length of the day varies widely from more than 18 hours around midsummer to only around 6 hours in late December. The nights from late May until mid-July are not completely dark even when cloudy. Stockholm has relatively mild weather compared to other locations at a similar latitude, or even farther south. With an average of 1900 hours of sunshine per year, it is also one of the sunniest cities in Northern Europe, receiving more sunshine than Paris, London and a few other major European cities of a more southerly latitude. Because of the urban heat island effect and the prevailing wind travelling overland rather than sea during summer months, Stockholm has the warmest July months of the Nordic capitals. Stockholm has an annual average snow cover between 75 and 100 days.

Despite its mild climate, Stockholm is located further north than parts of Canada that are above the Arctic tree line at sea level.

Summers average daytime high temperatures of and lows of around , but temperatures can reach on some days. Days above occur on average 1.55 days per year (1992–2011). Days between and are relatively common especially in July and August. Night-time lows of above are rare, and hot summer nights vary from . Winters generally bring cloudy weather with the most precipitation falling in December and January (as either rain or snow). The average winter temperatures range from , and occasionally drop below in the outskirts of the city. Spring and autumn are generally cool to mild.

The climate table below presents weather data from the years 1991–2020. According to ongoing measurements, the temperature has increased during the years 1991–2020 as compared with the last series, from 1961 to 1990. This increase averages about over all months. Warming is most pronounced during the winter months, with an increase of more than in January. For the 2002–2014 measurements some further increases have been found, although some months such as June have been relatively flat.

The highest temperature ever recorded in Stockholm was on 3 July 1811; the lowest was on 20 January 1814. The temperature has not dropped to below since 10 January 1987.

The warmest month ever recorded was July 2018 with a mean temperature of which is also the nationwide record.

Annual precipitation is with around 170 wet days and light to moderate rainfall throughout the year. The precipitation is not uniformly distributed throughout the year. The second half of the year receives 50% more than the first half. Snowfall occurs mainly from December through March. Snowfall may occasionally occur in late October as well as in April.

In Stockholm, the aurora borealis can occasionally be observed.

Daylight

Stockholm's location just south of the 60th parallel north means that the number of daylight hours is relatively small during winter – about six hours – while in June and the first half of July, the nights are relatively short, with about 18 hours of daylight. Due to its eastern position within Sweden's respective time zone, sunsets occur as early as 2:46 PM in mid-December. Around the summer solstice the sun never reaches further below the horizon than 7.3 degrees. This gives the sky a bright blue colour in summer once the sun has set because it does not get any darker than nautical twilight. Also, when looking straight up towards the zenith, few stars are visible after the sun has gone down. This is not to be confused with the midnight sun, which occurs north of the Arctic Circle, around 7 degrees farther north.

Government

The Stockholm Municipal Council () is the name of the local assembly. Its 101 councillors are elected concurrently with general elections, held at the same time as the elections to the Riksdag and county councils. The Council convenes twice every month at Stockholm City Hall, and the meetings are open to the public. The matters on which the councillors decide have generally already been drafted and discussed by various boards and committees. Once decisions are referred for practical implementation, the employees of the City administrations and companies take over.

The elected majority has a Mayor and eight Vice Mayors. The Mayor and each majority Vice Mayor is the head of a department, with responsibility for a particular area of operation, such as City Planning. The opposition also has four Vice Mayors, but they hold no executive power. Together the Mayor and the 12 Vice Mayors form the Council of Mayors, and they prepare matters for the City Executive Board. The Mayor holds a special position among the Vice Mayors, chairing both the Council of Mayors and the City Executive Board.

The City Executive Board () is elected by the City Council and is equivalent to a cabinet. The City Executive Board renders an opinion in all matters decided by the council and bears the overall responsibility for follow-up, evaluation and execution of its decisions. The Board is also responsible for financial administration and long-term development. The City Executive Board consists of 13 members, who represent both the majority and the opposition. Its meetings are not open to the public.

Stockholm City Hall is one of the city's key landmarks, built in the National Romantic Style at the beginning of the twentieth century. Hosting the Nobel Prizes and the government of the city of Stockholm, it is one of Sweden's most important buildings.

Economy

As the primary financial centre in Sweden, Stockholm is an influential hub for trade, finance and technology in Europe, and one of Scandinavia's largest financial centres. The Stockholm region is the leading region in Sweden by both GDP and GDP per capita, and is amongst the ten wealthiest regions in the European Union when measured by the latter.

Many of Sweden's largest companies are headquartered in the city; they are drawn by its central location, skilled workforce and preeminent financial sector. These companies include some of the Nordic region's most valuable corporations, like Ericsson, which is one of the world's largest telecommunications companies, or Atlas Copco, which is one of the world's largest industrial companies; other large companies based in Stockholm include Electrolux, H&M and Securitas AB. Some of the largest investment firms in Europe are headquartered in the city, including Investor AB and Nordstjernan; also headquartered in Stockholm is EQT AB.

Stockholm is one of continental Europe's leading hubs for the technology industry; this influential industry is based in Kista, a suburb in northern Stockholm which is Europe's largest Informations and Technology cluster. Stockholm has the second most unicorns per capita in the world, after Silicon Valley; the city also has one of the highest startup rates in Europe. Prominent startup technology companies in Stockholm include Mojang, Spotify and Klarna; the latter two either have been or are among the largest startup companies in the world.

Most of Sweden's largest banks are headquartered in the city, including the SEB Group, Handelsbanken and Swedbank; Nordea had its headquarters in Stockholm until moving to Helsinki in 2018 for legal reasons involving the European Union. The Stockholm Stock Exchange, founded in 1863, is the largest stock exchange in the Nordic Countries measured by market capitalisation, listing numerous multinational Swedish companies.

Trade is a vital part of Stockholm's economy; the city's corporations are largely reliant on foreign consumers to supplement the small Swedish market. Stockholm is one of the Baltic Sea's larger ports, hosting especially cruise ships and yachts. Most of Stockholm's economy is based on export-oriented services, often towards larger, nearby European markets like Poland or Germany. Tourism is a major industry in Stockholm.

Education

Research and higher education in the sciences started in Stockholm in the 18th century, with education in medicine and various research institutions such as the Stockholm Observatory. The medical education was eventually formalised in 1811 as Karolinska Institutet. KTH Royal Institute of Technology (''Swedish: Kungliga Tekniska högskolan'') was founded in 1827 and is Scandinavia's largest higher education institute of technology with 13,000 students; it is Sweden's foremost polytechnic, and spearheaded several governmental research projects in the twentieth century. Stockholm University, founded in 1878 with university status granted in 1960, has 52,000 students . It also incorporates historical institutions, such as the Observatory, the Swedish Museum of Natural History, as well as the botanical garden '' Bergianska trädgården''. The Stockholm School of Economics, founded in 1909, is one of the few private institutions of higher education in Sweden, and is generally reckoned one of the most prestigious business schools in the world.

In the fine arts, educational institutions include the Royal College of Music, which has a history going back to the conservatory founded as part of the Royal Swedish Academy of Music in 1771, the Royal University College of Fine Arts, which has a similar historical association with the Royal Swedish Academy of Arts and a foundation date of 1735, and the Swedish National Academy of Mime and Acting, which is the continuation of the school of the Royal Dramatic Theatre, once attended by renowned actors like Greta Garbo. Other schools include the design school Konstfack, founded in 1844, the University College of Opera (founded in 1968 but with older roots), the University College of Dance, and the ''Stockholms Musikpedagogiska Institut'' (the University College of Music Education).

The Södertörn University was founded in 1995 as a multi-disciplinary institution for southern Metropolitan Stockholm, to balance the many institutions located in the northern part of the region. Other institutes of higher education include the Military Academy Karlberg, the world's oldest military academy to remain in its original location, inaugurated in 1792 and housed in Karlberg Palace; there is also the Swedish Defence University, Ersta Sköndal University College, Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences and the University College Stockholm

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