religious Jews Religious Jews are Jews who practice and observe Judaism. They may be affiliated with: * Conservative Judaism * Orthodox Judaism, including Religious Zionists in Israel ** Haredi Judaism (ultra-Orthodox Judaism) ** Modern Orthodox Judaism * Recons ...

Torah The Torah (; hbo, ''Tōrā'', "Instruction", "Teaching" or "Law") is the compilation of the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, namely the books of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. In that sense, Torah means the s ...

Tanakh The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh (;"Tanach"
''

Mishnah The Mishnah or the Mishna (; he, מִשְׁנָה, "study by repetition", from the verb ''shanah'' , or "to study and review", also "secondary") is the first major written collection of the Jewish oral traditions which is known as the Oral Tora ...

,

Midrash ''Midrash'' (;"midrash"
''Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary''. he, מִדְרָשׁ; ...

,

Talmud The Talmud (; he, , Talmūḏ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law ('' halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the cen ...

, and all works of ''

halakha ''Halakha'' (; he, הֲלָכָה, ), also transliterated as ''halacha'', ''halakhah'', and ''halocho'' ( ), is the collective body of Jewish religious laws which is derived from the written and Oral Torah. Halakha is based on biblical comm ...

'', Musar,

Hasidism Hasidism, sometimes spelled Chassidism, and also known as Hasidic Judaism ( Ashkenazi Hebrew: חסידות ''Ḥăsīdus'', ; originally, "piety"), is a Jewish religious group that arose as a spiritual revival movement in the territory of cont ...

,

Kabbalah Kabbalah ( he, קַבָּלָה ''Qabbālā'', literally "reception, tradition") is an esoteric method, discipline and school of thought in Jewish mysticism. A traditional Kabbalist is called a Mekubbal ( ''Məqūbbāl'' "receiver"). The de ...

, or ''machshavah'' ("Jewish Thought"). Historically, ''sifrei kodesh'' were generally written in Hebrew with some in

Judeo-Aramaic Judaeo-Aramaic languages represent a group of Hebrew-influenced Aramaic and Neo-Aramaic languages. Early use Aramaic, like Hebrew, is a Northwest Semitic language, and the two share many features. From the 7th century BCE, Aramaic became th ...

or

Arabic Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walte ...

, although in recent years, thousands of titles in other languages, most notably English, were published. An alternative spelling for 'sefarim' is ''seforim''.

Terms

The term ''Sifrei Kodesh'' is Hebrew for "Holy Books", and includes all books that are considered holy in

Rabbinic Judaism Rabbinic Judaism ( he, יהדות רבנית, Yahadut Rabanit), also called Rabbinism, Rabbinicism, or Judaism espoused by the Rabbanites, has been the mainstream form of Judaism since the 6th century CE, after the codification of the Babylonian ...

. This includes all Torah literature as well as Jewish prayer books. Among Orthodox Jews the word ''sefer'' (plural ''s'farim'') is used for books of the

Tanakh The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh (;"Tanach"
''

Oral Torah According to Rabbinic Judaism, the Oral Torah or Oral Law ( he, , Tōrā šebbəʿal-pe}) are those purported laws, statutes, and legal interpretations that were not recorded in the Five Books of Moses, the Written Torah ( he, , Tōrā šebbīḵ� ...

(

Mishnah The Mishnah or the Mishna (; he, מִשְׁנָה, "study by repetition", from the verb ''shanah'' , or "to study and review", also "secondary") is the first major written collection of the Jewish oral traditions which is known as the Oral Tora ...

and

Talmud The Talmud (; he, , Talmūḏ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law ('' halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the cen ...

) or any work of

rabbinic literature Rabbinic literature, in its broadest sense, is the entire spectrum of rabbinic writings throughout Jewish history. However, the term often refers specifically to literature from the Talmudic era, as opposed to medieval and modern rabbinic writ ...

. Works unrelated to

Torah study Torah study is the study of the Torah, Hebrew Bible, Talmud, responsa, rabbinic literature, and similar works, all of which are Judaism's religious texts. According to Rabbinic Judaism, the study is done for the purpose of the ''mitzvah'' ("comma ...

are rarely called ''sefer'' by English-speaking Orthodox Jews. Among Hebrew-speaking

Ashkenazi Jews Ashkenazi Jews ( ; he, יְהוּדֵי אַשְׁכְּנַז, translit=Yehudei Ashkenaz, ; yi, אַשכּנזישע ייִדן, Ashkenazishe Yidn), also known as Ashkenazic Jews or ''Ashkenazim'',, Ashkenazi Hebrew pronunciation: , singu ...

, the differentiation between books related to Torah study and other books is made by referring to the former with traditional

Ashkenazi Ashkenazi Jews ( ; he, יְהוּדֵי אַשְׁכְּנַז, translit=Yehudei Ashkenaz, ; yi, אַשכּנזישע ייִדן, Ashkenazishe Yidn), also known as Ashkenazic Jews or ''Ashkenazim'',, Ashkenazi Hebrew pronunciation: , singu ...

pronunciation (SEY-fur) and to the latter with

Modern Hebrew Modern Hebrew ( he, עברית חדשה, ''ʿivrít ḥadašá ', , '' lit.'' "Modern Hebrew" or "New Hebrew"), also known as Israeli Hebrew or Israeli, and generally referred to by speakers simply as Hebrew ( ), is the standard form of the He ...

pronunciation (SEF-fer). The term "Torah" has two meanings. It can refer solely to the Five Books of Moses. Traditionally, it is written on a parchment scroll, known as a '' Sefer Torah'', although it is also printed in book form, known as a '' Chumash'' (and in some cases a '' tikkun''). The term "Torah" can also include the

Nevi'im Nevi'im (; he, נְבִיאִים ''Nəvīʾīm'', Tiberian: ''Năḇīʾīm,'' "Prophets", literally "spokespersons") is the second major division of the Hebrew Bible (the '' Tanakh''), lying between the Torah (instruction) and Ketuvim (w ...

and

Ketuvim The Ketuvim (; hbo, , Modern: ''Kəṯūvīm'', Tiberian: ''Kăṯūḇīm'' "writings") is the third and final section of the Tanakh ( Hebrew Bible), after Torah (instruction) and Nevi'im (prophets). In English translations of the Hebre ...

) and rabbinic texts, and such books are therefore sometimes also referred to as "Torah literature" ( he, ספרות תורנית, Sifrut Toranit). The

Hebrew Bible The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh (;"Tanach"
''Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary''. Hebrew: ''Tān ...

or Tanakh, also known as Torah Shebikhtav ("Written " as opposed to "Oral" Torah) is a collective term for the three sections of the Bible, those being the

Torah The Torah (; hbo, ''Tōrā'', "Instruction", "Teaching" or "Law") is the compilation of the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, namely the books of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy. In that sense, Torah means the s ...

, the Nevi'im, and the Ketuvim. Separately, the Nevi'im and Ketuvim are also called ''

Nakh Nakh may refer to: * Nach (Bible acronym) (NaKh), an acronym for ''Nevi'im'' ''Ksuvim''/''Ktuvim'' (the Prophets and (Holy) Writings of ''Tanach'') * Nakh languages, a group of languages within Northeast Caucasian, spoken chiefly by the Chechens ...

''.

Commentaries

Numerous commentaries on the Tanakh have been written and published over the last thousand years. The most notable ones are '' Targum Onkelos'', a translation of the Torah into

Judeo-Aramaic Judaeo-Aramaic languages represent a group of Hebrew-influenced Aramaic and Neo-Aramaic languages. Early use Aramaic, like Hebrew, is a Northwest Semitic language, and the two share many features. From the 7th century BCE, Aramaic became th ...

, written by Onkelos; and ''

Rashi Shlomo Yitzchaki ( he, רבי שלמה יצחקי; la, Salomon Isaacides; french: Salomon de Troyes, 22 February 1040 – 13 July 1105), today generally known by the acronym Rashi (see below), was a medieval French rabbi and author of a compr ...

'', a commentary on the entire Tanakh written by

Rashi Shlomo Yitzchaki ( he, רבי שלמה יצחקי; la, Salomon Isaacides; french: Salomon de Troyes, 22 February 1040 – 13 July 1105), today generally known by the acronym Rashi (see below), was a medieval French rabbi and author of a compr ...

. Both are traditionally printed in the Chumash alongside the biblical text. Other commentaries that are sometimes printed alongside the text in the Chumash are commentaries by Rabbi

Jacob ben Asher Jacob ben Asher (c. 1269 - c. 1343), also known as Ba'al ha-Turim as well as Rabbi Yaakov ben Raash (Rabbeinu Asher), was an influential Medieval rabbinic authority. He is often referred to as the Ba'al ha-Turim ("Master of the Columns"), after ...

and Rabbi Shabbethai Bass (the ''

Siftei Chachamim Shabbethai ben Joseph Bass (1641–1718) ( he, שבתי בן יוסף; also known by the family-name Strom), born at Kalisz, was the founder of Jewish bibliography, and author of the ''Siftei Chachamim'' supercommentary on Rashi's commentary on the ...

''). Commentaries traditionally printed alongside the ''Nakh'' are ''Rashi'' as well as ''Metzudat David'' and ''Metzudat Zion'' by Rabbi David Altschuler. In addition to the classic printings of Tanakh which don't include many more commentaries than ''Rashi'' and ''Targum Onkelos'', there is the '' Mikraot Gedolot'' edition which was first published in the early sixteenth century. Commentaries in the ''Mikraot Gedolot'' on the Torah are generally those of Abraham ibn Ezra (''Sefer ha-Yashar''),

Nachmanides Moses ben Nachman ( he, מֹשֶׁה בֶּן־נָחְמָן ''Mōše ben-Nāḥmān'', "Moses son of Nachman"; 1194–1270), commonly known as Nachmanides (; el, Ναχμανίδης ''Nakhmanídēs''), and also referred to by the acronym Ra ...

, Rabbi Shlomo Ephraim Luntschitz (the ''Keli Yakar''), Chaim ibn Attar, and the translation and commentary attributed to Rabbi Jonathan ben Uzziel, known as

Targum Pseudo-Jonathan Targum Jonathan is a western targum (interpretation) of the Torah (Pentateuch) from the land of Israel (as opposed to the eastern Babylonian Targum Onkelos). Its correct title was originally Targum Yerushalmi (Jerusalem Targum), which is how it ...

, all in addition to ''Rashi'' and ''Targum Onkelos''; while commentaries on ''Nakh'' are those of Rashi, Rabbi David Altschuler, Rabbi David Kimhi, Rabbi Joseph Kara, and on some volumes, Rabbi Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno (the ''Sforno'' or ''Sepornu''). Among the numerous commentaries of Tanakh not published in the ''Mikraot Gedolot'' are the ''

Meam Loez ''Me'am Lo'ez'' ( he, מעם לועז), initiated by Rabbi Yaakov Culi in 1730, is a widely studied commentary on the Tanakh written in Judaeo-Spanish. It is perhaps the best known publication in that language. History ''Me'Am Lo'ez'' marked one ...

'', '' Malbim'', '' Ha'amek Davar'', ''

Torah Temimah The ''Torah Temimah'' (תורה תמימה - from Psalmsbr> 19:8תּוֹרַת ה תְּמִימָה "The Torah of Hashem is perfect.") is the ''magnum opus'' of Rabbi Baruch Epstein. Published in 1902, it is a commentary on the Torah and the F ...

'', and '' The Hirsch Chumash''.

Other texts in ancient times

Aside from the Bible, there were several writings of Jewish religious significance in ancient times, known today as " the outer books". There are some other writings however that most agree were written more recently that have been claimed to be older. These include the ''

Sefer Yetzirah ''Sefer Yetzirah'' ( ''Sēp̄er Yəṣīrā'', ''Book of Formation'', or ''Book of Creation'') is the title of a book on Jewish mysticism, although some early commentators treated it as a treatise on mathematical and linguistic theory as opposed ...

'', which some say was written by

Abraham Abraham, ; ar, , , name=, group= (originally Abram) is the common Hebrews, Hebrew patriarch of the Abrahamic religions, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. In Judaism, he is the founding father of the Covenant (biblical), special ...

; and the Book of Enoch, which some say was written by Enoch.

Works of ''Chazal''

As stated earlier, Jewish belief is that the Pentateuch is of Mosaic authorship, meaning that it was dictated by

God In monotheistic thought, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. Swinburne, R.G. "God" in Honderich, Ted. (ed)''The Oxford Companion to Philosophy'', Oxford University Press, 1995. God is typically ...

to Moses. Later writings, the

Nevi'im Nevi'im (; he, נְבִיאִים ''Nəvīʾīm'', Tiberian: ''Năḇīʾīm,'' "Prophets", literally "spokespersons") is the second major division of the Hebrew Bible (the '' Tanakh''), lying between the Torah (instruction) and Ketuvim (w ...

and

Ketuvim The Ketuvim (; hbo, , Modern: ''Kəṯūvīm'', Tiberian: ''Kăṯūḇīm'' "writings") is the third and final section of the Tanakh ( Hebrew Bible), after Torah (instruction) and Nevi'im (prophets). In English translations of the Hebre ...

, were, according to tradition, written by Jewish prophets. For over a thousand years, these books, known as ''Tanakh'', were more or less the sole writings of Judaism. However, there was much material that was not written down, and instead memorized. Known as the

Oral Torah According to Rabbinic Judaism, the Oral Torah or Oral Law ( he, , Tōrā šebbəʿal-pe}) are those purported laws, statutes, and legal interpretations that were not recorded in the Five Books of Moses, the Written Torah ( he, , Tōrā šebbīḵ� ...

, it includes over five hundreds laws learned out from Talmudical hermeneutics as well as the laws given to Moses at Sinai ( he, הלכה למשה מסיני, Halakhah leMoshe miSinai). However, circa 200 C.E., much of the Oral Torah was written down, and is known as the

Mishnah The Mishnah or the Mishna (; he, מִשְׁנָה, "study by repetition", from the verb ''shanah'' , or "to study and review", also "secondary") is the first major written collection of the Jewish oral traditions which is known as the Oral Tora ...

(the

Zohar The ''Zohar'' ( he, , ''Zōhar'', lit. "Splendor" or "Radiance") is a foundational work in the literature of Jewish mystical thought known as Kabbalah. It is a group of books including commentary on the mystical aspects of the Torah (the five ...

, a book chronicling the hidden parts of the Torah, was written down as well around this time by Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai). Three hundred years later the

Talmud The Talmud (; he, , Talmūḏ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law ('' halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the cen ...

was written, expounding on the Mishnah.

Mishnah

For generations, the

Oral Torah According to Rabbinic Judaism, the Oral Torah or Oral Law ( he, , Tōrā šebbəʿal-pe}) are those purported laws, statutes, and legal interpretations that were not recorded in the Five Books of Moses, the Written Torah ( he, , Tōrā šebbīḵ� ...

had been transmitted by word of mouth, largely with the help of the

Sanhedrin The Sanhedrin (Hebrew and Aramaic: סַנְהֶדְרִין; Greek: , '' synedrion'', 'sitting together,' hence 'assembly' or 'council') was an assembly of either 23 or 71 elders (known as "rabbis" after the destruction of the Second Temple), ...

, the leading Jewish authority. However, after the

destruction of the Second Temple The siege of Jerusalem of 70 CE was the decisive event of the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), in which the Roman army led by future emperor Titus besieged Jerusalem, the center of Jewish rebel resistance in the Roman province o ...

, the Sanhedrin had been uprooted and much of the Oral Torah was being forgotten. Therefore, c. 188 CE, Rabbi Judah ha-Nasi, head of the exiled Sanhedrin, compiled the

Mishnah The Mishnah or the Mishna (; he, מִשְׁנָה, "study by repetition", from the verb ''shanah'' , or "to study and review", also "secondary") is the first major written collection of the Jewish oral traditions which is known as the Oral Tora ...

, i.e. the teachings of the Oral Torah. Since the

Maccabean Revolt The Maccabean Revolt ( he, מרד החשמונאים) was a Jewish rebellion led by the Maccabees against the Seleucid Empire and against Hellenistic influence on Jewish life. The main phase of the revolt lasted from 167–160 BCE and ended ...

however, much had already been lost, which led to many disagreements among the scholars, the ''

Tannaim ''Tannaim'' ( Amoraic Hebrew: תנאים , singular , ''Tanna'' "repeaters", "teachers") were the rabbinic sages whose views are recorded in the Mishnah, from approximately 10–220 CE. The period of the ''Tannaim'', also referred to as the Mis ...

''. Therefore, the Mishnah includes their differing opinions. As

Maimonides Musa ibn Maimon (1138–1204), commonly known as Maimonides (); la, Moses Maimonides and also referred to by the acronym Rambam ( he, רמב״ם), was a Sephardic Jewish philosopher who became one of the most prolific and influential Torah ...

wrote in the introduction to his ''

Mishneh Torah The ''Mishneh Torah'' ( he, מִשְׁנֵה תּוֹרָה, , repetition of the Torah), also known as ''Sefer Yad ha-Hazaka'' ( he, ספר יד החזקה, , book of the strong hand, label=none), is a code of Rabbinic Jewish religious law (''h ...

'': A similar project was carried out by Rabbi

Hiyya bar Abba Ḥiyya bar Abba ( Aramaic: רבי חייא בר אבא), Ḥiyya bar Ba ( Aramaic: רבי חייא בר בא), or Ḥiyya bar Wa ( Aramaic: רבי חייא בר ווא) was a third generation '' amoraic'' sage of the Land of Israel, of priestly ...

and his student Rabbi Hoshaiah, known as the

Tosefta The Tosefta ( Jewish Babylonian Aramaic: תוספתא "supplement, addition") is a compilation of the Jewish oral law from the late 2nd century, the period of the Mishnah. Overview In many ways, the Tosefta acts as a supplement to the Mishnah ...

. A collection of statements not included in the Mishnah was compiled by Rabbi Oshiya and Bar Kappara, known as Baraitot.

Talmud

Circa 349, the Sanhedrin, exiled from Jerusalem and sitting in

Tiberias Tiberias ( ; he, טְבֶרְיָה, ; ar, طبريا, Ṭabariyyā) is an Israeli city on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee. A major Jewish center during Late Antiquity, it has been considered since the 16th century one of Judaism's F ...

, wrote the

Jerusalem Talmud The Jerusalem Talmud ( he, תַּלְמוּד יְרוּשַׁלְמִי, translit=Talmud Yerushalmi, often for short), also known as the Palestinian Talmud or Talmud of the Land of Israel, is a collection of rabbinic notes on the second-century ...

, a mammoth work compiling the teachings of the rabbis of the recent generations, known as '' Amoraim'', as they expounded on the Mishnah. It is largely attributed to

Rabbi Yochanan :''See Johanan (name) for more rabbis by this name''. Johanan bar Nappaha ( he, יוחנן בר נפחא Yoḥanan bar Nafḥa; alt. sp. Napaḥa) (also known simply as Rabbi Yochanan, or as Johanan bar Nafcha) (lived 180-279 CE) was a leading r ...

. However, the Jerusalem Talmud is generally overshadowed by the

Babylonian Talmud The Talmud (; he, , Talmūḏ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law ('' halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the cen ...

, a similar yet much larger work, compiling the teachings of the ''Amoraim'', and completed in Babylonia circa 500. The teachings were largely legalistic in nature, stating ''

halakha ''Halakha'' (; he, הֲלָכָה, ), also transliterated as ''halacha'', ''halakhah'', and ''halocho'' ( ), is the collective body of Jewish religious laws which is derived from the written and Oral Torah. Halakha is based on biblical comm ...

''. There were other teachings, known as

aggadah Aggadah ( he, ''ʾAggāḏā'' or ''Haggāḏā''; Jewish Babylonian Aramaic: אַגָּדְתָא ''ʾAggāḏəṯāʾ''; "tales, fairytale, lore") is the non-legalistic exegesis which appears in the classical rabbinic literature of Judaism, ...

, which incorporates narratives, parables, practical advice, remedies, and insights. The Babylonian Talmud, attributed to Rav Ashi and Ravina, was first printed in 1483 by Joshua Solomon Soncino. Soncino's layout of the Talmud, with the original Talmud text in the center of the page, with the commentary of Rashi on the outer margins and the commentary of

Tosafot The Tosafot, Tosafos or Tosfot ( he, תוספות) are medieval commentaries on the Talmud. They take the form of critical and explanatory glosses, printed, in almost all Talmud editions, on the outer margin and opposite Rashi's notes. The auth ...

on the inner ones, was later imitated by Christian printer

Daniel Bomberg Daniel is a masculine given name and a surname of Hebrew origin. It means "God is my judge"Hanks, Hardcastle and Hodges, ''Oxford Dictionary of First Names'', Oxford University Press, 2nd edition, , p. 68. (cf. Gabriel—"God is my strength ...

, who printed the entire Talmud between the years 1519 and 1523, and by all subsequent major printings of the Talmud. Rabbi Moshe Shapiro, rabbi of Slavuta, Ukraine and owner of a printing press, published the Slavita Shas in the early 1800s. In 1886, the

Romm Publishing House The Romm publishing house was a publisher of Jewish religious literature from 1788 to 1940. It is known for its 1886 Vilna Talmud, which still serves as a definitive edition. Barukh ben Yosef Romm founded the business originally in Grodno and it c ...

in

Vilnius Vilnius ( , ; see also other names) is the capital and largest city of Lithuania, with a population of 592,389 (according to the state register) or 625,107 (according to the municipality of Vilnius). The population of Vilnius's functional u ...

published the Vilna Shas, which has since been reprinted and remains the classic print of the Talmud. In the past years, there have been numerous commentaries written on the Talmud. While the most commonly referenced commentaries are those of Rashi and Tosafot, and as mentioned, are printed in the margins of the Talmud, other famous commentaries (which often are recognized as Halakhic works as well) include the '' Piskei HaRosh'', '' Shitah Mekubetzet'', ''

Maharsha Shmuel Eidels (1555 – 1631) ( he, שמואל אליעזר הלוי איידלס Shmuel Eliezer HaLevi Eidels) was a renowned rabbi and Talmudist famous for his commentary on the Talmud, ''Chiddushei Halachot''. Eidels is also known as Maharsha ( ...

'' (the ''Piskei Halachot'' and ''Piskei Aggadot''), the '' Pnei Yehoshua'', the '' Mordechai'', the '' Chiddushia HaRitva'', the ''

Meiri Meiri is a Jewish surname and Japanese given name. Notable people with the name include: * Rabbi Menachem Meiri (1249–1315), a famous Catalan rabbi, Talmudist, Maimondean * Yehudit Kafri (Meiri) (born 1935), a 20th-century Israeli poet, writer * ...

'', the Maharshal's ''Chochmas Shlomo'' and ''Yam Shel Shlomo'', the '' Meir Einei Chachmamim'', the '' Kehillos Yaakov'', the '' Shaarei Yosher'', and the '' Birkat Shmuel'', as well as many published ''

shiurim Shiur (, , lit. ''amount'', pl. shiurim ) is a lecture on any Torah topic, such as Gemara, Mishnah, Halakha (Jewish law), Tanakh (Bible), etc. History The Hebrew term שיעור ("designated amount") came to refer to a portion of ...

'' (classes) given on the Talmud, including those of Rabbi

Nochum Partzovitz Rabbi Nochum Partzovitz (he: נחום פרצוביץ) (died November 26, 1986) was a rabbi and Rosh Yeshiva of Yeshivas Mir and is known worldwide for erudite explanations of Talmudic topics. Biography Partzovitz was born in Trakai, Poland to its ...

(''Chiddushei Reb Nochum'' and ''Shiurei Reb Nochum''), Rabbi Shmuel Rozovsky (''Shiurei Reb Shmuel'' and ''Chiddushei Reb Shmuel''), Rabbi Reuven Grozovsky (''Chiddushei Rev Reuven''), Rabbi Elchonon Wasserman (''Kovetz Shiurim'' and ''Kovetz He'aros''), Rabbi Chaim Soloveitchik (''Chiddushei HaGrach al HaShas''), Rabbi Naftoli Trop (''Chiddushei HaGranat''), and Rabbi Aryeh Leib Malin (''Chiddushei Reb Aryeh Leib'').

Kabbalah

The term

Kabbalah Kabbalah ( he, קַבָּלָה ''Qabbālā'', literally "reception, tradition") is an esoteric method, discipline and school of thought in Jewish mysticism. A traditional Kabbalist is called a Mekubbal ( ''Məqūbbāl'' "receiver"). The de ...

refers to the "hidden parts of the Torah," often described as "Jewish

metaphysics Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that studies the fundamental nature of reality, the first principles of being, identity and change, space and time, causality, necessity, and possibility. It includes questions about the nature of conscio ...

." Kabbalistic works show how every physical thing is a metaphor for a spiritual concept. The primary Kabbalistic work, the Zohar, was written by Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai, a Tanna who lived in the second century, although it was lost for many years. However, it was discovered in Spain in the thirteenth century and transcribed by hand numerous times, leading to changes between the texts. Between 1558 and 1560, it was printed in

Mantua Mantua ( ; it, Mantova ; Lombard language, Lombard and la, Mantua) is a city and ''comune'' in Lombardy, Italy, and capital of the Province of Mantua, province of the same name. In 2016, Mantua was designated as the Italian Capital of Culture ...

based on ten different manuscripts in order to glean the correct text. A separate printing took place in

Cremona Cremona (, also ; ; lmo, label= Cremunés, Cremùna; egl, Carmona) is a city and ''comune'' in northern Italy, situated in Lombardy, on the left bank of the Po river in the middle of the ''Pianura Padana'' (Po Valley). It is the capital of the ...

around the same time, using only six manuscripts, leading to differences in the two printings. The Zohar was largely expounded on by Rabbi

Yitzchak Luria Isaac ben Solomon Luria Ashkenazi (1534 Fine 2003, p24/ref> – July 25, 1572) ( he, יִצְחָק בן שלמה לוּרְיָא אשכנזי ''Yitzhak Ben Sh'lomo Lurya Ashkenazi''), commonly known in Jewish religious circles as "Ha'ARI" (mea ...

(known as the Arizal) and his teachings were summarized in the book '' Etz Chaim'' by his chief student, Rabbi Chaim Vital.

''Halakha''

Jewish law, known in Hebrew as ''

Halakha ''Halakha'' (; he, הֲלָכָה, ), also transliterated as ''halacha'', ''halakhah'', and ''halocho'' ( ), is the collective body of Jewish religious laws which is derived from the written and Oral Torah. Halakha is based on biblical comm ...

'', was transcribed first in the Mishnah and later in the Talmud, with the differing opinions spread out over sixty three tractates. However, later rabbis — namely the

Geonim ''Geonim'' ( he, גאונים; ; also Romanization of Hebrew, transliterated Gaonim, singular Gaon) were the presidents of the two great Talmudic Academies in Babylonia, Babylonian Talmudic Academies of Sura Academy , Sura and Pumbedita Academy ...

of the

Early Middle Ages The Early Middle Ages (or early medieval period), sometimes controversially referred to as the Dark Ages, is typically regarded by historians as lasting from the late 5th or early 6th century to the 10th century. They marked the start of the M ...

, the

Rishonim ''Rishonim'' (; he, ; sing. he, , ''Rishon'', "the first ones") were the leading rabbis and ''poskim'' who lived approximately during the 11th to 15th centuries, in the era before the writing of the ''Shulchan Aruch'' ( he, , "Set Table", a ...

of the High and

Late Middle Ages The Late Middle Ages or Late Medieval Period was the period of European history lasting from AD 1300 to 1500. The Late Middle Ages followed the High Middle Ages and preceded the onset of the early modern period (and in much of Europe, the Ren ...

, and the

Acharonim In Jewish law and history, ''Acharonim'' (; he, אחרונים ''Aḥaronim''; sing. , ''Aḥaron''; lit. "last ones") are the leading rabbis and poskim (Jewish legal decisors) living from roughly the 16th century to the present, and more speci ...

of modern times — wrote more conclusive works. Many of these works are responsa (''she'eilot u'teshuvot'' in Hebrew), printed questions and answers. The Geonim, the leaders of Jewry in the

Early Middle Ages The Early Middle Ages (or early medieval period), sometimes controversially referred to as the Dark Ages, is typically regarded by historians as lasting from the late 5th or early 6th century to the 10th century. They marked the start of the M ...

primarily in

Babylonia Babylonia (; Akkadian: , ''māt Akkadī'') was an ancient Akkadian-speaking state and cultural area based in the city of Babylon in central-southern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq and parts of Syria). It emerged as an Amorite-ruled state ...

, were not prolific writers like later generations. However, among their few writings is the famed ''Sheiltot D'Rav Achai'' written by Rabbi Achai Gaon. The

Rishonim ''Rishonim'' (; he, ; sing. he, , ''Rishon'', "the first ones") were the leading rabbis and ''poskim'' who lived approximately during the 11th to 15th centuries, in the era before the writing of the ''Shulchan Aruch'' ( he, , "Set Table", a ...

, the leading rabbis of the Middle Ages after the Geonim, have left many written Halakhic works, including the ''Piskei HaRosh'' of Rabbi Asher ben Yechiel and the ''Sefer HaHalakhot'' of Rabbi Yitzchak Alfasi, both of which are often published in the back of the Talmud; and the ''

Arba'ah Turim ''Arba'ah Turim'' ( he, אַרְבָּעָה טוּרִים), often called simply the ''Tur'', is an important Halakhic code composed by Yaakov ben Asher (Cologne, 1270 – Toledo, Spain c. 1340, also referred to as ''Ba'al Ha-Turim''). The f ...

'', also known as the ''Tur'', of Rabbi

Yaakov ben Asher Jacob ben Asher (c. 1269 - c. 1343), also known as Ba'al ha-Turim as well as Rabbi Yaakov ben Raash (Rabbeinu Asher), was an influential Medieval rabbi, rabbinic authority. He is often referred to as the Ba'al ha-Turim ("Master of the Columns"), ...

, a four volume work written in attempt to organize Jewish law.

Rambam

Rabbi

Moshe ben Maimon Musa ibn Maimon (1138–1204), commonly known as Maimonides (); la, Moses Maimonides and also referred to by the acronym Rambam ( he, רמב״ם), was a Sephardic Jewish philosopher who became one of the most prolific and influential Torah ...

, known as Maimonides or as the Rambam, was a Rishon who lived in Spain, Morocco, and Egypt in the second half of the twelfth century. The author of several books, his most famous is a halakhic work, ''

Mishneh Torah The ''Mishneh Torah'' ( he, מִשְׁנֵה תּוֹרָה, , repetition of the Torah), also known as ''Sefer Yad ha-Hazaka'' ( he, ספר יד החזקה, , book of the strong hand, label=none), is a code of Rabbinic Jewish religious law (''h ...

'', also known as the ''Yad HaChazakah'' or simply as the ''Rambam'', which is fourteen volumes long. Although when it was first written, ''Mishne Torah'' received much backlash from contemporary Jewish leaders, it soon became recognized by world Jewry as authentic Torah literature, with many commentaries written on it, including the '' Ohr Somayach'', '' Tzofnath Paneach'' and the writings of the

Soloveitchik dynasty The Soloveitchik dynasty of rabbinic scholars and their students originated the Brisker method of Talmudic study, which is embraced by their followers in the Brisk yeshivas. It is so called because of the Soloveitchiks' origin in the town of Bri ...

, including '' Chiddushei Rabbeinu Chaim'' by Rabbi Chaim Soloveitchik; works by his sons, ''Chiddushei HaGram HaLevi'' of Rabbi Moshe Soloveitchik and ''Chiddushei Maran Ryz HaLevi'' of Rabbi

Yitzchak Zev Soloveitchik Yitzchok Zev Halevi Soloveitchik (Hebrew: יצחק זאב הלוי סולובייצ'יק), also known as Velvel Soloveitchik ("Zev" means "wolf" in Hebrew, and "Velvel" is the diminutive of "wolf" in Yiddish) or the Brisker Rov ("rabbi of/from B ...

; and by his grandson Rabbi Meshulam Dovid Soloveitchik, titled '' Chiddushei Rabbeinu Meshulam Dovid Halevi''. A student of Rabbi Chaim Soloveitchik, Rabbi Isser Zalman Meltzer wrote his own commentary on the Rambam, titled ''Even HaEzel''.

Halakhic works of Acharonim

Likely the most monumental Halakhic work ever written, Rabbi Yoseph Karo completed the ''

Shulchan Aruch The ''Shulchan Aruch'' ( he, שֻׁלְחָן עָרוּך , literally: "Set Table"), sometimes dubbed in English as the Code of Jewish Law, is the most widely consulted of the various legal codes in Judaism. It was authored in Safed (today in I ...

'' (or ''Code of Jewish Law'', sometimes shortened to ''Codes'') in 1565 in

Safed Safed (known in Hebrew as Tzfat; Sephardic Hebrew & Modern Hebrew: צְפַת ''Tsfat'', Ashkenazi Hebrew: ''Tzfas'', Biblical Hebrew: ''Ṣǝp̄aṯ''; ar, صفد, ''Ṣafad''), is a city in the Northern District of Israel. Located at an elevat ...

. It was a condensation of his previous Halakhic work, ''

Beit Yosef A Beit (also spelled bait, ar, بيت , literally "a house") is a metrical unit of Arabic, Iranian, Urdu and Sindhi poetry. It corresponds to a line, though sometimes improperly renderered as "couplet" since each ''beit'' is divided into t ...

'', which was written as commentary on the ''Arba'ah Turim''. Like the ''Tur'', it was divided into four sections: ''

Orach Chayim Orach Chayim, (''manner/way of life'') is a section of Rabbi Jacob ben Asher's compilation of Halakha (Jewish law), Arba'ah Turim. This section addresses aspects of Jewish law pertinent to the Hebrew calendar (be it the daily, weekly, monthly, or ...

'', ''

Yoreh De'ah Yoreh De'ah ( he, יורה דעה) is a section of Rabbi Jacob ben Asher's compilation of halakha (Jewish law), Arba'ah Turim around 1300. This section treats all aspects of Jewish law not pertinent to the Hebrew calendar, finance, torts, marriage ...

'', ''

Even Ha'ezer ( “The Stone of Help” or “The Rock of the ”) is a section of Rabbi Jacob ben Asher's compilation of halakha (Jewish law), ''Arba'ah Turim''. This section treats aspects of Jewish law related to marriage, divorce, and sexual conduct. Later ...

'', and ''

Choshen Mishpat Choshen Mishpat is the Hebrew for "Breastplate of Judgement". The term is associated with one of the four sections of Rabbi Jacob ben Asher's compilation of halakha (Jewish law), Arba'ah Turim. This section treats aspects of Jewish law pertinent ...

''. The ''Mapah'', a commentary on ''Shulchan Aruch'' by Rabbi

Moshe Isserles ). He is not to be confused with Meir Abulafia, known as "Ramah" ( he, רמ״ה, italic=no, links=no), nor with Menahem Azariah da Fano, known as "Rema MiPano" ( he, רמ״ע מפאנו, italic=no, links=no). Rabbi Moses Isserles ( he, משה ...

(the Rema) is generally printed together with the ''Shulchan Aruch'' in the center of the page, albeit in a different font, with the commentaries of ''Turei Zahav'' of Rabbi David HaLevi Segal and ''Magen Avraham'' of Rabbi Avraham Gombiner or ''Siftei Kohen'' of Rabbi Shabbatai HaKohen printed in the margins. Major commentaries written on the Shulchan Aruch include the ''

Ketzos Hachoshen The Ketzos HaChoshen is the major writing by Rabbi Aryeh Leib Heller (1745–1812) on the basis of which he is known as "The Ketzos". The first printing was in Lviv Importance The Ketzos HaChoshen (Ends of the Breastplate) is a halachic work which ...

'', ''

Avnei Milu'im Aryeh Leib HaCohen Heller ( 1745 – 1812) ( he, אריה לייב בן יוסף הכהן הלר) was a Rabbi, Talmudist, and Halachist in Galicia. He was known as "the ''Ketzos''" based on his magnum opus, '' Ketzot Hachoshen'', . Biography Bo ...

'', and the '' Nesivos Hamishpat''. Many later Halakhic works were based on ''Shulchan Aruch''. These include Rabbi

Shneur Zalman of Liadi Shneur Zalman of Liadi ( he, שניאור זלמן מליאדי, September 4, 1745 – December 15, 1812 O.S. / 18 Elul 5505 – 24 Tevet 5573) was an influential Lithuanian Jewish rabbi and the founder and first Rebbe of Chabad, a branch of Ha ...

's '' Shulchan Aruch HaRav'', Rabbi

Yechiel Michel Epstein Yechiel Michel ha-Levi Epstein ( he, יחיאל מיכל הלוי אפשטיין) (24 January 1829 – 25 March 1908), often called "the ''Aruch haShulchan''" after his magnum opus, Aruch HaShulchan, was a Rabbi and ''Posek'' (authority in Je ...

's ''

Aruch HaShulchan ''Arukh HaShulchan'' (Hebrew: עָרוּךְ הַשֻּׁלְחָן r, arguably, עָרֹךְ הַשֻּׁלְחָן; see ''Title'' below is a work of halacha written by Yechiel Michel Epstein (1829–1908). The work attempts to be a clear, orga ...

'', Rabbi

Shlomo Ganzfried Shlomo Ganzfried (or ''Salomon ben Joseph Ganzfried''; 1804 in Ungvár – 30 July 1886 in Ungvár) was an Orthodox rabbi and posek best known as the author of the work of Halakha (Jewish law), the ''Kitzur Shulchan Aruch'' (Hebrew: קי ...

's '' Kitzur Shulchan Aruch'', and Rabbi Avraham Danzig's '' Chayei Adam'' and ''Chochmas Adam'' (only on ''Orach Chayim'' and ''Yoreh De'ah''). '' Mishnah Berurah'', a six-volume work expounding on ''Orach Chayim'', was published between 1884 and 1907 and is followed by most Litvishe Jews almost exclusively. Comparative Sephardic works are '' Kaf HaChaim'' and '' Yalkut Yosef''. The ''Ben Ish Hai'', by Rabbi Yosef Hayyim, is based on the sermons he delivered, and therefore includes ''halakha'' as well as Kabbalah and explanations on the Torah. Many Halakhic works of the Acharonim are responsa. These include the ''Igros Moshe'' of Rabbi

Moshe Feinstein Moshe Feinstein ( he, משה פײַנשטיין; Lithuanian pronunciation: ''Moshe Faynshteyn''; en, Moses Feinstein; March 3, 1895 – March 23, 1986) was an American Orthodox rabbi, scholar, and ''posek'' (authority on ''halakha''—Je ...

, the ''Noda B'Yehudah'' of Rabbi Yechezkel Landau, ''She'eilot U'teshuvot Rabbi Akiva Eiger'' of Rabbi

Akiva Eiger Rabbi Akiva Eiger (, also spelled Eger; , yi, עקיבא אייגער), or Akiva Güns (17611837) was an outstanding Talmudic scholar, influential halakhic decisor and foremost leader of European Jewry during the early 19th century. He was also ...

, ''Beis HaLevi'' by Rabbi

Yosef Dov Soloveitchik Yosef Dov Soloveitchik (born 1820 in Nesvizh, Minsk Governorate, Russian Empire; died May 1, 1892 in Brest-Litovsk, Grodno Governorate, Russian Empire) was the author of Beis Halevi, by which name he is better known among Talmudic scholars. He w ...

, ''Shevet HaLevi'' of Rabbi Shmuel Wosner, and ''Tzitz Eliezer'' of Rabbi Eliezer Waldenberg. Another notable Halakhic work is the '' Chofetz Chaim'', dealing with the laws of proper speech, and written by Rabbi

Yisrael Meir Kagan Rabbi Yisrael Meir ha-Kohen Kagan (January 26, 1838 – September 15, 1933), known popularly as the Chofetz Chaim, after his book on lashon hara, who was also well known for the Mishna Berurah, his book on ritual law, was an influential Lit ...

.

Hasidism

Also known as ''chasidus'',

Hasidism Hasidism, sometimes spelled Chassidism, and also known as Hasidic Judaism ( Ashkenazi Hebrew: חסידות ''Ḥăsīdus'', ; originally, "piety"), is a Jewish religious group that arose as a spiritual revival movement in the territory of cont ...

is an Orthodox Jewish movement originating in Eastern Europe in the mid-eighteenth century, founded by the

Baal Shem Tov Israel ben Eliezer (1698 – 22 May 1760), known as the Baal Shem Tov ( he, בעל שם טוב, ) or as the Besht, was a Jewish mystic and healer who is regarded as the founder of Hasidic Judaism. "Besht" is the acronym for Baal Shem Tov, which ...

. Describing Hasidic thought, Rabbi

Aryeh Kaplan Aryeh Moshe Eliyahu Kaplan ( he, אריה משה אליהו קפלן; October 23, 1934 – January 28, 1983) was an American Orthodox rabbi, author, and translator, best known for his Living Torah edition of the Torah. He became well known as ...

writes: The first Hasidic book to be published, ''Toldot Yaakov Yosef'' by Rabbi Yaakov Yosef of Pollonye and interlaced with quotations from the Baal Shem Tov, was published in 1780. Later Hasidic works include ''Noam Elimelech'' by Rabbi

Elimelech of Lizensk Elimelech Weisblum of Lizhensk (1717–March 11, 1787) was a rabbi and one of the great founding Rebbes of the Hasidic movement. He was known after his hometown, Leżajsk ( yi, ליזשענסק, translit=Lizhensk) near Rzeszów in Poland. He wa ...

, ''Bnei Yissaschar'' by Rabbi

Tzvi Elimelech Spira Tzvi Elimelech Spira of Dinov (1783–January 11, 1841) was a famous Hasidic Rebbe in Poland. A prolific writer, known as the author of ''Bnei Yissachar'', a classic Hasidic text containing conversations about the Torah. He is also the auth ...

, ''Kedushat Levi'' by Rabbi Levi Yitzchok of Berditchev, and '' Tanya'' by Rabbi

Shneur Zalman of Liadi Shneur Zalman of Liadi ( he, שניאור זלמן מליאדי, September 4, 1745 – December 15, 1812 O.S. / 18 Elul 5505 – 24 Tevet 5573) was an influential Lithuanian Jewish rabbi and the founder and first Rebbe of Chabad, a branch of Ha ...

.

Musar

While the study of musar (spiritual and interpersonal self-improvement) always existed in Jewish circles, it became more widespread with the start of Musar movement in the nineteenth century. The classic musar library of '' Shaarei Teshuvah'', '' Chovot HaLevavot'', '' Maalot HaMiddot'', ''

Orchot Tzaddikim ''Orchot Tzaddikim'' (Hebrew: ארחות צדיקים) is a book on Jewish ethics written in Germany in the 15th century, entitled ''Sefer ha-Middot'' by the author, but called ''Orḥot Ẓaddiḳim'' by a later copyist. Under this title a Yiddish ...

'', '' Mesillat Yesharim'', and ''

Derech Hashem ''Derech HaShem'' (The "Way of the Name") is a philosophical text written in the early 1740s by Rabbi Moshe Chaim Luzzatto. It is considered one of the quintessential handbooks of Jewish thought. The text covers a vast gamut of philosophical to ...

'' was later expanded with the writings of rabbis and mashgiachs after the Musar movement began. Later works include Rabbi Yisrael Salanter's ''Or Yisrael'', Rabbi Simcha Zissel Ziv's ''Chochmah U'Mussar'', Rabbi Yosef Yozel Horowitz's ''Madreigas HaAdam'', Rabbi Eliyahu Dessler's ''Michtav MeEliyahu'', Rabbi Yeruchom Levovitz's ''Daas Chochmah U'Mussar'' and ''Daas Torah'', Rabbi

Chaim Shmuelevitz Chaim Leib Halevi Shmuelevitz, ( he, חיים לייב שמואלביץ ;1902–1979) — also spelled Shmulevitz — was a member of the faculty of the Mirrer Yeshiva for more than 40 years, in Poland, Shanghai and Jerusalem, serving as Rosh ...

's ''Sichos Musar'', and Rabbi

Shlomo Wolbe Rabbi Shlomo Wolbe (August Wilhelm, 1914 - April 25, 2005) was a Haredi rabbi born in Berlin in the early part of the twentieth century. He is best known as the author of ''Alei Shur'' ( he, עלי שור), a musar classic discussing dimensiona ...

's ''Alei Shur''.

Explanatory notes

References

Citations

General bibliography

* * * {{Authority control Hebrew-language literature Hebrew words and phrases Orthodox Judaism

Terms

Commentaries

Other texts in ancient times

Works of ''Chazal''

Mishnah

Talmud

Kabbalah

''Halakha''

Rambam

Halakhic works of Acharonim

Hasidism

Musar

See also

Explanatory notes

References

Citations

General bibliography