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Galičica (, ) is a mountain situated across the border between
North Macedonia North Macedonia, officially the Republic of North Macedonia, is a landlocked country in Southeast Europe. It shares land borders with Greece to the south, Albania to the west, Bulgaria to the east, Kosovo to the northwest and Serbia to the n ...
and
Albania Albania ( ; or ), officially the Republic of Albania (), is a country in Southeast Europe. It is located in the Balkans, on the Adriatic Sea, Adriatic and Ionian Seas within the Mediterranean Sea, and shares land borders with Montenegro to ...
. North Macedonia's side of the mountain is designated as a
national park A national park is a nature park designated for conservation (ethic), conservation purposes because of unparalleled national natural, historic, or cultural significance. It is an area of natural, semi-natural, or developed land that is protecte ...
, positioned between the country's two largest lakes:
Lake Ohrid Lake Ohrid is a lake which straddles the mountainous border between the southwestern part of North Macedonia and eastern Albania. It is one of Europe's deepest and oldest lakes, with a unique aquatic ecosystem of worldwide importance, with more th ...
and
Lake Prespa The Lake Prespa is located on the tripoint of North Macedonia, Albania and Greece. It is a system of two lakes separated by an isthmus: the Great Prespa Lake, divided between the three countries, and the Little Prespa Lake, mostly within Greec ...
, covering an area of . Rising to 2,265 metres above sea level, the mountain features varied terrain with steep slopes and significant elevational differences, creating diverse ecological zones dominated by forests and pastures. Since the 1950s, the landscape has undergone notable transformations, with forested areas increasing from 40% to 58% by 2007, while pasturelands decreased from 50% to 24% due to changing human activities. The mountain harbours exceptional
biodiversity Biodiversity is the variability of life, life on Earth. It can be measured on various levels. There is for example genetic variability, species diversity, ecosystem diversity and Phylogenetics, phylogenetic diversity. Diversity is not distribut ...
, with 180 woody plant taxa (56% of North Macedonia's dendroflora) and distinctive
grassland A grassland is an area where the vegetation is dominance (ecology), dominated by grasses (Poaceae). However, sedge (Cyperaceae) and rush (Juncaceae) can also be found along with variable proportions of legumes such as clover, and other Herbaceo ...
communities that support numerous rare and
endemic Endemism is the state of a species being found only in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also foun ...
species. Human influence varies across the mountain, with Lake Ohrid shoreline settlements transitioning from
agriculture Agriculture encompasses crop and livestock production, aquaculture, and forestry for food and non-food products. Agriculture was a key factor in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created ...
to
tourism Tourism is travel for pleasure, and the Commerce, commercial activity of providing and supporting such travel. World Tourism Organization, UN Tourism defines tourism more generally, in terms which go "beyond the common perception of tourism as ...
, while Prespa-side communities have experienced population decline and land abandonment. Galičica's unique position between two major lakes, its
limestone Limestone is a type of carbonate rock, carbonate sedimentary rock which is the main source of the material Lime (material), lime. It is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different Polymorphism (materials science) ...
geology, and modified
Mediterranean climate A Mediterranean climate ( ), also called a dry summer climate, described by Köppen and Trewartha as ''Cs'', is a temperate climate type that occurs in the lower mid-latitudes (normally 30 to 44 north and south latitude). Such climates typic ...
have allowed it to function as a refugial area during
glacial period A glacial period (alternatively glacial or glaciation) is an interval of time (thousands of years) within an ice age that is marked by colder temperatures and glacier advances. Interglacials, on the other hand, are periods of warmer climate betw ...
s, contributing to its current biological richness and its role as an important biogeographical boundary for several plant species.


Geography and characteristics

The mountain features varied terrain with relatively steep slopes and considerable elevational differences. These natural characteristics have led to the development of diverse
vegetation Vegetation is an assemblage of plants and the ground cover they provide. It is a general term, without specific reference to particular Taxon, taxa, life forms, structure, Spatial ecology, spatial extent, or any other specific Botany, botanic ...
zones, primarily dominated by
forest A forest is an ecosystem characterized by a dense ecological community, community of trees. Hundreds of definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, ...
s and
pasture Pasture (from the Latin ''pastus'', past participle of ''pascere'', "to feed") is land used for grazing. Types of pasture Pasture lands in the narrow sense are enclosed tracts of farmland, grazed by domesticated livestock, such as horses, c ...
s. The region's geological composition, climate,
hydrological Hydrology () is the scientific study of the movement, distribution, and management of water on Earth and other planets, including the water cycle, water resources, and drainage basin sustainability. A practitioner of hydrology is called a hydro ...
conditions, and soil composition have all influenced the evolution of its distinctive
flora Flora (: floras or florae) is all the plant life present in a particular region or time, generally the naturally occurring (indigenous (ecology), indigenous) native plant, native plants. The corresponding term for animals is ''fauna'', and for f ...
. Only a small portion of the land has been adapted for agricultural cultivation by humans, with the majority remaining as natural forest and pasture landscapes. There are roughly 23 populated areas on the mountain, with around 10,000 inhabitants. Out of the 38,000 hectares of land, about 6,000 hectares have historically been used for agricultural purposes, primarily as fields and
orchard An orchard is an intentional plantation of trees or shrubs that is maintained for food production. Orchards comprise fruit tree, fruit- or nut (fruit), nut-producing trees that are generally grown for commercial production. Orchards are also so ...
s. Galičica Mountain reaches 2,265 metres above sea level, with its highest zones concentrated in the southern portion known as Stara Galičica (Old Galičica). Research conducted in the 1990s identified two glacial
cirque A (; from the Latin word ) is an amphitheatre-like valley formed by Glacier#Erosion, glacial erosion. Alternative names for this landform are corrie (from , meaning a pot or cauldron) and ; ). A cirque may also be a similarly shaped landform a ...
s in this area: an upper one with its floor at 2,030–2,070 metres and a lower one at 1,850–1,900 metres. The true natural
tree line The tree line is the edge of a habitat at which trees are capable of growing and beyond which they are not. It is found at high elevations and high latitudes. Beyond the tree line, trees cannot tolerate the environmental conditions (usually low ...
on the mountain has been significantly altered by human activity, having been artificially lowered by about 500 metres. Evidence for this includes isolated pine trees ('' Pinus peuce'') found at elevations up to 2,150 metres near the Magaro peak (2,254 m), while the current forest line averages around 1,600 metres, reaching its highest point of 1,880 metres on the northern slopes. The high-mountain region of Galičica shows distinct asymmetry in its ecological characteristics between different slope aspects. Periglacial landforms, which are characteristic features of high mountain environments, appear at different elevations depending on aspect: sliding blocks occur down to 1,850 meters on the northwestern slopes, while grass terraces extend to 1,900 meters on the northeastern slopes. These variations reflect the influence of local factors such as exposure to moist air masses, differences in precipitation received by various mountain sides, and thermal conditions created by different slope aspects. Together with the first high-mountain zone primarily covered by extensive
grassland A grassland is an area where the vegetation is dominance (ecology), dominated by grasses (Poaceae). However, sedge (Cyperaceae) and rush (Juncaceae) can also be found along with variable proportions of legumes such as clover, and other Herbaceo ...
s, these features define Galičica's unique alpine character.


Land use changes and transformations

Major transformations in land use on Galičica Mountain have been documented between the 1950s and 2007. These changes reflect both natural
succession Succession is the act or process of following in order or sequence. Governance and politics *Order of succession, in politics, the ascension to power by one ruler, official, or monarch after the death, resignation, or removal from office of ...
processes and anthropogenic influences. One of the most distinct changes has been the increase in forested areas, which expanded from about 40% of the total land area in the 1950s to 58% by 2007. This growth primarily resulted from natural succession, particularly as
shrubland Shrubland, scrubland, scrub, brush, or bush is a plant community characterized by vegetation dominance (ecology), dominated by shrubs, often also including grasses, herbaceous plant, herbs, and geophytes. Shrubland may either occur naturally o ...
matured into forest. Conversely, pasturelands have significantly decreased from 50% of the total area in the 1950s to just 24% by 2007. This reduction correlates with the abandonment of traditional cattle breeding practices as local economies shifted toward
tourism Tourism is travel for pleasure, and the Commerce, commercial activity of providing and supporting such travel. World Tourism Organization, UN Tourism defines tourism more generally, in terms which go "beyond the common perception of tourism as ...
and
service industries Service industries are those not directly concerned with the production of physical goods (such as agriculture and manufacturing). Some service industries, including transportation, wholesale trade and retail trade are part of the supply chai ...
. Areas covered by short-stemmed vegetation and shrubs decreased from 14% in the 1970s to 5% in 2007, primarily due to their succession into forested areas as part of natural ecological progression.


Human impact and regional differences

The human influence on Galičica's landscape varies geographically and has changed over time. Settlements along the
Lake Ohrid Lake Ohrid is a lake which straddles the mountainous border between the southwestern part of North Macedonia and eastern Albania. It is one of Europe's deepest and oldest lakes, with a unique aquatic ecosystem of worldwide importance, with more th ...
shoreline—including Konjsko, Peštani,
Trpejca Trpejca ( ) is a village at the foot of the Galičica, Galičica Mountain and along the shore of the Lake Ohrid in North Macedonia. Traditionally a fishing village, it has recently become an upscale vacation spot relying heavily on tourism during t ...
, and Ljubaništa—have experienced population growth but decreasing agricultural land use. These communities have largely transitioned from agricultural activities to tourism, trade, and other service industries. Even as their populations increased, their arable lands were transformed into non-agricultural uses such as housing, buildings, yards, religious structures, and cemeteries. In contrast, settlements on the Prespa side of the mountain, such as Oteševo, Leskoec, Petrino, Preljubje, and Stipona, have undergone significant population decline due to migration to urban areas and abroad. This
demographic Demography () is the statistics, statistical study of human populations: their size, composition (e.g., ethnic group, age), and how they change through the interplay of fertility (births), mortality (deaths), and migration. Demographic analy ...
shift has led to the abandonment of arable fields, which gradually transform through natural succession. Overall, human pressure on the landscape has increased in the coastal areas of both lakes while significantly decreasing in the mountain interior, where human presence is now primarily limited to recreational and tourist visits.


Factors and causes of land transformation

The transformation of Galičica's landscape has been driven by a complex interplay of social, economic, and natural factors. The declaration of Galičica as a national park, changing patterns of physical planning,
urbanisation Urbanization (or urbanisation in British English) is the population shift from rural to urban areas, the corresponding decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas, and the ways in which societies adapt to this change. It can also ...
,
industrialisation Industrialisation ( UK) or industrialization ( US) is the period of social and economic change that transforms a human group from an agrarian society into an industrial society. This involves an extensive reorganisation of an economy for th ...
, and
infrastructure Infrastructure is the set of facilities and systems that serve a country, city, or other area, and encompasses the services and facilities necessary for its economy, households and firms to function. Infrastructure is composed of public and pri ...
development have all contributed to altering land use. Cultural and educational changes, historical settlement patterns, and the functional organisation of territories have further influenced these transformations. Economically, the shift from primary agricultural activities toward secondary and tertiary sectors has been particularly influential, along with changes in energy use and traditional farming practices. These social and economic changes have coincided with natural processes, especially the succession of vegetation communities whereby abandoned agricultural lands and pastures gradually develop into shrublands and eventually forests. Climate factors on both local and global scales have also played a role in these transformations. Research on these changes has been conducted using
topographic map In modern mapping, a topographic map or topographic sheet is a type of map characterized by large- scale detail and quantitative representation of relief features, usually using contour lines (connecting points of equal elevation), but histori ...
s from the 1950s and 1970s, compared with Google satellite imagery from 2007, all analysed using
Geographic Information System A geographic information system (GIS) consists of integrated computer hardware and Geographic information system software, software that store, manage, Spatial analysis, analyze, edit, output, and Cartographic design, visualize Geographic data ...
(GIS) technology.


Biodiversity

Galičica Mountain is characterized by considerable
biological diversity Biodiversity is the variability of life on Earth. It can be measured on various levels. There is for example genetic variability, species diversity, ecosystem diversity and phylogenetic diversity. Diversity is not distributed evenly on Eart ...
, with its dry grasslands serving as a crucial habitat for many rare and endangered plant species. Research conducted between 2009–2010 identified a distinctive grassland community called ''Siderito montanae''-''Trifolietum dalmaticae'', which flourishes on the
carbonate A carbonate is a salt of carbonic acid, (), characterized by the presence of the carbonate ion, a polyatomic ion with the formula . The word "carbonate" may also refer to a carbonate ester, an organic compound containing the carbonate group ...
substrate on both the Ohrid and Prespa sides of the mountain. These grassland ecosystems developed as secondary formations following the degradation of original forest vegetation through
grazing In agriculture, grazing is a method of animal husbandry whereby domestic livestock are allowed outdoors to free range (roam around) and consume wild vegetations in order to feed conversion ratio, convert the otherwise indigestible (by human diges ...
, burning, and other human activities in the
oak An oak is a hardwood tree or shrub in the genus ''Quercus'' of the beech family. They have spirally arranged leaves, often with lobed edges, and a nut called an acorn, borne within a cup. The genus is widely distributed in the Northern Hemisp ...
and lower
beech Beech (genus ''Fagus'') is a genus of deciduous trees in the family Fagaceae, native to subtropical (accessory forest element) and temperate (as dominant element of Mesophyte, mesophytic forests) Eurasia and North America. There are 14 accepted ...
forest zones at elevations of 700–1200 metres. The floristic composition of Galičica's dry grasslands reflects the influence of the modified Mediterranean climate that characterizes the region. Analysis reveals a rich phytogeographic structure with Eurimediterranean floral elements (35%) dominating, followed by Eurasian (28%) and Balkan (17%) elements. Several rare
endemic Endemism is the state of a species being found only in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also foun ...
plants grow in these habitats, including '' Erodium guicciardii'', which was first discovered in Macedonia on Galičica Mountain, and is found alongside other species like '' Minuartia glomerata'' subsp. ''macedonica'', '' Centaurea grisebachii'', and '' Verbascum longifolium'' subsp. ''pannosum''. The mountain's position between two major lakes, its
limestone Limestone is a type of carbonate rock, carbonate sedimentary rock which is the main source of the material Lime (material), lime. It is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different Polymorphism (materials science) ...
geology, and its mild pleasant climate allowed it to function as a refugial area during glacial periods, contributing to its current exceptional biodiversity. Galičica Mountain harbors an exceptionally rich dendroflora (woody plants), with research conducted between 1995 and 2018 documenting 180 different tree and woody plant taxa, representing 56% of North Macedonia's entire dendroflora. This diversity includes trees (42.2%), shrubs (34.5%), half-shrubs (14%),
liana A liana is a long-Plant stem, stemmed Woody plant, woody vine that is rooted in the soil at ground level and uses trees, as well as other means of vertical support, to climb up to the Canopy (biology), canopy in search of direct sunlight. T ...
s (7.7%), and semiparasitic epiphytes (1.6%). The mountain's unique position between Lakes Ohrid and Prespa, its limestone geology, and the influence of modified
Mediterranean climate A Mediterranean climate ( ), also called a dry summer climate, described by Köppen and Trewartha as ''Cs'', is a temperate climate type that occurs in the lower mid-latitudes (normally 30 to 44 north and south latitude). Such climates typic ...
have created ideal conditions for numerous rare and endemic species. Particularly noteworthy is the Balkan and sub-Balkan endemic floristic element, comprising 23 species (12.8%) of the mountain's woody plants. Several rare species can be found only on Galičica or at most one or two other mountains in Macedonia, including '' Prunus prostrata'', '' Genista radiata'', '' Pinus heldreichii'', '' Euphorbia veneta'', and ''
Aesculus hippocastanum ''Aesculus hippocastanum'', the horse chestnut, is a species of flowering plant in the maple, Sapindus, soapberry and lychee family Sapindaceae. It is a large, deciduous, synoecious (hermaphroditic-flowered) tree. It is also called horse-chestnu ...
''. The mountain also serves as an important biogeographical boundary for several species, marking the southernmost distribution limit for some (like '' Juniperus sabina'' and ''Pinus peuce'') and the northernmost limit for others (such as '' Acantholimon ulicinum'' and '' Prunus prostrata'').


Gallery

File:Panorama View of Ohrid and Prespa Lakes from top of Galicica (2).jpg , View of
Ohrid Lake Lake Ohrid is a lake which straddles the mountainous border between the southwestern part of North Macedonia and eastern Albania. It is one of Europe's deepest and oldest lakes, with a unique aquatic ecosystem of worldwide importance, with more th ...
and Prespa Lake from top of Galičica File:Galicica ohrid lake.jpg, View from Galičica on the south part of
Ohrid lake Lake Ohrid is a lake which straddles the mountainous border between the southwestern part of North Macedonia and eastern Albania. It is one of Europe's deepest and oldest lakes, with a unique aquatic ecosystem of worldwide importance, with more th ...
File:Galicica.jpg, Road pass through Galičica File:Galicica ko.jpg, View from Galičica on the north part of
Ohrid lake Lake Ohrid is a lake which straddles the mountainous border between the southwestern part of North Macedonia and eastern Albania. It is one of Europe's deepest and oldest lakes, with a unique aquatic ecosystem of worldwide importance, with more th ...
File:Galicica to ohrid.jpg, View from Galičica on
Ohrid Ohrid ( ) is a city in North Macedonia and is the seat of the Ohrid Municipality. It is the largest city on Lake Ohrid and the eighth-largest city in the country, with the municipality recording a population of over 42,000 inhabitants as of ...
town File:Galicica inside.jpg, The interior of mountain Galičica File:Galicica to south.jpg, View from Galičica on the south part of
Ohrid lake Lake Ohrid is a lake which straddles the mountainous border between the southwestern part of North Macedonia and eastern Albania. It is one of Europe's deepest and oldest lakes, with a unique aquatic ecosystem of worldwide importance, with more th ...
File:Galicica Magaro.jpg, Highest peak, Magaro (2255 m) File:Galicica to trpejca.jpg, View from Galičica on the village of Trpejca File:Galicica to east coast.jpg, View from Galičica on the east coast of
Ohrid lake Lake Ohrid is a lake which straddles the mountainous border between the southwestern part of North Macedonia and eastern Albania. It is one of Europe's deepest and oldest lakes, with a unique aquatic ecosystem of worldwide importance, with more th ...
File:Galicica-viewfromKorita.JPG, View from Korita File:Galicica higest peak, Magaro 2255m.jpg , Magaro Peak, 2255 m


See also

* Mali i Thatë


External links


National Park of Galicica


References

{{DEFAULTSORT:Galicica National parks of North Macedonia Ohrid Municipality Resen Municipality Albania–North Macedonia border International mountains of Europe Two-thousanders of North Macedonia