County A county () is a geographic region of a country used for administrative or other purposesL. Brookes (ed.) '' Chambers Dictionary''. Edinburgh: Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltd, 2005. in some nations. The term is derived from the Old French denoti ...

Kingdom of France The Kingdom of France is the historiographical name or umbrella term given to various political entities of France in the Middle Ages, medieval and Early modern France, early modern period. It was one of the most powerful states in Europe from th ...

vassal A vassal or liege subject is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. While the subordinate party is called a vassal, the dominant party is called a suzerain ...

Carolingian Empire The Carolingian Empire (800–887) was a Franks, Frankish-dominated empire in Western and Central Europe during the Early Middle Ages. It was ruled by the Carolingian dynasty, which had ruled as List of Frankish kings, kings of the Franks since ...

Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire, also known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation after 1512, was a polity in Central and Western Europe, usually headed by the Holy Roman Emperor. It developed in the Early Middle Ages, and lasted for a millennium ...

fief A fief (; ) was a central element in medieval contracts based on feudal law. It consisted of a form of property holding or other rights granted by an overlord to a vassal, who held it in fealty or "in fee" in return for a form of feudal alle ...

Rhône The Rhône ( , ; Occitan language, Occitan: ''Ròse''; Franco-Provençal, Arpitan: ''Rôno'') is a major river in France and Switzerland, rising in the Alps and flowing west and south through Lake Geneva and Southeastern France before dischargi ...

Nice Nice ( ; ) is a city in and the prefecture of the Alpes-Maritimes department in France. The Nice agglomeration extends far beyond the administrative city limits, with a population of nearly one millionEmbrun to the

Vivarais Vivarais (; ; {{cite web , url=http://www.columbia.edu/acis/ets/Graesse/orblatv.html , title = ORBIS LATINUS - Letter V) is a traditional region in the south-east of France, covering the ''département'' of Ardèche, named after its capital Vivier ...

, passing through the . To the north, its boundaries extended as far as Valence. The county was annexed to France in 1487, and the king assumed the title "

Count of Provence The asterisk ( ), from Late Latin , from Ancient Greek , , "little star", is a Typography, typographical symbol. It is so called because it resembles a conventional image of a star (heraldry), heraldic star. Computer scientists and Mathematici ...

, , and adjacent lands," while appointing Palamède de Forbin as Grand Seneschal,

Governor A governor is an politician, administrative leader and head of a polity or Region#Political regions, political region, in some cases, such as governor-general, governors-general, as the head of a state's official representative. Depending on the ...

, and Lieutenant General of Provence. Provence retained its privileges, franchises, and freedoms. In terms of taxation, Provence was a '' pays de taille réelle'' (a land-tax-paying region); the don gratuit, the principal

direct tax Although the actual definitions vary between jurisdictions, in general, a direct tax is a tax imposed upon a person or property as distinct from a tax imposed upon a transaction, which is described as an indirect tax. There is a distinction betwee ...

, was levied on property, except “noble property.” Regarding the salt tax ( gabelle), Provence was a ''pays de petite gabelle'' (small salt-tax region); salt was sold through five salt warehouses (in Berre,

Toulon Toulon (, , ; , , ) is a city in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of southeastern France. Located on the French Riviera and the historical Provence, it is the prefecture of the Var (department), Var department. The Commune of Toulon h ...

, Hyères, Fréjus, and

Cannes Cannes (, ; , ; ) is a city located on the French Riviera. It is a communes of France, commune located in the Alpes-Maritimes departments of France, department, and host city of the annual Cannes Film Festival, Midem, and Cannes Lions Internatio ...

), along with additional storage depots. The political structure of the County was reformed into departments in 1790, with legislative institutions transferred to the new capital, Paris. These events triggered federalist movements, which were repressed by the Convention’s centralist armies. During this time,

Toulon Toulon (, , ; , , ) is a city in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of southeastern France. Located on the French Riviera and the historical Provence, it is the prefecture of the Var (department), Var department. The Commune of Toulon h ...

and

Marseille Marseille (; ; see #Name, below) is a city in southern France, the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Departments of France, department of Bouches-du-Rhône and of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Regions of France, region. Situated in the ...

were renamed Port-la-Montagne and La Ville-sans-nom (“The City Without a Name”), respectively.

Toponymy

The term “County of Provence” is attested as early as 1059. It derives from the title “Count of Provence,” which had been recorded since 972 and became more commonly used from the 1020s–1030s onward. Provence owes its name to Roman times: it was the first region of Transalpine Gaul conquered between 58 and 51 BCE, and it became part of the

Roman province The Roman provinces (, pl. ) were the administrative regions of Ancient Rome outside Roman Italy that were controlled by the Romans under the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire. Each province was ruled by a Roman appointed as Roman g ...

(''Provincia'' in Latin), with Narbonne as its capital—thus the name Gallia Narbonensis. The

Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...

''Provincia'' gave rise to the Provençal form ''Proensa'', which evolved into ''Provensa'', then ''Prouvença'' (in Provençal dictionary), and eventually Prouvenço under French influence in Provençal orthography. The spelling ''Prouvènço'' was standardized by followers of Roumanille and the phonetic writing system known as mistralian or “modern.” Classicists later proposed returning to a more original form, ''Provensa'', which appeared on several early 20th-century maps. However, the medieval form ''Provença'' was chosen, as it included the letter ç representing the etymological c of provincia. In '' The Gallic Wars'', Caesar mentions passing from ''Provincia to Narbonnensis'' when crossing the Rhône, which likely explains why only the part of former Narbonese Gaul east of the Rhône came to be known as Provence.

Geography

Borders

Historically, after the fall of the

Roman Empire The Roman Empire ruled the Mediterranean and much of Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. The Roman people, Romans conquered most of this during the Roman Republic, Republic, and it was ruled by emperors following Octavian's assumption of ...

, “Provence” referred to the territory incorporated into the Frankish Kingdom in 536 and which became the Marquisate of Provence under the Kingdom of Burgundy-Provence in 947. It later became the County of Provence, with Arles, then

Aix-en-Provence Aix-en-Provence, or simply Aix, is a List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, city and Communes of France, commune in southern France, about north of Marseille. A former capital of Provence, it is the Subprefectures in France, s ...

as its capitals (Arles suffering frequent attacks from the Count of Toulouse, Marquis of Provence). The borders fluctuated: in 1125, a treaty between Raymond Berenger and Alphonse Jourdain of Toulouse divided Provence. The County of Provence was tied to the Crown of Aragon until the Treaty of Meaux-Paris (1229). In 1388, after Queen Joanna’s death, her territories east of the Var were lost and ceded to the States of Savoy in what became known as the , initially forming the Terres Neuves de Provence and later the County of Nice from 1526. A century later, in 1481, the County of Provence passed by succession to King Louis XI of France and thus became a French province. In the

Middle Ages In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and ...

, Provence included the southern Alps up to the left-bank tributaries of the Var. Parts of the Alpine regions were later separated: in the north, incorporated into the

Dauphiné The Dauphiné ( , , ; or ; or ), formerly known in English as Dauphiny, is a former province in southeastern France, whose area roughly corresponded to that of the present departments of Isère, Drôme and Hautes-Alpes. The Dauphiné was ...

province, and in the east, the Pays NiçoisThe County of Nice belongs to Provence, not only as an administrative entity but also geographically and historically, since it was part of Provence when the region was incorporated in 536 into the Frankish Kingdom, and it remained so until 1388. (County of Nice) was granted to the

House of Savoy The House of Savoy (, ) is a royal house (formally a dynasty) of Franco-Italian origin that was established in 1003 in the historical region of Savoy, which was originally part of the Kingdom of Burgundy and now lies mostly within southeastern F ...

in 1388 under the name ''Terres Neuves de Provence''. This Savoyard acquisition, at Provence’s expense, led to the creation of the County of Nice from 1526 to 1860. During the French Revolution, Provence was divided into three departments: Basses-Alpes (renamed

Alpes-de-Haute-Provence Alpes-de-Haute-Provence (sometimes abbreviated as AHP; ; ; ), formerly until 1970 known as Basses-Alpes (, ), is a department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of France, bordering Alpes-Maritimes and Italy to the east, Var to the sou ...

in 1970), Bouches-du-Rhône, and Var. The department of Vaucluse was created in 1793 from Avignon, the

Comtat Venaissin The (; ; 'County of Venaissin'), often called the for short, was a part of the Papal States from 1274 to 1791, in what is now the region of Southern France. The region was an enclave within the Kingdom of France, comprising the area aroun ...

, and the northern part of Bouches-du-Rhône. The

Alpes-Maritimes Alpes-Maritimes (; ; ; ) is a Departments of France, department of France located in the country's southeast corner, on the France–Italy border, Italian border and Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean coast. Part of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'A ...

were created in 1860 from the County of Nice and the eastern part of Var ( Grasse district). The southern part of

Drôme Drôme (; Occitan: ''Droma''; Arpitan: ''Drôma'') is the southernmost department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region of Southeastern France. Named after the river Drôme, it had a population of 516,762 as of 2019.

, though historically part of the

Dauphiné The Dauphiné ( , , ; or ; or ), formerly known in English as Dauphiny, is a former province in southeastern France, whose area roughly corresponded to that of the present departments of Isère, Drôme and Hautes-Alpes. The Dauphiné was ...

, is known as Drôme provençale. It is culturally close to Provence due to language, the fact that the bishopric of Saint-Paul-Trois-Châteaux belonged to the metropolitan province of Provence (Archbishopric of Arles), the region of Bouchet was part of the Comtat Venaissin (Upper Comtat), and because Diois and Valentinois were vassals of the Marquis of Provence. Over time, some authentically Provençal enclaves persisted in southern Drôme provençale, such as the County of Grignan (including the neighboring villages of Réauville, Montjoyer, Salles, Colonzelle, Allan), the Provençal enclave of Lemps (written Lens in the 18th century), and the enclaves of Saint-May, Rémuzat, Cornillon, Pommerol, and Eygalayes. All these villages identify with Provence and have legitimate historical claims to that heritage. Carte_de_la_Provence

Relief

The relief of Provence is generally hilly, with impressive Prealps in the central part and, to the east and northeast, the Southern Alps, which reach their highest point at 3,412 meters at the Aiguille de Chambeyron (

Alpes-de-Haute-Provence Alpes-de-Haute-Provence (sometimes abbreviated as AHP; ; ; ), formerly until 1970 known as Basses-Alpes (, ), is a department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of France, bordering Alpes-Maritimes and Italy to the east, Var to the sou ...

). Further south lies the Pelat massif, rising to 3,050 meters. On either side of the Var River, as well as east of the Verdon River, the Castellane Prealps, which peak at at 1,996 meters, are composed of plateaus and mountain ranges oriented west to east. The High Provence Plains (Plans de Haute-Provence) separate the Prealps from the central hills (, Canjuers Plain, ). To the west, the Mont Ventoux massif, mostly located in the

Comtat Venaissin The (; ; 'County of Venaissin'), often called the for short, was a part of the Papal States from 1274 to 1791, in what is now the region of Southern France. The region was an enclave within the Kingdom of France, comprising the area aroun ...

, extends into Provence, where it reaches an altitude of 1,600 meters in the Sault National Forest. The Sainte-Victoire Mountain, famous for Cézanne’s paintings, dominates the Aix region (Pays d’Aix). In the Bouches-du-Rhône department, the Alpilles are notable, while in Vaucluse, at the edge of the

Comtat Venaissin The (; ; 'County of Venaissin'), often called the for short, was a part of the Papal States from 1274 to 1791, in what is now the region of Southern France. The region was an enclave within the Kingdom of France, comprising the area aroun ...

, stands the Petit Luberon, Provençal in its eastern part, followed by the Grand Luberon, which reaches its highest point at . Lastly, the Sainte-Baume massif stretches from west to east, from Gémenos (Bouches-du-Rhône) to Mazaugues (Var). The coastlines from

Marseille Marseille (; ; see #Name, below) is a city in southern France, the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Departments of France, department of Bouches-du-Rhône and of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Regions of France, region. Situated in the ...

to

Menton Menton (; in classical norm or in Mistralian norm, , ; ; or depending on the orthography) is a Commune in France, commune in the Alpes-Maritimes department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region on the French Riviera, close to the Italia ...

are rather rugged ( Calanques, Maures, Esterel, French Riviera). Erosion caused by violent summer storms can create deeply carved ravines. The western part of the region is marked by the Crau Plain and the Camargue, formed by the

Rhône The Rhône ( , ; Occitan language, Occitan: ''Ròse''; Franco-Provençal, Arpitan: ''Rôno'') is a major river in France and Switzerland, rising in the Alps and flowing west and south through Lake Geneva and Southeastern France before dischargi ...

Delta, which are the only truly flat areas in the Provençal region. File:Barcelonnette-hiver.jpg, Barcelonnette File:Moustiers_Ste_Marie_Provence_France.jpg, Moustiers-Sainte-Marie, in the

Alpes-de-Haute-Provence Alpes-de-Haute-Provence (sometimes abbreviated as AHP; ; ; ), formerly until 1970 known as Basses-Alpes (, ), is a department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of France, bordering Alpes-Maritimes and Italy to the east, Var to the sou ...

File:Calanques_Marseille_Cassis_10.JPG, Calanque de l'Oule in Marseille File:Vallon_de_Mollières_2004_07.jpg, Vallon de Mollières, Mercantour National Park in the

Alpes-Maritimes Alpes-Maritimes (; ; ; ) is a Departments of France, department of France located in the country's southeast corner, on the France–Italy border, Italian border and Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean coast. Part of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'A ...

Hydrography

Among the waterways that cross Provence, the most significant is the

Rhône The Rhône ( , ; Occitan language, Occitan: ''Ròse''; Franco-Provençal, Arpitan: ''Rôno'') is a major river in France and Switzerland, rising in the Alps and flowing west and south through Lake Geneva and Southeastern France before dischargi ...

, which forms the western border of the region. The Rhône has the second-largest flow rate of all rivers flowing into the Mediterranean Sea, after the

Nile The Nile (also known as the Nile River or River Nile) is a major north-flowing river in northeastern Africa. It flows into the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile is the longest river in Africa. It has historically been considered the List of river sy ...

. As it flows into a tide-less sea, the river has formed a delta. Now embanked, this delta remains stable except during exceptional floods such as those in 1993, 1994, and 2003. The Durance is a tributary of the Rhône, with its source at approximately 2,390 meters above sea level, at the Pré de Gondran, on the slopes of the . The source lies near the former Gondran Fort, in the commune of Montgenèvre, in the Hautes-Alpes, near the Italian border. It flows into the

Rhône The Rhône ( , ; Occitan language, Occitan: ''Ròse''; Franco-Provençal, Arpitan: ''Rôno'') is a major river in France and Switzerland, rising in the Alps and flowing west and south through Lake Geneva and Southeastern France before dischargi ...

a few kilometers southwest of

Avignon Avignon (, , ; or , ; ) is the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Vaucluse department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of southeastern France. Located on the left bank of the river Rhône, the Communes of France, commune had a ...

, between the Vaucluse and Bouches-du-Rhône departments, serving as a border between the two. The Durance is known as a “capricious” river, once feared for both its

flood A flood is an overflow of water (list of non-water floods, or rarely other fluids) that submerges land that is usually dry. In the sense of "flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide. Floods are of significant con ...

s (Provençal tradition says the three plagues of Provence were the mistral wind, the Durance, and the Parliament of Aix) and its low-water periods. The Ubaye is a river that originates at the at an altitude of 2,655 meters, in the Ubaye Valley. It passes through Barcelonnette (a sub-prefecture of

Alpes-de-Haute-Provence Alpes-de-Haute-Provence (sometimes abbreviated as AHP; ; ; ), formerly until 1970 known as Basses-Alpes (, ), is a department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of France, bordering Alpes-Maritimes and Italy to the east, Var to the sou ...

) and feeds into the Durance in the Serre-Ponçon hydroelectric reservoir. The Verdon River, which rises at the foot of the (altitude 2,572 meters), flows into the Durance after covering approximately 175 kilometers. It is especially renowned for its gorges. File:France_Avignon_Total_1.jpg, The Rhône at

Avignon Avignon (, , ; or , ; ) is the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Vaucluse department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of southeastern France. Located on the left bank of the river Rhône, the Communes of France, commune had a ...

. File:Gorges_du_Verdon_Frankreich.jpg, The Verdon Gorge. Many coastal rivers also exist in Provence, notably: * The Var River, which originates at an altitude of 1,790 meters, south of the Cayolle Pass, and travels 114 kilometers through

Alpes-Maritimes Alpes-Maritimes (; ; ; ) is a Departments of France, department of France located in the country's southeast corner, on the France–Italy border, Italian border and Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean coast. Part of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'A ...

(it no longer crosses the department that bears its name) before reaching the

Mediterranean Sea The Mediterranean Sea ( ) is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the east by the Levant in West Asia, on the north by Anatolia in West Asia and Southern Eur ...

between

Nice Nice ( ; ) is a city in and the prefecture of the Alpes-Maritimes department in France. The Nice agglomeration extends far beyond the administrative city limits, with a population of nearly one millionSaint-Laurent-du-Var. The Var River, whose flow is usually low (typically 50 to 100 m³/s), is considered the natural border between Provence and the County of Nice. * The Argens River crosses the Var department from Seillons Source d’Argens to Fréjus, where it flows into the Mediterranean.

Climate

Calendrier_des_Postes_1942_Au_soleil_de_Provence

Provence is a region with a

Mediterranean climate A Mediterranean climate ( ), also called a dry summer climate, described by Köppen and Trewartha as ''Cs'', is a temperate climate type that occurs in the lower mid-latitudes (normally 30 to 44 north and south latitude). Such climates typic ...

, featuring hot, dry summers. Winters are mild along the coast and generally humid in the east but are harsher in the north and northeast ( Pelat, Ubaye, Digne Prealps), where the climate becomes alpine. In its central and Mediterranean areas, the vegetation of Provence is characteristic of the garrigue (scrubland), and the summer drought makes it particularly vulnerable to

wildfire A wildfire, forest fire, or a bushfire is an unplanned and uncontrolled fire in an area of Combustibility and flammability, combustible vegetation. Depending on the type of vegetation present, a wildfire may be more specifically identified as a ...

s. However, the region becomes greener and more humid in its more easterly and alpine parts. The main wind is the mistral, whose speed can exceed 110 km/h. It blows between 120 and 160 days per year, with gusts averaging 90 km/h. The following table (not included here) indicates the various mistral wind speeds recorded at the Orange and Carpentras-Serres stations in the southern Rhône Valley and its frequency during the year 2006. The "normal" corresponds to the average of the past 53 years for Orange’s meteorological records and 42 years for those of Carpentras.

History

Antiquity

Greek provence

The Provençal coastline was colonized by the

Greeks Greeks or Hellenes (; , ) are an ethnic group and nation native to Greece, Greek Cypriots, Cyprus, Greeks in Albania, southern Albania, Greeks in Turkey#History, Anatolia, parts of Greeks in Italy, Italy and Egyptian Greeks, Egypt, and to a l ...

: around 600 BCE, the Phocaeans settled in

Marseille Marseille (; ; see #Name, below) is a city in southern France, the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Departments of France, department of Bouches-du-Rhône and of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Regions of France, region. Situated in the ...

(''Massalia'' in Greek; ''Massilia'' in Latin). They spread out to other areas, founding colonies in

Nice Nice ( ; ) is a city in and the prefecture of the Alpes-Maritimes department in France. The Nice agglomeration extends far beyond the administrative city limits, with a population of nearly one millionAntibes (Antipolis), Hyères (Olbia), Six-Fours (Tauroeis),

Arles Arles ( , , ; ; Classical ) is a coastal city and Communes of France, commune in the South of France, a Subprefectures in France, subprefecture in the Bouches-du-Rhône Departments of France, department of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Reg ...

, La Ciotat (Citharista), Brégançon (Pergantion),

Monaco Monaco, officially the Principality of Monaco, is a Sovereign state, sovereign city-state and European microstates, microstate on the French Riviera a few kilometres west of the Regions of Italy, Italian region of Liguria, in Western Europe, ...

(Monoïkos), Athénopolis, and on certain parts of the Languedoc coast such as Agde (Agathé) and south of

Nîmes Nîmes ( , ; ; Latin: ''Nemausus'') is the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Gard Departments of France, department in the Occitania (administrative region), Occitanie Regions of France, region of Southern France. Located between the Med ...

. To the north, they founded Le Pègue near Valréas and stopped at La Laupie, east of Montélimar. Before the Roman invasion and colonization, the region was mainly inhabited by Ligurians, who later mixed with some Celtic soldiers and founded what is now referred to as the Celto-Ligurians (formerly Celto-Lygians).

The Roman conquest in the 2nd century BCE

Brief timeline * 181 BCE: The Phocaean Massaliotes of the city of

Marseille Marseille (; ; see #Name, below) is a city in southern France, the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Departments of France, department of Bouches-du-Rhône and of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Regions of France, region. Situated in the ...

and their Helleno-Celtic allies, the Cavares from the Cavaillon–Avignon–Orange region, called on

Rome Rome (Italian language, Italian and , ) is the capital city and most populated (municipality) of Italy. It is also the administrative centre of the Lazio Regions of Italy, region and of the Metropolitan City of Rome. A special named with 2, ...

for help against Ligurian pirates. * 154 BCE: Nice and Antibes were besieged by Ligurians from the Maritime Alps; a Roman expedition led by Opimius. * 125/124 BCE: A coalition of Celto-Ligurian tribes (the Salyens), supported by the Vocontii,

Allobroges The Allobroges (Gaulish language, Gaulish: *''Allobrogis'', 'foreigner, exiled'; ) were a Gauls, Gallic people dwelling in a large territory between the Rhône river and the Alps during the Iron Age Europe, Iron Age and the Roman period. The Allob ...

, and Arverni, was defeated by Consul Marcus Fulvius Flaccus, who crossed the Alps. * 123 BCE: A new campaign ends with the destruction of the oppidum of Entremont. * 123/122 BCE: Foundation of

Aix-en-Provence Aix-en-Provence, or simply Aix, is a List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, city and Communes of France, commune in southern France, about north of Marseille. A former capital of Provence, it is the Subprefectures in France, s ...

to control the Salyens. * 122 BCE: Proconsul Domitius Ahenobarbus crushes the Allobroges. * 121 BCE: The Volcae, ruling a vast territory of 24 oppida, welcomed the Roman legions without resistance. * 120 BCE: Ahenobarbus continued his campaign and is credited with the foundation and organization of the Provincia (Province). * 117 BCE: Beginning of the construction of the '' Via Domitia'' (in honor of Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus) toward the Pyrenees. It followed the route of an ancient Greek road (the Heraclean Way). Its construction symbolized Romanization and stimulated commercial exchange. * 109–105 BCE: Incursions by Germanic tribes ( Cimbri,

Teutons The Teutons (, ; ) were an ancient northern European tribe mentioned by Roman authors. The Teutons are best known for their participation, together with the Cimbri and other groups, in the Cimbrian War with the Roman Republic in the late seco ...

, Tigurini, Ambrones). Marius defeated the Teutons at Pourrières (near Aix-en-Provence) in 102 BCE and the Cimbri at Vercellae in 101 BCE. File:Les_antiques.png, The Antiques in

Saint-Rémy-de-Provence Saint-Rémy-de-Provence (; "Saint-Rémy of Provence"; Provençal dialect, Provençal: ''Sant Romieg de Provença'' and ''Sant Roumié de Prouvènço'' ) is a Communes of France, commune in the Bouches-du-Rhône Departments of France, department ...

File:Marseille_-_Le_jardin_des_vestiges.JPG, The Jardin des Vestiges in

Marseille Marseille (; ; see #Name, below) is a city in southern France, the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Departments of France, department of Bouches-du-Rhône and of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Regions of France, region. Situated in the ...

File:Nice,_France,_Arènes_romaines_de_Cimiez.jpg, The Cimiez Arena in

Nice Nice ( ; ) is a city in and the prefecture of the Alpes-Maritimes department in France. The Nice agglomeration extends far beyond the administrative city limits, with a population of nearly one millionBaux-de-Provence, depicting Marius, his wife and their fortune-teller Martha the Syrian

Middle Ages

Early Middle Ages

The lower Rhône Valley experienced various invasions. The

Visigoths The Visigoths (; ) were a Germanic people united under the rule of a king and living within the Roman Empire during late antiquity. The Visigoths first appeared in the Balkans, as a Roman-allied Barbarian kingdoms, barbarian military group unite ...

and

Alans The Alans () were an ancient and medieval Iranian peoples, Iranic Eurasian nomads, nomadic pastoral people who migrated to what is today North Caucasus – while some continued on to Europe and later North Africa. They are generally regarded ...

plundered many cities and reached as far as Orange and

Avignon Avignon (, , ; or , ; ) is the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Vaucluse department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of southeastern France. Located on the left bank of the river Rhône, the Communes of France, commune had a ...

. The

Burgundians The Burgundians were an early Germanic peoples, Germanic tribe or group of tribes. They appeared east in the middle Rhine region in the third century AD, and were later moved west into the Roman Empire, in Roman Gaul, Gaul. In the first and seco ...

settled in the region in 442 and chose Vienne, which retained its prestige as a great Roman city, as their capital. Avignon marked the southernmost point of this kingdom. However, in 484, upon the death of the Visigoth king Euric, the Burgundians crossed the Durance and seized all of Provence, which they returned to the Visigoths in 501. In 508, the

Ostrogoths The Ostrogoths () were a Roman-era Germanic peoples, Germanic people. In the 5th century, they followed the Visigoths in creating one of the two great Goths, Gothic kingdoms within the Western Roman Empire, drawing upon the large Gothic populatio ...

in turn seized Provence and established a duchy in the south of the Burgundian kingdom, dependent on their Italo-Dalmatian realm: the Duchy of Provence, which would later become Lower Provence or the County of Provence (the Burgundian part would become the Margraviate of Provence). In 536, the Franks took possession of the duchy, partially integrating it into the Frankish kingdom of Burgundy.

Charles Martel Charles Martel (; – 22 October 741), ''Martel'' being a sobriquet in Old French for "The Hammer", was a Franks, Frankish political and military leader who, as Duke and Prince of the Franks and Mayor of the Palace, was the de facto ruler of ...

fought against the patrician of Provence, Maurontus, an ally of the Moors of Gothia, and permanently brought Provence into the Frankish domain in 736. In 843, the

Treaty of Verdun The Treaty of Verdun (; ), agreed to on 10 August 843, ended the Carolingian civil war and divided the Carolingian Empire between Lothair I, Louis the German, Louis II and Charles the Bald, Charles II, the surviving sons of the emperor Louis the ...

granted Provence to

Lothair I Lothair I (9th. C. Frankish: ''Ludher'' and Medieval Latin: ''Lodharius''; Dutch and Medieval Latin: ''Lotharius''; German: ''Lothar''; French: ''Lothaire''; Italian: ''Lotario''; 795 – 29 September 855) was a 9th-century emperor of the ...

. His son, Charles of Provence, made it the Kingdom of Provence-Viennois or Lower Burgundy, a short-lived entity (855–863). Upon his death, Provence was incorporated into Italy and Viennois into the Lotharingia of Lothair II. After a period of unrest, Provence was once again included in the imperial domain by the Treaty of Meerssen, though briefly, as it returned, upon the death of Emperor Louis II in 875, to the King of West Francia,

Charles the Bald Charles the Bald (; 13 June 823 – 6 October 877), also known as CharlesII, was a 9th-century king of West Francia (843–877), King of Italy (875–877) and emperor of the Carolingian Empire (875–877). After a series of civil wars during t ...

, again for a short time. Boson of Provence, his brother-in-law, had himself proclaimed king of the second Kingdom of Provence in 879. Boson conflicted with the

Carolingians The Carolingian dynasty ( ; known variously as the Carlovingians, Carolingus, Carolings, Karolinger or Karlings) was a Frankish noble family named after Charles Martel and his grandson Charlemagne, descendants of the Arnulfing and Pippinid ...

. Boson's son, Louis, who became emperor, entrusted the governance of Provence to Hugh of Arles, who in turn handed it over in 934 to Rudolph II, King of Transjurane Burgundy. The new entity became the second Kingdom of Burgundy-Provence, also known as the Kingdom of Arles. It lasted until 1032. In the 880s, some Saracens from the Emirate of

Al-Andalus Al-Andalus () was the Muslim-ruled area of the Iberian Peninsula. The name refers to the different Muslim states that controlled these territories at various times between 711 and 1492. At its greatest geographical extent, it occupied most o ...

accidentally landed on the Var coast and established a base at Fraxinet (''Fraxinetum'') or Freinet, traditionally located in the La Garde-Freinet region, from which they launched raids, particularly in eastern Lower Provence. Hugh of Arles led two victorious attacks against them in 931 and 942 with the help of Byzantine ships, but without pursuing the advantage to expel them entirely. In 947, the Bosonid

Boson In particle physics, a boson ( ) is a subatomic particle whose spin quantum number has an integer value (0, 1, 2, ...). Bosons form one of the two fundamental classes of subatomic particle, the other being fermions, which have half odd-intege ...

,

Count of Arles This is a list of the counts of Arles. *Guerin of Provence, Garin, or Warin, (until 853), also ''Guerin'' in French language, French, ''Garí'' in Spanish language, Spanish, and ''Guerí'' in Catalan language, Catalan; also count of Toulouse, duke ...

, was invested with Provence. Upon his death, his two sons, Guilhem known as the Liberator ( William I) and Roubaud, jointly inherited the county, an indivision maintained by their descendants. The branch descending from Guilhem produced the Counts of Provence; the branch from Roubaud produced the Marquises of Provence.

The county of Provence within the Kingdom of Arles

The County of Provence was one of the great fiefs of the Rodolphian Kingdom of Burgundy. In 948, Conrad the Peaceful, with the support of Otto, King of Germany, reclaimed the territory south of Viennois to the Mediterranean Sea, which had been excluded from the 932 cession by Hugh of Arles to Rudolph II of Burgundy. To govern this territory, Conrad appointed counts who were loyal to him and chosen from outside Provence, since Conrad had no personal domain in Provence and thus only theoretical ownership, preferring to appoint counts who would remain faithful to him. He selected two brothers from the Mâcon region, Boson and Guillaume, sons of Rotbald or Roubaud, with the former as

Count of Arles This is a list of the counts of Arles. *Guerin of Provence, Garin, or Warin, (until 853), also ''Guerin'' in French language, French, ''Garí'' in Spanish language, Spanish, and ''Guerí'' in Catalan language, Catalan; also count of Toulouse, duke ...

and the latter as Count of

Avignon Avignon (, , ; or , ; ) is the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Vaucluse department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of southeastern France. Located on the left bank of the river Rhône, the Communes of France, commune had a ...

. It seems both brothers acted jointly, with the younger subordinate to the elder in managing the north, center, west, and southeast of the County of Provence. In eastern Provence, Conrad appointed a third count, , in the region of Apt and probably Glandèves and Senez, to administer Alpine Provence. This choice of two counts from the same family in Arles and Avignon may stem from Hugh of Arles having, under the reign of Louis the Blind, unified the administration of the domain in Provence. To limit the risk of the County of Provence becoming independent of his sovereignty, Conrad divided authority by appointing two viscounts:The term viscount does not appear in the texts. Arlulf received fiscal lands and public rights in the Valley of Trets in 950 and owed homage to the Count of Arles. one in Marseille and one in Cavaillon. The territories entrusted to the lords of

Marseille Marseille (; ; see #Name, below) is a city in southern France, the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Departments of France, department of Bouches-du-Rhône and of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Regions of France, region. Situated in the ...

and Cavaillon were separate from those of the counts of Arles, Avignon, and Apt. The viscounty of Apt quickly disappeared around 1017–1018. The appointment of distinct lords in Marseille deprived the counts of Arles and Avignon of easy access to the Mediterranean. This creation of the seigneury of Marseille is evidenced in a charter dated October 7, 948, where the bishop of Marseille, , , and

Boson In particle physics, a boson ( ) is a subatomic particle whose spin quantum number has an integer value (0, 1, 2, ...). Bosons form one of the two fundamental classes of subatomic particle, the other being fermions, which have half odd-intege ...

are mentioned. The term “viscounty” for Marseille first appeared in 977. The autonomy of the viscounty of Marseille relative to the County of Provence only ended with the authoritative actions of Charles of Anjou in 1252 and 1257. Conrad only visited the County of Provence in 963. The Kings of Burgundy seemed to have little interest in Provence. During the reigns of Conrad I and his son Rudolph III, four or five acts relating to Provence are known. In 972, following the kidnapping of Mayeul, Abbot of Cluny, William I, and Roubaud, with the help of Provençal lords and the Marquis of Turin, liberated Provence from the Saracens who had been pillaging the region from the Massif des Maures (above

Saint-Tropez Saint-Tropez ( , ; ) is a Communes of France, commune in the Var (department), Var departments of France, department and the regions of France, region of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, Southern France. It is west of Nice and east of Marseille, o ...

). The Battle of Tourtour marked William's final victory over the Saracens. This military campaign against the Saracens, conducted without Conrad's troops, was a means to bring Provence, its local aristocracy, and its urban and rural communities—who had until then always resisted feudal transformation and comital power—into line. It allowed William to acquire de facto suzerainty over Provence. He distributed reconquered lands to his vassals, arbitrated disputes, and thereby established Provençal feudalism. Named marquis in 975, William made

Arles Arles ( , , ; ; Classical ) is a coastal city and Communes of France, commune in the South of France, a Subprefectures in France, subprefecture in the Bouches-du-Rhône Departments of France, department of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Reg ...

his capital. File:Image_taken_from_page_567_of_'Bibliothek_deutscher_Geschichte_..._Herausgegeben_von_H._v._Zwiedineck-Südenhorst'_(16564104686).jpg, Provence divided between the

Kingdom of Burgundy Kingdom of Burgundy was a name given to various successive Monarchy, kingdoms centered in the historical region of Burgundy during the Middle Ages. The heartland of historical Burgundy correlates with the border area between France and Switze ...

and the Kingdom of Austrasia in 561. File:Empire_carolingien_855-fr.svg, The Kingdom of Provence in 855 when the kingdom of Emperor Lothair I was divided after the Treaty of Prüm File:Holy_Roman_Empire_1000_map-fr.svg, Provence around the year 1000, within the Kingdom of Arles File:Map_France_1030-fr.svg, The County of Provence within the Kingdom of Arles in the year 1030 Upon the death of Boson II of Arles, his two sons— William known as the Liberator, and Rotbold—shared the county jointly, a joint rule maintained by their descendants. The branch from Guilhem produced the Counts of Provence; the branch from Roubaud, from 1054 onward, produced the Counts of Forcalquier and the Marquises of Provence. In 972, following the kidnapping of Maïeul of Cluny, Abbot of Cluny, William I, and Roubaud, with the help of Provençal lords and the Marquis of Turin, freed Provence from the Saracens who, from their fortress of Fraxinet, had been pillaging the region. This military campaign, conducted without the troops of Conrad I of Burgundy, served to subdue Provence, its local aristocracy, and the urban and rural communities that had always resisted feudal transformation and comital authority. It enabled William to gain de facto suzerainty over Provence. He distributed reconquered lands to his vassals, settled disputes, and thus established Provençal feudalism. Named Marquis in 975, William made

Arles Arles ( , , ; ; Classical ) is a coastal city and Communes of France, commune in the South of France, a Subprefectures in France, subprefecture in the Bouches-du-Rhône Departments of France, department of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Reg ...

his capital. As Rudolph III of Burgundy had no offspring, he named Conrad II the Salian, Holy Roman Emperor, as his heir. Upon Rudolph's death in 1032, the Kingdom of Burgundy—and with it the Kingdom of Arles, which included the County of Provence—was annexed to the

Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire, also known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation after 1512, was a polity in Central and Western Europe, usually headed by the Holy Roman Emperor. It developed in the Early Middle Ages, and lasted for a millennium ...

. However, the suzerainty of the Holy Roman Emperor over Provence thereafter was only nominal and theoretical. In 1019, Emma, Countess of Provence, married William Taillefer,

Count of Toulouse The count of Toulouse (, ) was the ruler of Toulouse during the 8th to 13th centuries. Originating as vassals of the Frankish kings, the hereditary counts ruled the city of Toulouse and its surrounding county from the late 9th century until 12 ...

, transmitting the rights of Roubaud’s lineage to the House of Toulouse. The title of Marquis of Provence permanently passed to this house in 1093. In 1112, Douce of Provence, heir to the rights of Guilhem's line, married Raymond-Berenger III,

Count of Barcelona The count of Barcelona (, , , ) was the ruler of the County of Barcelona and also, by extension and according with the Usages of Barcelona, Usages and Catalan constitutions, of the Principality of Catalonia as Prince#Prince as generic for ruler, p ...

, who became ''Raymond-Berenger I of Provence''. The Houses of Toulouse and Barcelona then entered into conflict over the marquisate. A treaty was concluded in 1125 between Raymond-Berenger and Alphonse-Jourdain of Toulouse: according to it, the County of Provence was divided into a marquisate north of the Durance—granted to the Counts of Toulouse—and a county to the south, granted to the Counts of Barcelona. Meanwhile, the northeastern part of the County of Provence had become de facto independent under the Count of Forcalquier. In 1193, Alfonso II of Provence married Gersande of Sabran, granddaughter of William II, Count of Forcalquier, which enabled the County of Provence to recover the southern part of the County of Forcalquier, while the northern part of this county, around Gap and Embrun, came under the suzerainty of the Dauphiné. This explains the presence of the dolphin emblem in the current coat of arms of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur region. During this period, the County of Orange, a vassal of Provence, was elevated to a principality in 1181.

Late Middle Ages

In 1245, Raymond-Bérenger V of Provence died. His four daughters married respectively: Marguerite to Saint Louis (King Louis IX), Sancie to Richard of Cornwall,

Eleanor Eleanor () is a feminine given name, originally from an Old French adaptation of the Old Provençal name ''Aliénor''. It was the name of a number of women of royalty and nobility in western Europe during the High Middle Ages">Provençal dialect ...

to Henry III, King of England, and Beatrice to

Charles Charles is a masculine given name predominantly found in English language, English and French language, French speaking countries. It is from the French form ''Charles'' of the Proto-Germanic, Proto-Germanic name (in runic alphabet) or ''* ...

,

Count of Anjou The Count of Anjou was the ruler of the County of Anjou, first granted by King Charles the Bald, Charles the Bald of West Francia in the 9th century to Robert the Strong. Ingelger and his son, Fulk the Red, were viscounts until Fulk assumed the t ...

and Maine, brother of Saint Louis. It was the latter who inherited the two counties of Provence and Forcalquier, passing them on to the first Capetian House of Anjou. That is why the city of Forcalquier is nicknamed "the city of the four queens." Accumulating royal titles ( Naples-Sicily,

Jerusalem Jerusalem is a city in the Southern Levant, on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is one of the List of oldest continuously inhabited cities, oldest cities in the world, and ...

,

Cyprus Cyprus (), officially the Republic of Cyprus, is an island country in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Situated in West Asia, its cultural identity and geopolitical orientation are overwhelmingly Southeast European. Cyprus is the List of isl ...

,

Acre The acre ( ) is a Unit of measurement, unit of land area used in the Imperial units, British imperial and the United States customary units#Area, United States customary systems. It is traditionally defined as the area of one Chain (unit), ch ...

, Thessalonica, etc.), the counts began calling themselves kings. However, the County of Provence-Forcalquier was fragmented. Following the Treaty of Meaux-Paris (1229), which marked the end of the Albigensian Crusade, upon the death of Alphonse of Poitiers in 1271, the marquisate passed to King Philip III of France, who ceded it in 1274 to Pope Gregory X to become the

Comtat Venaissin The (; ; 'County of Venaissin'), often called the for short, was a part of the Papal States from 1274 to 1791, in what is now the region of Southern France. The region was an enclave within the Kingdom of France, comprising the area aroun ...

. In 1382, upon the death of Queen Joanna, the first Capetian House of Anjou ended. She had adopted Louis I (brother of King Charles V), who was made Count and then Duke of Anjou, thus founding—after a period of unrest known as the War of the Union of Aix—the second Capetian House of Anjou. This dynasty ended with the death of Charles V of Anjou in 1481. In 1388, following the unrest and civil war accompanying Queen Joanna’s succession, the city of

Nice Nice ( ; ) is a city in and the prefecture of the Alpes-Maritimes department in France. The Nice agglomeration extends far beyond the administrative city limits, with a population of nearly one millionPuget-Théniers, and the valleys of the Tinée and the Vésubie formed the Terres Neuves de Provence (New Lands of Provence) and placed themselves under the protection of the

House of Savoy The House of Savoy (, ) is a royal house (formally a dynasty) of Franco-Italian origin that was established in 1003 in the historical region of Savoy, which was originally part of the Kingdom of Burgundy and now lies mostly within southeastern F ...

—this is known as the . These lands became known as the County of Nice in 1526. On December 10, 1481, Count Charles III of Provence dictated a will naming King Louis XI of France as his universal heir. Charles III died the following day, December 11. On December 19, Louis XI instructed Palamède de Forbin to take possession of Provence. On December 29, the Estates (local representatives) met under the presidency of Pierre de La Jaille to acknowledge Charles III’s will. Forbin convened the Estates for January 15, 1482. The acts drafted and adopted from January 1482 to April 1487 confirmed the union of Provence and France “as one principal to another principal (...) without the County and the land of Provence being subordinate to the crown f France” In August 1486, the Estates requested Charles VIII to proclaim the union of Provence with France as “definitive and eternal.” The King of France granted their request with royal letters in October 1486, and communicated to the Estates on April 9, 1487. Legally, it was only a personal union of crowns—the King of France acted in Provence solely as Count of Provence, and this remained so until the French Revolution. “May it please Your Majesty to style yourself ..Count of Provence, ..so that we are in no way obliged to obey any letter lacking this title.”

Independence

More pressing affairs within the Empire regularly drew Emperor Charles IV back to

Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...

. No longer able to focus on Provence, he decided to relinquish it and ceded his rights to the Crown of Arles to Louis of Anjou in 1366, who was thus freed from all suzerainty. In 1382, upon the death of Queen Joanna, the first Capetian House of Anjou came to an end. Joanna adopted Louis I of Anjou, son of King John II the Good of France, thereby founding the second Capetian House of Anjou-Provence. The capture and death of Queen Joanna triggered a period of turmoil between supporters of the second House of Anjou-Provence and those of Charles of Durazzo, descendant of the first House of Anjou-Provence. The latter’s followers formed the Union of Aix (1382–1387). The largely political defeat of Charles of Durazzo definitively secured the second Anjou dynasty over the County of Provence (1387). Eastern Provence (east of the Var), being the only region that remained loyal to him, received no assistance from Charles, who allowed it to submit to a lord of its choosing, as long as it was not an enemy. This led, in 1388, to the separation of the viguerie of Nice (City of

Nice Nice ( ; ) is a city in and the prefecture of the Alpes-Maritimes department in France. The Nice agglomeration extends far beyond the administrative city limits, with a population of nearly one millionPuget-Théniers, and the valleys of the Tinée and Vésubie), which opted for the Dédition of Nice to Savoy, forming the ''Terres Neuves de Provence''. The upper Ubaye valley, around Barcelonnette, also came under Savoyard suzerainty. France annexed the Barcelonnette region in 1713 under the Treaty of Utrecht, and Nice in 1860 by referendum.

Precursors to Independence

There is no clear date of the first use of the title of Count of Provence, although an independent state had been forming for some time. The first non- Carolingian ruler of Provence was Boso who made himself king and was confirmed by the Synod of Mantaille, whose Bosonid descendants would rule Provence for a time. His son Louis was a short lasting

Holy Roman Emperor The Holy Roman Emperor, originally and officially the Emperor of the Romans (disambiguation), Emperor of the Romans (; ) during the Middle Ages, and also known as the Roman-German Emperor since the early modern period (; ), was the ruler and h ...

who despite being crowned in 901 was twice expelled from Italy and on the second time was blinded and returned to Provence which was now effectively governed by his cousin, Hugh of Arles. Hugh moved the capital of Provence from Vienne to Arles, and when Louis died took the title Duke of Provence. Hugh became

King of Italy King is a royal title given to a male monarch. A king is an absolute monarch if he holds unrestricted governmental power or exercises full sovereignty over a nation. Conversely, he is a constitutional monarch if his power is restrained by ...

in 926 ruling both Italy and Provence for twenty years. He traded Provence to Rudolph I of Burgundy in exchange for preserving his power in Italy. After Hugh's death Conrad of Burgundy became Count of Provence as King of Burgundy. He named a number of counts of Burgundian origin, one of whom Rotbald founded a new dynasty who would control the county for the next century and a half. Despite unsuccessful attempts by Louis and Hugh to expel them, partially because they had been occupied in Italy, the Muslim

Saracens file:Erhard Reuwich Sarazenen 1486.png, upright 1.5, Late 15th-century History of Germany, German woodcut depicting Saracens ''Saracen'' ( ) was a term used both in Greek language, Greek and Latin writings between the 5th and 15th centuries to ...

had established a base on the coast of Provence called

Fraxinetum Fraxinetum or Fraxinet ( or , from Latin ''fraxinus'': " ash tree", ''fraxinetum'': "ash forest") was the site of a Muslim stronghold at the centre of a frontier state in Provence between about 887 and 972. It is identified with modern La Garde- ...

, near modern-day

Saint-Tropez Saint-Tropez ( , ; ) is a Communes of France, commune in the Var (department), Var departments of France, department and the regions of France, region of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, Southern France. It is west of Nice and east of Marseille, o ...

. From here they controlled the mountains of the Massif des Maures and the coast between modern Fréjus and Hyères, and raided throughout Provence getting as far east as the Italian Riviera and north to the alpine valleys of

Piedmont Piedmont ( ; ; ) is one of the 20 regions of Italy, located in the northwest Italy, Northwest of the country. It borders the Liguria region to the south, the Lombardy and Emilia-Romagna regions to the east, and the Aosta Valley region to the ...

.Edouard Baratier, ''Entre Francs et Arabes'', in the collection ''Histoire de Provence''. pg. 109.

Expulsion of the Saracens

In 973, the Saracens captured Maiolus, the

abbot Abbot is an ecclesiastical title given to the head of an independent monastery for men in various Western Christian traditions. The name is derived from ''abba'', the Aramaic form of the Hebrew ''ab'', and means "father". The female equivale ...

of the monastery at Cluny, and held him for ransom. The ransom was paid and the abbot was released. Count William I, the Count of Arles, organized an army with the help of allied soldiers from Piedmont, and defeated the Saracens near La Garde-Freinet at the Battle of Tourtour. The Saracens who were not killed at the battle were forcibly baptized and made into slaves, and the remaining Saracens in Provence fled the region. The expulsion of the Saracens in 973 became an epic event in the history and legends of Provence. William became known as "William the Liberator." He distributed the lands taken from the Saracens between Toulon and Nice to his entourage. His descendants became the recognized leaders of Provence, above the other counts of the region. During this long period of wars and banditry in Provence, the population retreated to walled cities, maritime trade was rare, and little new art or architecture, other than fortification, was created. The Provençal language was formed, closer to Latin than the French spoken in northern France. In the 11th century Provençal terms began to appear, mixed with Latin, in documents.

Catalan dynasty (12th-13th century)

The German Emperor Conrad the Salic forced the childless King of Burgundy, Rudolph III, to name him as successor which in 1032 led to Provence becoming a fiefdom of the

Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire, also known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation after 1512, was a polity in Central and Western Europe, usually headed by the Holy Roman Emperor. It developed in the Early Middle Ages, and lasted for a millennium ...

, which it remained until 1246. There was a tradition of shared inheritance practiced by the family of the Counts, leading to two lines each using the title of Count. In 1112, a descendant of Count William I, Douce I, Countess of Provence, married the Catalan Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona, who as a result became Raymond Berenguer I, Count of Provence. He ruled Provence until 1131, and his descendants, the Catalan Dynasty, ruled Provence until 1246. The claim of the other line, sometimes using the title of Margraves of Provence, passed by marriage to

William III, Count of Toulouse William III Taillefer (also spelled ''Tallefer'' or ''Tallifer''; – September 1037) was the Count of Toulouse, Albi, and Quercy, as well as the Marquis of Gothie from 972 or 978 to his death. He was the first of the Toulousain branch of his fam ...

. This led to a long-standing Toulouse claim to the county, finally resolved by partition in 1125. Provence north and west of the Durance went to the

Count of Toulouse The count of Toulouse (, ) was the ruler of Toulouse during the 8th to 13th centuries. Originating as vassals of the Frankish kings, the hereditary counts ruled the city of Toulouse and its surrounding county from the late 9th century until 12 ...

, while the lands between the Durance and the Mediterranean, and from the Rhône to the Alps, stayed with the Counts of Provence. The capital of Provence was moved from Arles to Aix-en-Provence, and later to Brignoles. A shorter lasting partition in the next generation, between the County of Provence and the County of Forcalquier. was ended by an intra-dynastic marriage in 1193. Arles_kirche_st_trophime_fassade

Following the

Crusades The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and at times directed by the Papacy during the Middle Ages. The most prominent of these were the campaigns to the Holy Land aimed at reclaiming Jerusalem and its surrounding t ...

, international commerce began to resume in the ports of the Mediterranean and along the Rhône. The port of Marseille flourished again. A new city built on the Petit-Rhône, Saint-Gilles, became a transit point for cloth from

Flanders Flanders ( or ; ) is the Dutch language, Dutch-speaking northern portion of Belgium and one of the communities, regions and language areas of Belgium. However, there are several overlapping definitions, including ones related to culture, la ...

and spices and the products of the eastern Mediterranean. Tarascon and

Avignon Avignon (, , ; or , ; ) is the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Vaucluse department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of southeastern France. Located on the left bank of the river Rhône, the Communes of France, commune had a ...

on the Rhône became important trading ports. During the 12th century some of the cities of Provence became virtually autonomous. They were ruled by consuls, formally under the Counts of Provence but with considerable autonomy. Consulates existed in Avignon in 1229, 1131 in Arles, between 1140 and 1150 in Tarascon, Nice and Grasse, and 1178 in Marseille. Marseille went farther than the others, establishing a ''confrerie'' or charitable and religious organization of the one hundred leaders of the professions, crafts and businesses in the city, which drew up a code of justice and municipal regulations. Several Provençal cities directly negotiated commercial treaties with the republics of

Pisa Pisa ( ; ) is a city and ''comune'' (municipality) in Tuscany, Central Italy, straddling the Arno just before it empties into the Ligurian Sea. It is the capital city of the Province of Pisa. Although Pisa is known worldwide for the Leaning Tow ...

and

Genoa Genoa ( ; ; ) is a city in and the capital of the Italian region of Liguria, and the sixth-largest city in Italy. As of 2025, 563,947 people live within the city's administrative limits. While its metropolitan city has 818,651 inhabitan ...

in Italy. Other cities, however, such as Aix, Toulon, Hyères, Digne, Cavaillon and Carpentras, remained under the authority of the Counts. In the 13th century the counts of Provence suppressed most of the consulates, but the seeds of civil liberty and democracy had been planted in the cities.

France, Toulouse and Catalonia battle for Provence

In the early 13th century the Albigensian crusade in neighboring

Languedoc The Province of Languedoc (, , ; ) is a former province of France. Most of its territory is now contained in the modern-day region of Occitanie in Southern France. Its capital city was Toulouse. It had an area of approximately . History ...

upset the existing order in Provence.

Pope Innocent III Pope Innocent III (; born Lotario dei Conti di Segni; 22 February 1161 – 16 July 1216) was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 8 January 1198 until his death on 16 July 1216. Pope Innocent was one of the most power ...

sent missionaries and then soldiers to suppress the Cathar religious movement in

Languedoc The Province of Languedoc (, , ; ) is a former province of France. Most of its territory is now contained in the modern-day region of Occitanie in Southern France. Its capital city was Toulouse. It had an area of approximately . History ...

. The Pope accused Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse of supporting the Cathars, excommunicated him, and invited an army of French knights on a

crusade The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and at times directed by the Papacy during the Middle Ages. The most prominent of these were the campaigns to the Holy Land aimed at reclaiming Jerusalem and its surrounding t ...

to cleanse the south of France of the

heresy Heresy is any belief or theory that is strongly at variance with established beliefs or customs, particularly the accepted beliefs or religious law of a religious organization. A heretic is a proponent of heresy. Heresy in Heresy in Christian ...

. A war began in Provence between the French knights and the soldiers of Raymond VI and his son Raymond VII. Soldiers from Tarascon, Marseille and Avignon joined the army of the Counts of Provence to fight the French. The French commander, Simon de Montfort, was killed at the siege of Toulouse in 1218. Then Raymond VI died in 1222, and a dispute over his lands in Provence began. King Louis VIII of France decided to intervene, and a French royal army marched down the valley of the Rhône and laid siege to Avignon. The city held out for three months but was finally forced by hunger to surrender. Avignon was forced to destroy its city walls and accept a French castle on the other side of the river, and by a treaty signed in Paris on April 12, 1229, the part of Provence west of the Rhône that had belonged to the Counts of Toulouse became part of France. Beginning in 1220, Provence east of the Rhône had a new ruler, Ramon Berenguer IV, of the Catalan dynasty. He was the first Count of Provence to actually reside in Provence permanently, usually living with his court in Aix. He launched a military campaign to impose his authority over the cities of Provence, ending the independence of Grasse and Tarascon, occupying Nice, which had tried to ally with Genoa; and founding a new town, Barcelonette, in the far east of Provence, near the Italian border. The ambitions of Ramon Berenguer were energetically resisted by the new Count of Toulouse, Raymond VII, who had lost most of his own territory to France. Raymond VII became an ally of Marseille and Avignon in their fight against Ramon Berenguer. In 1232 his army devastated the territories of Ramon Berenguer around Tarascon and Arles. Ramon Berenguer responded to this attack by strengthening his alliance with France; he married his daughter, Marguerite, to King

Louis IX of France Louis IX (25 April 1214 – 25 August 1270), also known as Saint Louis, was King of France from 1226 until his death in 1270. He is widely recognized as the most distinguished of the Direct Capetians. Following the death of his father, Louis VI ...

, and appealed to

Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II (, , , ; 26 December 1194 – 13 December 1250) was King of Sicily from 1198, King of Germany from 1212, King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor from 1220 and King of Jerusalem from 1225. He was the son of Emperor Henry VI, Holy Roman ...

, for support. In exchange for his support, Frederic demanded that the cities of Arles and Avignon be governed by the Holy Roman Empire. A prolonged struggle took place between Raymond VII and his allies, the cities of Marseille and Avignon, against Ramon Berenguer for authority in Provence. Arles was blockaded and all traffic on the Rhône stopped. The French army finally intervened to help Ramon Berenguer, the French king's father-in-law. Raymond VII was forced to abandon his quest, and Ramon Berenguer was able to appoint his own candidate as bishop of Avignon and to subdue the rest of eastern Provence. When Ramon Berenguer died in 1245, not quite forty years old, he controlled all of Provence between the Rhône and Italian border except the rebellious city of Marseille. Ramon Berenguer had four daughters, but no sons. After his death his youngest daughter and heiress, Beatrice, married Charles, Count of Anjou, the youngest son of Louis VIII of France. Provence's fortunes became even more closely tied to the Angevin dynasty.

Good King René, the last ruler of Provence

The 15th century saw a series of wars between the Kings of

Aragon Aragon ( , ; Spanish and ; ) is an autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community in Spain, coextensive with the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. In northeastern Spain, the Aragonese autonomous community comprises three provinces of Spain, ...

and the Counts of Provence. In 1423 the army of Alphonse V of Aragon captured Marseille, and in 1443 captured Naples and forced its ruler, King René I of Naples, to flee. He eventually settled in one of his remaining territories, Provence. History and legend has given René the title "Good King René of Provence", though he only lived in Provence in the last ten years of his life, from 1470 to 1480, and his political policies of territorial expansion were costly and unsuccessful. Provence benefitted from population growth and economic expansion, and René was a generous patron of the arts, sponsoring painters Nicolas Froment, Louis Bréa, and other masters. He also completed one of the finest castles in Provence at Tarascon, on the Rhône. When René died in 1480, his title passed to his nephew Charles du Maine. One year later, in 1481, when Charles died, the title passed to Louis XI of France. Provence was legally incorporated into the French royal domain in 1486.

Politics and administration

Main cities

The names below represent the names of the cities in Provençal, in both the classical (original and traditional) and the so-called Mistralian (modernized and French-influenced) orthographies. For the communes with only one spelling shown, it means that the spelling is the same in both writing systems, and thus the older or classically inspired form has been preserved in the phonetic (Mistralian) version. The following translations come from Frédéric Mistral’s dictionary Lou Trésor dóu Felibrige and include the names of some major present-day towns in the County of Provence, showing both their natural evolution and the influence of French—with the original -''o'' sound, which was pronounced similarly to -''ou'', or the final -''a'' becoming almost silent and resembling an -''o'', -''e'', or sometimes remaining -''a'' depending on the region. The traditional -''nh'' became -''gn'', while it remained -nh in Portuguese, which adopted the spelling used by troubadours. The translations in the Mistralian spelling are complemented by those in the classical spelling, which is inspired by the original orthography (before the strong influence of French) to give an authentic image to the language, while generally preserving the modern evolutions of the language such as the consonantal vocalization (consonant becoming a vowel) of -''l'' into -''u'', although this has been preserved in Languedoc (or Occitania). Regardless of the spelling, the pronunciation is the same. These classical translations come from the Provençal-French Dictionary (Diccionari provençau-francés) of the Creo-Provença association (supported by the Provence region, the General Council of Bouches-du-Rhône, the city of

Aix-en-Provence Aix-en-Provence, or simply Aix, is a List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, city and Communes of France, commune in southern France, about north of Marseille. A former capital of Provence, it is the Subprefectures in France, s ...

, the city of

Cannes Cannes (, ; , ; ) is a city located on the French Riviera. It is a communes of France, commune located in the Alpes-Maritimes departments of France, department, and host city of the annual Cannes Film Festival, Midem, and Cannes Lions Internatio ...

, the city of Le Cannet, and the city of Mougins).

Culture

Language

The historical language of Provence is Occitan (revival of the term langue d’Oc by Occitanists replacing the term Provençal language (used for the entire South) around 1930) in its dialectal grouping called Provençal. Several varieties of Provençal are distinguished: Maritime (also called Marseillais or Central), Rhodanian, Alpine (also called Gavot), and Niçard. The Alpine Provençal or Gavot was also considered a variant of Provençal. Niçard derives from medieval Provençal and has received some Northern Italian influences. Frédéric Mistral’s point of view on the langue d’Oc, called in his time the Provençal language and today more broadly Occitan: “The main dialects of modern langue d’Oc are: Provençal, Languedocian, Gascon, Aquitanian, Limousin, Auvergnat, and Dauphinois. Provençal includes the sub-dialects: Rhodanian, Marseillais (former name for Maritime), Alpine, and Niçard.” Provence also included enclaves of Ligurian-speaking populations, whose dialect was called ''Figoun'' in Biot, Vallauris, Mouans-Sartoux, Mons, and Escragnolles. The Mentonasque dialect, spoken in

Menton Menton (; in classical norm or in Mistralian norm, , ; ; or depending on the orthography) is a Commune in France, commune in the Alpes-Maritimes department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region on the French Riviera, close to the Italia ...

, is a transitional variety with Ligurian. In the Roya Valley, on the eastern borders of the

Alpes-Maritimes Alpes-Maritimes (; ; ; ) is a Departments of France, department of France located in the country's southeast corner, on the France–Italy border, Italian border and Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean coast. Part of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'A ...

, the Royasc and its variant Brigasc are used; both are transitional Ligurian dialects influenced by Vivaro-Alpine Occitan.

Literature

The age of the troubadours

The troubadours directly descended from the Provençal movement include Raimbaut d'Orange, Raimbaut de Vaqueiras, Albertet de Sisteron, Bertran de Lamanon, Folquet de Marseille, Blacatz, and Beatritz de Dia.

Personalities of the county of Provence

Writers

*

Lawyers

* Jean-Étienne-Marie Portalis (° 1746 - † 1807) - Jurist, lawyer, politician, co-editor of the Civil Code, defender of the Provençal nation in the Revolution

Musicians and singers

* André Campra (° 1660 - † 1744) - Composer * Jean Gilles (° 1668 - † 1705) - Composer * Jean-Joseph Mouret (° 1682 – † 1738) - Composer * (° 1709 - † 1779) - Composer of Christmas music * Jean-Claude Trial (° 1732 – † 1771) - Violinist and composer * Antoine Trial (° 1737 – † 1795) - Singer and actor

Painters

* Enguerrand Quarton (15th century) * Barthélemy d'Eyck (active between 1444 and 1470) * Nicolas Froment (c. 1430/1435 - c. 1486) * Josse Lieferinxe (active between 1493 and 1503–08) * (1634 - 1694) * Joseph Parrocel (1646 - 1704) * Nicolas Mignard (1606 - 1668) * (1667 - 1722) * (1708 - 1732) * Pierre Parrocel (1670 - 1739) *

Jean-Baptiste van Loo Jean-Baptiste van Loo (14 January 1684 – 19 December 1745) was a French people, French subject and portrait painter. Life and career He was born in Aix-en-Provence, and was instructed in art by his father Louis-Abraham van Loo, son of Jac ...

(1684 - 1745) * Carle van Loo (1705 - 1765) *

Louis-Michel van Loo Louis-Michel van Loo (2 March 1707 – 20 March 1771) was a French people, French Painting, painter. Biography He studied under his father, the painter Jean-Baptiste van Loo, at Turin and Rome, and he won a prize at the ''Académie Royale d ...

(1707 - 1771) * Étienne Parrocel (1696 - 1776) * Michel-François Dandré-Bardon (1700 - 1783) * Claude Joseph Vernet (1714 - 1789) * (1697 - 1792)

Sculptors and architects

* Antoine Le Moiturier (° 1425 – † 1493) - Sculptor * (° 1575 – † 1667) - Architect * Pierre Puget (° October 16, 1620 – † December 2, 1694) * (° 1650 – † 1723) - Architect and sculptor * Pierre II Mignard (° 1640 – † 1725) - Painter and architect, member of the Académie royale d'architecture * (° 1716 – † 1781) - Sculptor and architect * (° 1710 - † 1793) - Architect, son of Jean-Baptiste Franque

Heraldry

The "ancient" arms of Provence are first recorded during the reign of Raymond Berenger V of Provence (1209–1245), grandson of

Alfonso II of Aragon Alfonso II (1–25 March 1157Benito Vicente de Cuéllar (1995)«Los "condes-reyes" de Barcelona y la "adquisición" del reino de Aragón por la dinastía bellónida» p. 630-631; in ''Hidalguía''. XLIII (252) pp. 619–632."Alfonso II el Casto, h ...

. There are several theories regarding the origin of this coat of arms. French heraldist Michel Pastoureau suggests that the arms originated in Provence, tracing them to the Kingdom of Arles. He believes that the Counts of Barcelona, while governing Provence, brought these arms to Catalonia. However, heraldist Faustino Menéndez Pidal de Navascués challenges this theory. He contends that the coat of arms was not inherited by Ramon Berenguer IV as Count of Barcelona but was instead a 16th-century attribution that linked the Counts of Provence to the Royal House of Aragon. According to Menéndez Pidal, the arms can be traced to

Alfonso II of Aragon Alfonso II (1–25 March 1157Benito Vicente de Cuéllar (1995)«Los "condes-reyes" de Barcelona y la "adquisición" del reino de Aragón por la dinastía bellónida» p. 630-631; in ''Hidalguía''. XLIII (252) pp. 619–632."Alfonso II el Casto, h ...

, the grandfather of Raymond Berenger V.

Notes

References

Bibliography

* * * * * * * * {{Cite book , last=Rouquette , first=Jean-Maurice , url= , title=Galice romane, Provence romane 1. La Provence rhodanienne , date=1974 , publisher=Zodiaque , isbn= , series= , volume= , location= , language=fr , trans-title=Romanesque Galicia, Romanesque Provence 1. The Provence along the Rhône , doi= , oclc= ** Fortieth in the “La nuit des temps” collection. This is the special holiday issue for the year of our Lord 1974 of the quarterly magazine “Zodiaque”, cahiers de l'atelier du cœur Meurtry, published at the Abbey of Sainte-Marie de la Pierre-qui-Vire (Yonne). German translation by G. Schecber, English translation by Alan Mc Leer: * Le Tricastin; * Le Comtat; * Les Alpilles; * Le pays d'Arles; * Marseille

External links

* Authority records
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Counties of the Holy Roman Empire History of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Rhône Counts States and territories disestablished in the 1480s County of Provence

Summary

Toponymy

Geography

Borders

Relief

Hydrography

Climate

History

Antiquity

Greek provence

The Roman conquest in the 2nd century BCE

Middle Ages

Early Middle Ages

The county of Provence within the Kingdom of Arles

Late Middle Ages

Independence

Precursors to Independence

Expulsion of the Saracens

Catalan dynasty (12th-13th century)

France, Toulouse and Catalonia battle for Provence

Good King René, the last ruler of Provence

Politics and administration

Main cities

Culture

Language

Literature

The age of the troubadours

Personalities of the county of Provence

Writers

Lawyers

Musicians and singers

Painters

Sculptors and architects

Heraldry

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links