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Western Ganga was an important ruling dynasty of ancient
Karnataka Karnataka (; ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a state in the southwestern region of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act. Originally known as Mysore State , it was renamed ''Karnat ...
in India which lasted from about 350 to 1000 CE. They are known as "Western Gangas" to distinguish them from the Eastern Gangas who in later centuries ruled over
Kalinga Kalinga may refer to: Geography, linguistics and/or ethnology * Kalinga (historical region), a historical region of India ** Kalinga (Mahabharata), an apocryphal kingdom mentioned in classical Indian literature ** Kalinga script, an ancient writ ...
(modern
Odisha Odisha (English: , ), formerly Orissa ( the official name until 2011), is an Indian state located in Eastern India. It is the 8th largest state by area, and the 11th largest by population. The state has the third largest population of ...
and Northern
Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh (, abbr. AP) is a state in the south-eastern coastal region of India. It is the seventh-largest state by area covering an area of and tenth-most populous state with 49,386,799 inhabitants. It is bordered by Telangana to the ...
). The general belief is that the Western Gangas began their rule during a time when multiple native clans asserted their freedom due to the weakening of the Pallava empire in
South India South India, also known as Dakshina Bharata or Peninsular India, consists of the peninsular southern part of India. It encompasses the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Telangana, as well as the union territo ...
, a geo-political event sometimes attributed to the southern conquests of
Samudra Gupta Samudragupta ( Gupta script: ''Sa-mu-dra-gu-pta'', (c. 335–375 CE) was the second emperor of the Gupta Empire of ancient India, and is regarded among the greatest rulers of the dynasty. As a son of the Gupta emperor Chandragupta I and the ...
. The Western Ganga sovereignty lasted from about 350 to 550 CE, initially ruling from
Kolar Kolar or Kolara is a city in the Indian state of Karnataka. It is the headquarters of Kolar district. The city is known for its milk production and gold mines. It is also known for Someshwara temple and Kolaramma temple. History The Wes ...
and later, moving their capital to
Talakadu Talakadu (ತಲಕಾಡು) is a town on the left bank of the Kaveri river 45 km (28 miles) from Mysore and 133 km (82 miles) from Bangalore in Karnataka, India. Latinizations of the towns name vary, but include Talkād, Talakadu, Ta ...
on the banks of the Kaveri River in modern
Mysore district Mysore district, officially Mysuru district is an administrative district located in the southern part of the state of Karnataka, India. It is the administrative headquarters of Mysore division.Chamarajanagar district, Chamarajanagar District wa ...
. After the rise of the imperial
Chalukyas of Badami The Chalukya dynasty () was a Classical Indian dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty ...
, the Gangas accepted Chalukya overlordship and fought for the cause of their overlords against the
Pallavas The Pallava dynasty existed from 275 CE to 897 CE, ruling a significant portion of the Deccan, also known as Tondaimandalam. The dynasty rose to prominence after the downfall of the Satavahana dynasty, with whom they had formerly served as f ...
of
Kanchi Kanchipuram ('; ) also known as ''Conjeevaram,'' is a city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu in the Tondaimandalam region, from Chennaithe capital of Tamil Nadu. Known as the ''City of Thousand Temples'', Kanchipuram is known for its templ ...
. The Chalukyas were replaced by the
Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta Rashtrakuta (IAST: ') (r. 753-982 CE) was a royal Indian dynasty ruling large parts of the Indian subcontinent between the sixth and 10th centuries. The earliest known Rashtrakuta inscription is a 7th-century copper plate grant detailing thei ...
in 753 CE as the dominant power in the
Deccan The large Deccan Plateau in southern India is located between the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats, and is loosely defined as the peninsular region between these ranges that is south of the Narmada river. To the north, it is bounded by the ...
. After a century of struggle for autonomy, the Western Gangas finally accepted Rashtrakuta overlordship and successfully fought alongside them against their foes, the
Chola Dynasty The Chola dynasty was a Tamil thalassocratic empire of southern India and one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of the world. The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated to the 3rd century BCE ...
of
Tanjavur Thanjavur (), also Tanjore, Pletcher 2010, p. 195 is a city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Thanjavur is the 11th biggest city in Tamil Nadu. Thanjavur is an important center of South Indian religion, art, and architecture. Most of the Gr ...
. In the late 10th century, north of Tungabhadra river, the Rashtrakutas were replaced by the emerging Western Chalukya Empire and the Chola Dynasty saw renewed power south of the
Kaveri The Kaveri (also known as Cauvery, the anglicized name) is one of the major Indian rivers flowing through the states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The Kaveri river rises at Talakaveri in the Brahmagiri (hill), Karnataka, Brahmagiri range in th ...
river. The defeat of the Western Gangas by Cholas around 1000 resulted in the end of the Ganga influence over the region. Though territorially a small kingdom, the Western Ganga contribution to
polity A polity is an identifiable Politics, political entity – a group of people with a collective identity, who are organized by some form of Institutionalisation, institutionalized social relation, social relations, and have a capacity to mobilize ...
, culture and literature of the modern south Karnataka region is considered important. The Western Ganga kings showed benevolent tolerance to all faiths but are most famous for their patronage toward
Jainism Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religions, Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current ...
resulting in the construction of monuments in places such as
Shravanabelagola Shravanabelagola () is a town located near Channarayapatna of Hassan district in the Indian state of Karnataka and is from Bengaluru. The Gommateshwara Bahubali statue at Shravanabelagola is one of the most important tirthas (pilgrimage de ...
and
Kambadahalli Panchakuta Basadi (or Panchakoota Basadi) is a temple complex located in the Kambadahalli village of the Mandya district, Karnataka state, in southwestern India. It is one of the finest examples of South Indian Dravidian architecture of the Wes ...
. The kings of this dynasty encouraged the fine arts due to which literature in
Kannada Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...
and
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
flourished.
Chavundaraya Chavundraya or Chamundaraya (Kannada ''Cāmuṇḍarāya, Cāvuṇḍarāya'', 940–989) was an Indian military commander, architect, poet and minister. He served in the court of the Western Ganga dynasty of Talakad (in modern Karnataka, In ...
's writing, ''Chavundaraya Purana'' of 978 CE, is an important work in Kannada prose. Many classics were written on various subjects ranging from
religion Religion is usually defined as a social- cultural system of designated behaviors and practices, morals, beliefs, worldviews, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics, or organizations, that generally relates humanity to supernatural, ...
to
elephant Elephants are the largest existing land animals. Three living species are currently recognised: the African bush elephant, the African forest elephant, and the Asian elephant. They are the only surviving members of the family Elephantidae an ...
management.


History

Multiple theories have been proposed regarding the ancestry of the founders of the Western Ganga dynasty (prior to the 4th century). Some mythical accounts point to a northern origin,(Rice in Adiga 2006, p88) while theories based on epigraphy suggest a southern origin. According to some records, the Western Gangas were of the Kanvayana gotra and traced their lineage to the
Ikshvaku Ikshvaku (Sanskrit ; Pāli: ) is a legendary king in Hindu mythology. He is described to be the first king of the Kosala kingdom, and was one of the ten sons of Shraddhadeva Manu, the first man on the earth. He was the founder and first king of ...
s of the
solar dynasty The Solar dynasty ( IAST: Suryavaṃśa or Ravivaṃśa in Sanskrit) or the Ikshvaku dynasty was founded by the legendary king Ikshvaku.Geography of Rigvedic India, M.L. Bhargava, Lucknow 1964, pp. 15-18, 46-49, 92-98, 100-/1, 136 The dynasty is ...
. Historians who propose the southern origin have further debated whether the early petty chieftains of the clan (prior to their rise to power) were natives of the southern districts of modern Karnataka,:”Indeed, the very lacklustre of the Ganga rulers who preceded the Cholas and Hoysalas suggests that they were essentially peasant chiefs who neither sought nor managed to break their ties with the dominant peasant folk of the territory. That peasantry still identifies itself with the ancient Ganga designation; they are called, Gangadikaras who in 1891 comprised forty-four per cent of the total population of the land-controlling peasantry of Mysore State (i.e. Vokkaligas). Gangadikara is a slight contraction of the term Gangavadikara, or "men of the Ganga country".:"The Gangadikara seem to be a more recent stratum, whose name reminds us of the Ganga-kings, who ruled in Mysore in the 10th century. We may regard their connections with the former ancient ruling house as very similar to those of the Arasu, the present-day aristocracy of Mysore, with the present- day ruling family".Adiga and Sheik Ali in Adiga (2006), p89Sarma (1992), pp1–3Ramesh (1984), pp1–2 the Kongu Nadu region in modern
Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu (; , TN) is a States and union territories of India, state in southern India. It is the List of states and union territories of India by area, tenth largest Indian state by area and the List of states and union territories of India ...
Baji and Arokiaswamy in Adiga (2006), p89 or of the southern districts of modern
Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh (, abbr. AP) is a state in the south-eastern coastal region of India. It is the seventh-largest state by area covering an area of and tenth-most populous state with 49,386,799 inhabitants. It is bordered by Telangana to the ...
.Kamath (2001), p39Krishna Rao in Adiga (2006), p88 These regions encompass an area of the southern
Deccan The large Deccan Plateau in southern India is located between the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats, and is loosely defined as the peninsular region between these ranges that is south of the Narmada river. To the north, it is bounded by the ...
where the three modern states merge geographically. It is theorised that the Gangas may have taken advantage of the confusion caused by the invasion of southern India by the northern king
Samudra Gupta Samudragupta ( Gupta script: ''Sa-mu-dra-gu-pta'', (c. 335–375 CE) was the second emperor of the Gupta Empire of ancient India, and is regarded among the greatest rulers of the dynasty. As a son of the Gupta emperor Chandragupta I and the ...
prior to 350, and carved out a kingdom for themselves. The area they controlled was called Gangavadi and included regions of the modern districts of
Mysore Mysore (), officially Mysuru (), is a city in the southern part of the state of Karnataka, India. Mysore city is geographically located between 12° 18′ 26″ north latitude and 76° 38′ 59″ east longitude. It is located at an altitude of ...
,
Hassan Hassan, Hasan, Hassane, Haasana, Hassaan, Asan, Hassun, Hasun, Hassen, Hasson or Hasani may refer to: People *Hassan (given name), Arabic given name and a list of people with that given name *Hassan (surname), Arabic, Jewish, Irish, and Scottis ...
Chamarajanagar,
Tumkur Tumkur, officially renamed as Tumakuru, is a city located in the southern part of Indian state of Karnataka. Tumkur is situated at a distance of northwest of Bangalore, the state capital along NH 48 and NH 73. It is the headquarters of the ...
,
Kolar Kolar or Kolara is a city in the Indian state of Karnataka. It is the headquarters of Kolar district. The city is known for its milk production and gold mines. It is also known for Someshwara temple and Kolaramma temple. History The Wes ...
,
Mandya Mandya is a city in the state of Karnataka. It is the headquarter of Mandya district and is located from Mysore and from Bangalore. Sugar factories contribute to the major economic output. It is also called Sugar city (which in Kannada mean ...
and
Bangalore Bangalore (), officially Bengaluru (), is the capital and largest city of the Indian state of Karnataka. It has a population of more than and a metropolitan population of around , making it the third most populous city and fifth most ...
in Karnataka state.Kamath (2001), pp39–40 At times, they also controlled some areas in modern
Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu (; , TN) is a States and union territories of India, state in southern India. It is the List of states and union territories of India by area, tenth largest Indian state by area and the List of states and union territories of India ...
(Kongu region starting from the 6th century rule of King Avinita) and
Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh (, abbr. AP) is a state in the south-eastern coastal region of India. It is the seventh-largest state by area covering an area of and tenth-most populous state with 49,386,799 inhabitants. It is bordered by Telangana to the ...
(Ananthpur region starting from the middle of the 5th century). The founding king of the dynasty was Konganivarma Madhava who made
Kolar Kolar or Kolara is a city in the Indian state of Karnataka. It is the headquarters of Kolar district. The city is known for its milk production and gold mines. It is also known for Someshwara temple and Kolaramma temple. History The Wes ...
his capital around 350 and ruled for about twenty years. By the time of Harivarma in 390, the Gangas had consolidated their kingdom with
Talakad Talakadu (ತಲಕಾಡು) is a town on the left bank of the Kaveri river 45 km (28 miles) from Mysore and 133 km (82 miles) from Bangalore in Karnataka, India. Latinizations of the towns name vary, but include Talkād, Talakadu, T ...
as their capital. Their move from the early capital Kolar may have been a strategic one with the intention of containing the growing Kadamba power.Sarma (1992), p4 By 430 they had consolidated their eastern territories comprising modern Bangalore, Kolar and Tumkur districts and by 470 they had gained control over Kongu region in modern Tamil Nadu, Sendraka (modern Chikkamagaluru and
Belur Belur may refer to: Places * Belur, Karnataka, a town in Karnataka, India ** Belur temple (Chennakeshava temple), Belur * Belur, Tamil Nadu, a town in Salem district, Tamil Nadu, India * Belur, West Bengal, a neighbourhood of Howrah, India ** Be ...
), Punnata and Pannada regions (comprising modern
Heggadadevanakote Heggadadevanakote or H.D.Kote is a town and a taluk headquarters in Mysore district in the Indian state of Karnataka. Kakana kote forest lies in Heggadadevana kote taluk. H.D Kote city is divided into 13 wards for which elections are held every ...
and
Nanjangud Nanjangud, officially known as Nanjanagudu, is a town in the Mysuru district of Indian state of Karnataka. Nanjangud lies on the banks of the river Kapila (also called Kabini), 23 km from the city of Mysore. Nanjangud is famous for the S ...
) in modern Karnataka.Adiga 2006, p97, p100From the Cakra-Kedara grant, Kodunjeruvu grant (Adiga 2006, p99 In 529, King
Durvinita Durvinita () is seen as the most successful ruler of the Western Ganga dynasty. Son of the previous ruler, Avinita, Durvinita's accession to the throne was disputed by his brother, who had gained the support of the Pallavas and Kadambas. There ...
ascended the throne after waging a war with his younger brother who was favoured by his father, King
Avinita Avinita (469–529 CE) was the Western Ganga Dynasty Western Ganga was an important ruling dynasty of ancient Karnataka in India which lasted from about 350 to 1000 CE. They are known as "Western Gangas" to distinguish them from the Ea ...
.Kamath (2001), p40 Some accounts suggest that in this power struggle, the Pallavas of Kanchi supported Avinita's choice of heir and the Badami Chalukya King Vijayaditya supported his father-in-law, Durvinita.Sheik Ali and Ramesh in Adiga (2006), p100–101 From the inscriptions it is known that these battles were fought in Tondaimandalam and Kongu regions (northern Tamil Nadu) prompting historians to suggest that Durvinita fought the Pallavas successfully.Adiga (2006), p101 Considered the most successful of the Ganga kings, Durvinita was well versed in arts such as music, dance,
ayurveda Ayurveda () is an alternative medicine system with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent. The theory and practice of Ayurveda is pseudoscientific. Ayurveda is heavily practiced in India and Nepal, where around 80% of the population repo ...
and taming wild elephants. Some inscriptions sing paeans to him by comparing him to
Yudhishthira ''Yudhishthira'' (Sanskrit: युधिष्ठिर, IAST: ''Yudhiṣṭhira'') is the eldest among the five Pandava brothers. He is mentioned in the ancient epic Mahabharata. He was sired by King Pandu of the Kuru Dynasty and his firs ...
and
Manu Manu may refer to: Geography * Manú Province, a province of Peru, in the Madre de Dios Region **Manú National Park, Peru ** Manú River, in southeastern Peru * Manu River (Tripura), which originates in India and flows into Bangladesh *Manu Tem ...
– figures from Hindu mythology known for their wisdom and fairness.from the Nallala grant (Kamath 2001, p41)Adiga (2006), p109 Politically, the Gangas were feudatories and close allies who also shared matrimonial relations with the Chalukyas. This is attested by inscriptions which describe their joint campaigns against their arch enemy, the Pallavas of Kanchi.From the Aihole inscriptions and the Jangamarahalli inscription (Adiga 2006, 102) From the year 725 onwards, the Gangavadi territories came to be called as the "Gangavadi-96000" (''Shannavati Sahasra
Vishaya A vishaya (IAST: Viṣaya) was a historical administrative unit of India, generally equivalent to a modern district. Several other terms for units equivalent to a modern district appear in historical inscriptions, including ''āhāra'', ''rashtra'' ...
'') comprising the eastern and western provinces of modern south Karnataka.(Adiga 2006, p103) King
Sripurusha Sripurusha was a Western Ganga Dynasty king who ruled from 726 - 788 CE. According to the Javali inscription Sripurusha ruled for 62 years. He had marital relations with the Badami Chalukyas and used titles such as ''Muttarasa'', ''Rajakesari'', ...
fought the Pallava King Nandivarman Pallavamalla successfully, bringing Penkulikottai in north
Arcot Arcot (natively spelt as Ārkāḍu) is a town and urban area of Ranipet district in the state of Tamil Nadu, India. Located on the southern banks of Palar River, the city straddles a trade route between Chennai and Bangalore or Salem, between t ...
under his control temporarily for which he earned the title ''Permanadi''.From the Shimoga records (N.L. Rao in Kamath 2001, p41)The title was given to a later Ganga King Rachamalla I (Ramesh in Adiga p115), the Agali grant and Devarahalli inscription calls Sripurusha ''Maharajadhiraja Paramamahesvara Bhatara'' (Adiga 2006, pp115–116) A contest with the Pandyas of
Madurai Madurai ( , also , ) is a major city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is the cultural capital of Tamil Nadu and the administrative headquarters of Madurai District. As of the 2011 census, it was the third largest Urban agglomeration in ...
over control of Kongu region ended in a Ganga defeat, but a matrimony between a Ganga princess and Rajasimha Pandya's son brought peace helping the Gangas retain control over the contested region.Sastri in Adiga 2006, p115From Salem plates of Sripurusha dated 771 and the Koramangala grant (Ramesh in Adiga 2006, p116) In 753, when the Rashtrakutas replaced the Badami Chalukyas as the dominant force in the Deccan, the Gangas offered stiff resistance for about a century.Kamath (2001), p42From several Tumkur inscriptions (Adiga 2006, p117) King
Shivamara II Shivamara II was the son of Sripurusha and ruled the Western Ganga Dynasty from 788 – 816 C.E. He was also a noted scholar in Kannada, Sanskrit and Prakrit. He succeeded to the Ganga throne during a time when the Rashtrakuta were the empir ...
is mostly known for his wars with the Rashtrakuta
Dhruva Dharavarsha Dhruva (ruled 780–793 CE) was one of the most notable rulers of the Rashtrakuta Empire. He ascended the throne after replacing his elder brother Govinda II. Govinda II had become unpopular among his subjects on account of his various miscondu ...
, his subsequent defeat and imprisonment, his release from prison and eventually his death on the battle field. The Ganga resistance continued through the reign of Rashtrakuta
Govinda III Govinda III (reign 793–814 CE) was a famous Rashtrakuta ruler who succeeded his illustrious father Dhruva Dharavarsha. He was militarily the most successful emperor of the dynasty with successful conquests-from Kanyakumari in the south to Kan ...
and by 819, a Ganga resurgence gained them partial control over Gangavadi under King Rachamalla.Adiga 2006, p118 Seeing the futility of waging war with the Western Ganga, Rashtrakuta Amoghavarsha I gave his daughter Chandrabbalabbe in marriage to Ganga prince Butuga I, son of King Ereganga Neetimarga. The Gangas thereafter became staunch allies of the Rashtrakutas, a position they maintained till the end of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of Manyakheta.from the Konnur inscriptions of 860 and Rajaramadu inscription (Adiga 2006, p119)From the Keregodi Rangapura plates and Chikka Sarangi inscription of 903 (Adiga 2006, p119)Kamath (2001), p43 After an uneventful period,
Butuga II Butuga II (938–961 CE) became the ruler of the Western Ganga Dynasty after his elder brother Rachamalla III. Relations with Rashtrakutas In order to ascend the throne he had to first seek help from the Rashtrakutas who were hitherto their a ...
ascended the throne in 938 with the help of Rashtrakuta
Amoghavarsha III Amoghavarsha III (reigned 936–939 CE), whose Kannada name was Baddega ( kn, ಬದ್ದೆಗ), was in exile in Tripuri and was a younger brother of Indra III and uncle to Govinda IV. He came to power with the help of feudatory King Arikesa ...
(whose daughter he married).Kamath (2001), p44 He helped the Rashtrakutas win decisive victories in
Tamilakam Tamiḻakam (Tamil: தமிழகம்; Malayalam: തമിഴകം), refers to the geographical region inhabited by the ancient Tamil people, covering the southernmost region of the Indian subcontinent. Tamilakam covered today's Tamil Nad ...
in the
battle of Takkolam The Battle of Takkolam (948–949) was a military engagement between a contingent of troops led by Rajaditya, crown prince and eldest son of the Chola king Parantaka I (907–955), and another led by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna III (939–9 ...
against the
Chola Dynasty The Chola dynasty was a Tamil thalassocratic empire of southern India and one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of the world. The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated to the 3rd century BCE ...
. With this victory, the Rashtrakutas took control of modern northern Tamil Nadu.Tirukkalukkunram and Laksmeshwar inscriptions – Kanchi and Tanjore were annexed by
Krishna III Krishna III whose Kannada name was Kannara (r. 939 – 967 C.E.) was the last great warrior and able monarch of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of Manyakheta. He was a shrewd administrator and skillful military campaigner. He waged many wars to bring b ...
who was an incarnation of death for the Chola Dynasty (Reu 1933, p83)
Thapar 2003, p334Sastri 1955, p162 In return for their valour, the Gangas were awarded extensive territories in the Tungabhadra river valley.From the Kudlur inscription of King Marasimha II (Adiga 2006, p120) King Marasimha II who came to power in 963 aided the Rashtrakutas in victories against the Gurjara
Pratihara The Gurjara-Pratihara was a dynasty that ruled much of Northern India from the mid-8th to the 11th century. They ruled first at Ujjain and later at Kannauj. The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of the ...
King Lalla and the
Paramara The Paramara dynasty ( IAST: Paramāra) was an Indian dynasty that ruled Malwa and surrounding areas in west-central India between 9th and 14th centuries. They belonged to the Parmara clan of the Rajputs. The dynasty was established in either t ...
kings of
Malwa Malwa is a historical region of west-central India occupying a plateau of volcanic origin. Geologically, the Malwa Plateau generally refers to the volcanic upland north of the Vindhya Range. Politically and administratively, it is also syno ...
in Central India.From the
Kukkanur Kuknoor (also known as Kuknur, Kukkanur or Kukanoor) is a town in Kukanoor taluk in the Koppal District of the Indian state of Karnataka, which is located about 40 km northwest of Hospet and 7 km from the Mahadeva Temple in Itagi. ...
inscription (Adiga 2006, p122)
These victories were recorded in a
Kannada Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...
inscription of 964 near
Jabalpur Jabalpur is a city situated on the banks of Narmada River in the state of Madhya Pradesh, India. According to the 2011 census, it is the third-largest urban agglomeration in Madhya Pradesh and the country's 38th-largest urban agglomeration. J ...
(Kamath 2001, p83)
Chavundaraya Chavundraya or Chamundaraya (Kannada ''Cāmuṇḍarāya, Cāvuṇḍarāya'', 940–989) was an Indian military commander, architect, poet and minister. He served in the court of the Western Ganga dynasty of Talakad (in modern Karnataka, In ...
, a minister in the Western Ganga court was a valiant commander, able administrator and an accomplished poet in
Kannada Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...
and Sanskrit.Kamath (2001), p45Sastri (1955), pp356–357 He served King Marasimha II and his successors ably and helped King Rachamalla IV suppress a civil war in 975. Towards the end of the 10th century, the Rashtrakutas had been supplanted by the
Western Chalukya Empire The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the Deccan Plateau, western Deccan, South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries. This Kannada people, Kannadiga dynasty is sometimes called the ''Kalyani Chalukya'' after its regal capital at Kalya ...
in
Manyakheta Malkhed originally known as Manyakheta (IAST: Mānyakheṭa, Prakrit: "Mannakheḍa"), and also known as Malkhed,Village code= 311400 Malkhed (J), Gulbarga, Karnataka is a town in Karnataka, India. It is located on the banks of Kagina river i ...
. In the south, the
Chola Dynasty The Chola dynasty was a Tamil thalassocratic empire of southern India and one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of the world. The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated to the 3rd century BCE ...
who were seeing a resurgence of power under
Rajaraja Chola I Rajaraja I (947 CE – 1014 CE), born Arunmozhi Varman or Arulmozhi Varman and often described as Raja Raja the Great or Raja Raja Chozhan was a Chola emperor who reigned from 985 CE to 1014 CE. He was the most powerful Tamil king in South ...
conquered Gangavadi around the year 1000, bringing the Western Ganga dynasty to an end. Thereafter, large areas of south Karnataka region came under Chola control for about a century.Kamath (2001), p118


Administration

The Western Ganga administration was influenced by principles stated in the ancient text ''
arthashastra The ''Arthashastra'' ( sa, अर्थशास्त्रम्, ) is an Ancient Indian Sanskrit treatise on statecraft, political science, economic policy and military strategy. Kautilya, also identified as Vishnugupta and Chanakya, is ...
''. The ''praje gavundas'' mentioned in the Ganga records held responsibilities similar to those of the village elders (''gramavriddhas'') mentioned by
Kautilya Chanakya (Sanskrit: चाणक्य; IAST: ', ; 375–283 BCE) was an ancient Indian polymath who was active as a teacher, author, strategist, philosopher, economist, jurist, and royal advisor. He is traditionally identified as Kauṭilya o ...
. Succession to the throne was hereditary but there were instances when this was overlooked.Kamath (2001), p46 The kingdom was divided into ''Rashtra'' (district) and further into ''Visaya'' (consisting of possibly 1000 villages) and ''Desa''. From the 8th century, the Sanskrit term ''Visaya'' was replaced by the
Kannada Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...
term ''Nadu''. Examples of this change are Sindanadu-8000 and Punnadu-6000,Adiga (2006), p10 with scholars differing about the significance of the numerical suffix. They opine that it was either the revenue yield of the division computed in cash termsRice in Adiga (2006), p15) or the number of fighting men in that division or the number of revenue paying hamlets in that divisionSharma in Adiga (2006), p16 or the number of villages included in that territory. Inscriptions have revealed several important administrative designations such as prime minister (''sarvadhikari''), treasurer (''shribhandari''), foreign minister (''sandhivirgrahi'') and chief minister (''mahapradhana''). All of these positions came with an additional title of commander (''dandanayaka''). Other designations were royal steward (''manevergade''), master of robes (''mahapasayita''), commander of elephant corps (''gajasahani''), commander of cavalry (''thuragasahani'') etc.Kamath (2001), p47 In the royal house, ''
Niyogi Niyogi Brahmin is a Telugu Brahmin subcaste native to the Indian States of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, but are spread throughout South India and Maharashtra. The traditional occupations of the Niyogi Brahmins are settled cultivation and p ...
s'' oversaw palace administration, royal clothing and jewellery etc. and the ''Padiyara'' were responsible for court ceremonies including door keeping and protocol.Adiga (2006), p238 Officials at the local level were the ''pergade'', ''nadabova'', ''nalagamiga'', ''prabhu'' and ''gavunda''.Adiga (2006), pp161–177 The ''pergades'' were superintendents from all social classes such as artisans, gold smiths, black smiths etc. The ''pergades'' dealing with the royal household were called ''manepergade'' (house superintendent) and those who collected tolls were called ''Sunka vergades''.From the Kanatur inscription (Adiga 2006, p161) The ''nadabovas'' were accountants and tax collectors at the ''Nadu'' level and sometimes functioned as scribes.From the Kanatur inscription (Adiga 2006, p164) The ''nalagamigas'' were officers who organized and maintained defence at the ''Nadu'' level.From the Mavali inscription of the 8th century and Indravalli inscription (Adiga 2006), p165 The ''prabhu'' constituted a group of elite people drawn together to witness land grants and demarcation of land boundaries.Doddakunce inscription, the Karagada and Maruru inscription (Adiga 2006, p167–68) The ''gavundas'' who appear most often in inscriptions were the backbone of medieval polity of the southern Karnataka region. They were landlords and local elite whom the state utilized their services to collect taxes, maintain records of landownership, bear witness to grants and transactions and even raise militia when required.Bedirur inscriptions of 635 (Adiga 2006, p168) Inscriptions that specify land grants, rights and ownership were descriptive of the boundaries of demarcation using natural features such as rivers, streams, water channels, hillocks, large boulders, layout of the village, location of forts (''kote'') if any in the proximity, irrigation canals, temples, tanks and even shrubs and large trees. Also included was the type of soil, the crops meant to be grown and tanks or wells to be excavated for irrigation.From the Kumsi inscription of 931 and Doddahomma inscription of 977 (Adiga 2006, pp21–22, p27, p29)From the Mavali inscription and Indivalli inscription (Adiga 2006, p31) Inscriptions mention wet land, cultivable land, forest and waste land.From the Devarahalli and Hosur copper plates (Adiga 2006, p33) There are numerous references to hamlets (''palli'') belonging to the hunter communities who resided in them (''bedapalli'').From inscriptions and literary writings such as ''Vaddaradhane'' (920) and ''Pampa Bharata'' (940) (Adiga 2006, p36–37) From the 6th century onwards, the inscriptions refer to feudal lords by the title ''arasa''. The ''arasas'' were either
brahmin Brahmin (; sa, ब्राह्मण, brāhmaṇa) is a varna as well as a caste within Hindu society. The Brahmins are designated as the priestly class as they serve as priests (purohit, pandit, or pujari) and religious teachers (guru ...
s or from tribal background who controlled hereditary territories paying periodic tribute to the king.Adiga (2006), p208 The ''velavali'' who were loyal bodyguards of the royalty were fierce warriors under oath (''vele''). They moved with the royal family and were expected to fight for the master and be willing to lay down their lives in the process. If the king died, the ''velavali'' were required to self immolate on the funeral pyre of the master.Adiga (2006), pp233–234


Economy

The Gangavadi region consisted of the
malnad Malnad (; Malēnādu) is a region in the state of Karnataka in India. Malenadu covers the western and eastern slopes of the Western Ghats or Sahyadri mountain range, and is roughly 100 kilometers in width. Malnadis a region of Karnataka ...
region, the plains ( Bayaluseemae) and the semi-malnad with lower elevation and rolling hills. The main crops of the malnad region were paddy, betel leaves,
cardamom Cardamom (), sometimes cardamon or cardamum, is a spice made from the seeds of several plants in the genera ''Elettaria'' and ''Amomum'' in the family Zingiberaceae. Both genera are native to the Indian subcontinent and Indonesia. They are r ...
and
pepper Pepper or peppers may refer to: Food and spice * Piperaceae or the pepper family, a large family of flowering plant ** Black pepper * ''Capsicum'' or pepper, a genus of flowering plants in the nightshade family Solanaceae ** Bell pepper ** Chili ...
and the semi-malnad region with its lower altitude produced
rice Rice is the seed of the grass species ''Oryza sativa'' (Asian rice) or less commonly ''Oryza glaberrima ''Oryza glaberrima'', commonly known as African rice, is one of the two domesticated rice species. It was first domesticated and grown i ...
, millets such as ragi and corn, pulses,
oilseed Vegetable oils, or vegetable fats, are oils extracted from seeds or from other parts of fruits. Like animal fats, vegetable fats are ''mixtures'' of triglycerides. Soybean oil, grape seed oil, and cocoa butter are examples of seed oils, or f ...
s and it was also the base for cattle farming.Adiga (2006), p6 The plains to the east were the flat lands fed by
Kaveri The Kaveri (also known as Cauvery, the anglicized name) is one of the major Indian rivers flowing through the states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The Kaveri river rises at Talakaveri in the Brahmagiri (hill), Karnataka, Brahmagiri range in th ...
, Tungabhadra and
Vedavati Vedavati (Sanskrit: वेदवती, IAST: ''Vedavatī'') is the previous birth of the goddess Sita in Hindu mythology. She is an avatar of the goddess of prosperity, Lakshmi. Legend Birth Vedavati was the daughter of Brahmarishi Kushadhva ...
rivers where cultivations of
sugarcane Sugarcane or sugar cane is a species of (often hybrid) tall, Perennial plant, perennial grass (in the genus ''Saccharum'', tribe Andropogoneae) that is used for sugar Sugar industry, production. The plants are 2–6 m (6–20 ft) tall with ...
, paddy,
coconut The coconut tree (''Cocos nucifera'') is a member of the palm tree family ( Arecaceae) and the only living species of the genus ''Cocos''. The term "coconut" (or the archaic "cocoanut") can refer to the whole coconut palm, the seed, or the ...
,
areca ''Areca'' is a genus of 51 species of palms in the family Arecaceae, found in humid tropical forests from the islands of the Philippines, Malaysia and India, across Southeast Asia to Melanesia. The generic name ''Areca'' is derived from a name u ...
nut (''adeka totta''), betel leaves,
plantain Plantain may refer to: Plants and fruits * Cooking banana, banana cultivars in the genus ''Musa'' whose fruits are generally used in cooking ** True plantains, a group of cultivars of the genus ''Musa'' * ''Plantaginaceae'', a family of flowerin ...
and flowers (''vara vana'') were common.from the Melkote copper plates and Mamballi inscriptions, Medutambihalli inscription of the 9th century (Adiga 2006, p53) Sources of irrigation were excavated tanks, wells, natural ponds and water bodies in the catchment area of dams (''Katta'').Adiga (2006), p42 Inscriptions attesting to irrigation of previously uncultivated lands seem to indicate an expanding agrarian community.Adiga (2006), p45 Soil types mentioned in records are black soil (''Karimaniya'') in the Sinda-8000 territory and to red soil (''Kebbayya mannu'')from the Narasimhapura plates (Adiga 2006), p46From the Doddahomma inscription of Rachaballa IV of 977 (Adiga 2006, p47) Cultivated land was of three types; wet land, dry land and to a lesser extent garden land with paddy being the dominant crop of the region. Wet lands were called ''kalani'', ''galde'', ''nir mannu'' or ''nir panya'' and was specifically used to denote paddy land requiring standing water.Kittel in Adiga (2006), p48 The fact that pastoral economies were spread throughout Gangavadi region comes from references to cowherds in many inscriptions. The terms ''
gosahasra Gosahasra or go-sahasra-dana (literally "the gift of a thousand cows") is a ritual donation described in the ancient texts of India. It is one of the sixteen great gifts (''shodasha-mahadana''), and is frequently mentioned in the ancient inscriptio ...
'' (a thousand cows), ''gasara'' (owner of cows), ''gosasi'' (donor of cows), ''goyiti'' (cowherdess), ''gosasa'' (protector of cows) attest to this.Belagi inscription of 964, Sasarvalli inscription of 1001 (Krishna and Adiga 2006, p55/56) Inscriptions indicate ownership of cows may have been as important as cultivable land and that there may have existed a social hierarchy based on this.Adiga (2006), p57 Inscriptions mention cattle raids attesting to the importance of the pastoral economy, destructive raids, assaults on women (''pendir-udeyulcal''), abduction of women by ''bedas'' (hunter tribes); all of which indicate the existing militarism of the age.From the Kodagu inscription of the 11th century, Guduve inscription of 1032, Kambadahalli inscription of 979 (Adiga 2006, p59, p60, p63) Lands that were exempt from taxes were called ''manya'' and sometimes consisted of several villages. They were granted by local chieftains without any reference to the overlord, indicating a de-centralised economy. These lands, often given to heroes who perished in the line of duty were called ''bilavritti'' or ''kalnad''.From the Narasimhapura inscription of the 9th century (Sircar and Ramesh in Adiga 2006, pp210–211) When such a grant was made for the maintenance of temples at the time of consecration, it was called ''Talavritti''.Indian epigraphical glossary, Hecca inscription pF 939 for SriKanteshvara temple (Adiga 2006, p213) Some types of taxes on income were ''kara'' or ''anthakara'' (internal taxes), ''utkota'' (gifts due to the king), ''hiranya'' (cash payments) and ''sulika'' (tolls and duties on imported items). Taxes were collected from those who held the right to cultivate land; even if the land was not actually cultivated.From Nonamangala copper plates of the 5th century of King Avinita (Adiga 2006, p216)From the Kuppepalya inscription of the 8th century (Adiga 2006, p218) ''Siddhaya'' was a local tax levied on agriculture and ''pottondi'' was a tax levied on merchandise by the local feudal ruler. Based on context, ''pottondi'' also meant 1/10, ''aydalavi'' meant 1/5 and ''elalavi'' meant 1/7.Kotutu inscription of the 9th century, Rampura inscription of 905 (Adiga 2006, p219) ''Mannadare'' literally meant land tax and was levied together with shepherds tax (''Kurimbadere'') payable to the chief of shepherds. ''Bhaga'' meant a portion or share of the produce from land or the land area itself. Minor taxes such as ''Kirudere'' (due to the landlords) and ''samathadere'' (raised by the army officers or ''samantha'') are mentioned. In addition to taxes for maintenance of the local officer's retinue, villages were obligated to feed armies on the march to and from battles.Varuna inscription, (Adiga 2006, p223–224) ''Bittuvatta'' or ''niravari'' taxes comprised usually of a percentage of the produce and was collected for constructing irrigation tanks.Adiga (2006), p230


Culture


Religion

The Western Gangas gave patronage to all the major religions of the time;
Jainism Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religions, Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current ...
and the Hindu sects of
Shaivism Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangi ...
,
Vedic upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...
Brahmanism The historical Vedic religion (also known as Vedicism, Vedism or ancient Hinduism and subsequently Brahmanism (also spelled as Brahminism)), constituted the religious ideas and practices among some Indo-Aryan peoples of northwest Indian Subco ...
and
Vaishnavism Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...
. However scholars have argued that not all Gangas kings may have given equal priority to all the faiths. Some historians believe that the Gangas were ardent Jains.Dr. Lewis Rice, S. R. Sharma and M. V. Krishna Rao However, inscriptions contradict this by providing references to ''kalamukhas'' (staunch Shaiva ascetics), ''pasupatas'' and ''lokayatas'' (followers of ''Pasupatha'' doctrine) who flourished in Gangavadi, indicating that Shaivism was also popular. King Madhava and Harivarma were devoted to cows and brahmins, King Vishnugopa was a devout
Vaishnava Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...
,Srikantha Shastri in Kamath (2001), p49 Madhava III's and Avinita's inscriptions describe lavish endowments to Jain orders and templesAdiga (2006), p249 and King Durvinita performed Vedic sacrifices prompting historians to claim he was a
Hindu Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism.Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...
.Srikanta Sastri in Jainism became popular in the dynasty in the 8th century when the ruler King Shivamara I constructed numerous Jain ''
basadi A Jain temple, Derasar (Gujarati: દેરાસર) or Basadi (Kannada: ಬಸದಿ) is the place of worship for Jains, the followers of Jainism. Jain architecture is essentially restricted to temples and monasteries, and Jain buildings g ...
s''.From the Kulaganga and Narasimhapura copper plates (Adiga 2006, p255) King Butuga II and minister
Chavundaraya Chavundraya or Chamundaraya (Kannada ''Cāmuṇḍarāya, Cāvuṇḍarāya'', 940–989) was an Indian military commander, architect, poet and minister. He served in the court of the Western Ganga dynasty of Talakad (in modern Karnataka, In ...
were staunch Jains which is evident from the construction of the
Gommateshwara The Gommateshwara statue is a high monolithic statue on Vindhyagiri Hill in the town of Shravanbelagola in the Indian state of Karnataka. Carved of a single block of granite, it is one of the tallest monolithic statues in the world second on ...
monolith.From the Kudlur plates of Butuga II (Adiga 2006, p256) Jains worshipped the twenty four '' tirthankars'' (''Jinas'') whose images were consecrated in their temples. The worship of the footprint of spiritual leaders such as those of Bhadrabahu in
Shravanabelagola Shravanabelagola () is a town located near Channarayapatna of Hassan district in the Indian state of Karnataka and is from Bengaluru. The Gommateshwara Bahubali statue at Shravanabelagola is one of the most important tirthas (pilgrimage de ...
from the 10th century is considered a parallel to
Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
.P.B. Desai and Jaiswal in Adiga (2006), pp263–264 Some brahminical influences are seen in the consecration of the Gomateshwara monolith which is the statue of
Bahubali Bahubali (), a much revered figure among Jains, was the son of Rishabadeva (the first ''tirthankara'' of Jainism) and the brother of Bharata Chakravartin. He is said to have meditated motionless for a year in a standing posture (''kayotsarg ...
, the son of '' Tirthankar Adinatha'' (just as Hindus worshipped the sons of Shiva).Adiga (2006), p264 The worship of subordinate deities such as ''yaksa'' and ''yaksi'', earlier considered as mere attendants of the ''tirthankars'' was seen from the 7th century to the 12th century.Adiga (2006), pp264–265 Vedic Brahminism was popular in the 6th and 7th centuries when inscriptions refer to grants made to ''Srotriya'' Brahmins.Adiga (2006), p253 These inscriptions also describe the ''gotra'' (lineage) affiliation to royal families and their adherence of such Vedic rituals as ''asvamedha'' (horse sacrifice) and ''hiranyagarbha''.From the Bendiganhalli and Bangalore copper plates, the Chaluvanahalli plates, Kutalur grant, Kadagattur and Nallala grants of King Durvinita, Kondunjeruvu grant of King Avinita (Adiga 2006, pp281–282) Brahmins and kings enjoyed a mutually beneficial relationship; rituals performed by the brahmins gave legitimacy to kings and the land grants made by kings to brahmins elevated them in society to the level of wealthy landowners.Adiga (2006), p282 Vaishnavism however maintained a low profile and not many inscriptions describe grants towards its cause.Adiga (2006), p313 Some Vaishnava temples were built by the Gangas such as the ''Narayanaswami'' temples at
Nanjangud Nanjangud, officially known as Nanjanagudu, is a town in the Mysuru district of Indian state of Karnataka. Nanjangud lies on the banks of the river Kapila (also called Kabini), 23 km from the city of Mysore. Nanjangud is famous for the S ...
, Sattur and Hangala in modern Mysore district.From the Kalkunda inscription (Adiga 2006, pp314–316) The deity
Vishnu Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism. Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" within t ...
was depicted with four arms holding a conch (''sanka''), discus (''cakra''), mace (''gada'') and lotus (''padma'').Adiga (2006), p317 From the beginning of the 8th century, patronage to Shaivism increased in every section of the society; the landed elite, landlords, assemblies (''samaya''), schools of learning (''aghraharas'')Adiga (2006), p291 and minor ruling families such as the Bana, Nolamba and
Chalukya The Chalukya dynasty () was a Classical Indian dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty ...
clans.From the Nandi copper plates of Rashtrakuta
Govinda III Govinda III (reign 793–814 CE) was a famous Rashtrakuta ruler who succeeded his illustrious father Dhruva Dharavarsha. He was militarily the most successful emperor of the dynasty with successful conquests-from Kanyakumari in the south to Kan ...
of 800, Koyattur-12000 grant of King Dodda Naradhipa Bana in 810, the Ganiganur inscription, Nolamba King Mahendradhirajas grant of his house towards a Shaiva temple in 878, Baragur inscription of 914 of King Ayappadeva Nolamba, the Ninneshvaradeva temple built by King Dilipayya Nolamba in 942.
Among minor Chalukya kings, Narasinga Chalukya of Mysore constructed the Narasingeshwara temple and Kings Goggi and Durga build the Buteshvara temple at Varuna in modern Mysore region – From the Kukkarahalli, Manalevadi, Aragodupalli and Torevalli inscriptions, (Adiga 2006, 294) The Shaiva temples contained a Shiva ''linga'' in the
sanctum sanctorum The Latin phrase ''sanctum sanctorum'' is a translation of the Hebrew term ''קֹדֶשׁ הַקֳּדָשִׁים'' (Qṓḏeš HaQŏḏāšîm), literally meaning Holy of Holies, which generally refers in Latin texts to the holiest place of th ...
along with images of the mother goddess,
Surya Surya (; sa, सूर्य, ) is the sun as well as the solar deity in Hinduism. He is traditionally one of the major five deities in the Smarta tradition, all of whom are considered as equivalent deities in the Panchayatana puja and a m ...
(Sun god)This was popularised by the ''kalamukha'' monks (Adiga 2006, p292) and Nandi (a bull and attendant of Shiva) which was normally enshrined in a separate pavilion facing the sanctum.Adiga (2006), p301H.V. Stietencron in Adiga 2006, p303 The ''linga'' was man made and in some cases had etchings of
Ganapati Ganesha ( sa, गणेश, ), also known as Ganapati, Vinayaka, and Pillaiyar, is one of the best-known and most worshipped deities in the Hindu pantheon and is the Supreme God in Ganapatya sect. His image is found throughout India. Hindu ...
(son of Shiva) and
Parvati Parvati ( sa, पार्वती, ), Uma ( sa, उमा, ) or Gauri ( sa, गौरी, ) is the Hindu goddess of power, energy, nourishment, harmony, love, beauty, devotion, and motherhood. She is a physical representation of Mahadevi i ...
(consort and wife of Shiva) on it. Due to the vigorous efforts of priests and ascetics, Shaiva monastic orders flourished in many places such as Nandi Hills,
Avani Avani is a small village in Mulbagal, Mulabaagilu taluk, Kolara district in Karnataka, India, about ten miles from Kolar Gold Fields. The village is located at 32 km from Kolara, the district centre and 13 km from Mulabaagilu, the Talu ...
and Hebbata in modern Kolar district.From Nandi copper plates of 800, Avani pillar inscription, Perbetta hero stones, 878 inscription of Nolamba Mahendradhiraja, Baragur inscription of 919, 942 Tumkur grant and Basavanahalli inscriptions (Adiga 2006, p304–305)


Society

The Western Ganga society in many ways reflected the emerging religious, political and cultural developments of those times. Women became active in local administration because Ganga kings distributed territorial responsibility to their queens such as the feudal queen Parabbaya-arasi of KundatturFrom the Kuntur inscription of the 10th century (Adiga 2006, p203) and the queens of King Sripurusha, Butuga II and feudal king Permadi.Karmarkar (1947), p66 Inheritance of fiscal and administrative responsibility by the son-in-law, the wife or by the daughter is evident. The position of prime minister of King Ereganga II and position of ''nalgavunda'' (local landlord) bestowed upon Jakkiabbe, the wife of a fallen hero are examples. When Jakkiabbe took to asceticism, her daughter inherited the position.from the Bandalike inscription of 919 (Adiga 2006, p203)From the Shravanabelagola inscription (Adiga 2006, p204) The devadasi system (''sule'' or courtesan) in temples was prevalent and was modelled after the structures in the royal palace.Adiga (2006), p398 Contemporaneous literature such a ''
Vaddaradhane Vaddaradhane by Shivakotiacharya is the earliest extant prose work in Kannada. It is a didactic work consisting of nineteen stories and is based on Harisena's ''Brhatkathakosa''. The work is also known for mentioning the precursor to modern idl ...
'' makes a mention of the chief queen (''Dharani Mahadevi'') accompanied by lower ranking queens (''arasiyargal'') and courtesans of the women's royal quarter (''pendarasada suleyargal''). Some of the courtesans and concubines employed in the harem of the kings and chieftains were well respected, examples being Nandavva at whose instance a local chief made land grant to a Jain temple.From the Perur plates (Adiga 2006, p398) Education in the royal family was closely supervised and included such subjects as political science, elephant and horse riding, archery, medicine, poetry, grammar, drama, literature, dance, singing and use of musical instruments. Brahmins enjoyed an influential position in society and were exempt from certain taxes and customs due on land. In turn they managed public affairs such as teaching, local judiciary, functioned as trustees and bankers, managed schools, temples, irrigation tanks, rest houses, collected taxes due from villages and raised money from public subscriptions.Karmarkar (1947), pp. 72, 74 By virtue of a Hindu belief that killing of a brahmin (''Bramhatya'') was a sin, capital punishment was not applicable to them.Altekar (1934), p329 Upper caste
kshatriya Kshatriya ( hi, क्षत्रिय) (from Sanskrit ''kṣatra'', "rule, authority") is one of the four varna (social orders) of Hindu society, associated with warrior aristocracy. The Sanskrit term ''kṣatriyaḥ'' is used in the con ...
s (''satkshatriya'') were also exempt from capital punishment due to their higher position in the caste system. Severe crimes committed were punishable by the severing of a foot or hand.From the notes of Alberuni and Bouchet (Karmarkar 1947, p103) Contemporary literary sources reveal up to ten castes in the
Hindu caste system The caste system in India is the paradigmatic ethnographic example of classification of castes. It has its origins in ancient India, and was transformed by various ruling elites in medieval, early-modern, and modern India, especially the Mug ...
; three among kshatriya, three among brahmin, two among
vaishya Vaishya (Sanskrit: वैश्य, ''vaiśya'') is one of the four Varna (Hinduism), varnas of the Hinduism, Hindu social order in India. Vaishyas are classed third in the order of caste hierarchy. The occupation of Vaishyas consists mainly ...
and two among
shudra Shudra or ''Shoodra'' (Sanskrit: ') is one of the four '' varnas'' of the Hindu caste system and social order in ancient India. Various sources translate it into English as a caste, or alternatively as a social class. Theoretically, class ser ...
s.From the notes of Yuan Chwang (Karmarkar 1947, p103) Family laws permitted a wife or daughter or surviving relatives of a deceased person to claim properties such as his home, land, grain, money etc. if there were no male heirs. If no claimants to the property existed, the state took possession of these properties as ''Dharmadeya'' (charitable asset).From a modern Bijapur inscription of 1178 (Karmarkar, 1947, p104) Intercaste marriage, child marriage, marriage of a boy to maternal uncles daughter, ''Svayamvara'' marriage (where the bride garlands her choice of a groom from among many aspirants) were all in vogue.The ''Svayamvara'' marriage of Chalukya King
Vikramaditya VI Vikramaditya VI (r. 1076 – 1126 CE) became the Western Chalukya King after deposing his elder brother Someshvara II, a political move he made by gaining the support of Chalukya vassals during the Chola invasion of Chalukya territory.Sen ...
to Chandaladevi in the 11th century being an example (Karmarkar, 1947 p105)
Memorials containing
hero stone A hero stone (Vīragallu in Kannada, Naṭukal in Tamil) is a memorial commemorating the honorable death of a hero in battle. Erected between the second half of the first millennium BC and the 18th century AD, hero stones are found all over Ind ...
s (''virkal'') were erected for fallen heroes and the concerned family received monetary aid for maintenance of the memorial.Karmarkar (1947), p109 The presence of numerous ''Mahasatikals'' (or ''Mastikal'' – hero stones for a woman who accepted ritual death upon the demise of her husband) indicates the popularity of
Sati Sati or SATI may refer to: Entertainment * ''Sati'' (film), a 1989 Bengali film by Aparna Sen and starring Shabana Azmi * ''Sati'' (novel), a 1990 novel by Christopher Pike *Sati (singer) (born 1976), Lithuanian singer *Sati, a character in ''Th ...
among royalty.From the writings of Marco Polo, Ibn Batuta, Bernier and Tavernier (Karmarkar 1947, p110) Ritual death by ''
sallekhana ''Sallekhana'' ( IAST: ), also known as ''samlehna'', ''santhara'', ''samadhi-marana'' or ''sanyasana-marana'', is a supplementary vow to the ethical code of conduct of Jainism. It is the religious practice of voluntarily fasting to death by ...
'' and by ''jalasamadhi'' (drowning in water) were also practiced.Karmarkar (1947), p110 Popular clothing among men was the use of two unrestricted garments, a
Dhoti The dhoti, also known as veshti, vetti, dhuti, mardani, chaadra, dhotar, jaiñboh, panchey, is a type of sarong, tied in a manner that outwardly resembles "loose trousers". It is a lower garment forming part of the ethnic costume for men in the ...
as a lower garment and a plain cloth as upper garment while women wore
Sari A sari (sometimes also saree or shari)The name of the garment in various regional languages include: * as, শাৰী, xārī, translit-std=ISO * bn, শাড়ি, śāṛi, translit-std=ISO * gu, સાડી, sāḍī, translit-std= ...
s with stitched petticoats. Turbans were popular with men of higher standing and people used umbrellas made with bamboo or reeds.Karmarkar (1947), p111 Ornaments were popular among men and women and even elephants and horses were decorated. Men wore finger rings, necklaces (''honnasara'' and ''honnagala sara''), bracelets (''Kaduga'') and wristlets (''Kaftkina''). Women wore a nose jewel (''bottu''), nose ring (''mugutti''), bangles (''bale'' or ''kankana'') and various types of necklaces (''honna gante sara'' and ''kati sutra''). During leisure, men amused themselves with horse riding, watching wrestling bouts, cock fights and ram fights.Karmarkar (1947), p112 There existed a large and well organised network of schools for imparting higher education and these schools were known by various names such as ''agraharas'', ''ghatikas'', ''brahmapura'' or ''matha''.Karmarkar (1947), p113 Inscriptions mention schools of higher education at Salotgi, Balligavi,
Talagunda Talagunda is a village in the Shikaripura taluk of Shivamogga district in the state of Karnataka, India. Many inscriptions found here have provided insights into the rise of the Kadamba Dynasty. History Talagunda was earlier known as Sthanaku ...
,
Aihole Aihole (pronounced "Eye-hoḷé"), also referred to as Aivalli, Ahivolal or Aryapura, is a historic site of ancient and medieval era Buddhist, Hindu and Jain monuments in Karnataka, India that dates from the sixth century through the twelfth ...
,
Arasikere Arsikere is a city and taluka in the Hassan district in the state of Karnataka, India. It is the second largest city in Hassan district, demographically. Arsikere city municipal council consists of 31 wards. This region is known for its coco ...
and other places.


Literature

The Western Ganga rule was a period of brisk literary activity in Sanskrit and Kannada, though many of the writings are now considered extinct and are known only from references made to them. Chavundaraya's writing, ''Chavundaraya Purana'' (or ''Trishashtilakshana mahapurana'') of 978 CE, is an early existing work in prose style in Kannada and contains a summary of the Sanskrit writings, '' Adipurana'' and ''Uttarapurana'' which were written a century earlier by
Jinasena Jinasena (c. 9th century CE) was a monk and scholar in the ''Digambara'' tradition of Jainism. He was patronized by the Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha I. He was the author of ''Adipurana'' and '' Mahapurana''.Amoghavarsha I Amoghavarsha I (also known as Amoghavarsha Nrupathunga I) (r.814–878 CE) was the greatest emperor of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, and one of the most notable rulers of Ancient India. His reign of 64 years is one of the longest precisely dated mo ...
.Chopra, Ravindran, Subrahmanian 2003, p160 The prose, composed in lucid Kannada, was mainly meant for the common man and avoided any reference to complicated elements of Jain doctrines and philosophy. His writings seem to be influenced by the writings of his predecessor Adikavi Pampa and contemporary
Ranna Ranna may refer to: *Ranna, a subdivision of the town Auerbach in der Oberpfalz in Bavaria, Germany * Ranna, Estonia, a village in the former municipality Pala Parish, Estonia * Ranna (Danube), a river of Bavaria, Germany and of Upper Austria, trib ...
. The work narrates the legends of a total of 63 Jain proponents including twenty-four Jain ''Tirthankar'', twelve ''Chakravartis'', nine ''Balabhadras'', nine ''Narayanas'' and nine ''Pratinarayanas''.Sastri (1955), p357Kulkarni (1975) in Adiga (2006), p256 The earliest postulated Kannada writer from this dynasty is King Durvinita of the 6th century. ''
Kavirajamarga ''Kavirajamarga'' ( kn, ಕವಿರಾಜಮಾರ್ಗ) (850 C.E.) is the earliest available work on rhetoric, poetics and grammar in the Kannada language.Kamath (2001), p 90Narasimhacharya (1988), p 2 It was inspired by or written in part by ...
'' of 850 CE, refers to a Durvinita as an early writer of Kannada
prose Prose is a form of written or spoken language that follows the natural flow of speech, uses a language's ordinary grammatical structures, or follows the conventions of formal academic writing. It differs from most traditional poetry, where the f ...
.Sastri (1955), p355Narasimhacharya (1988), p2 Around 900 CE, Gunavarma I authored the Kannada works, ''Shudraka'' and ''Harivamsha''. His writings are considered extinct but references to these writings are found in later years. He is known to have been patronised by King Ereganga Neetimarga II. In ''Shudraka'', he has favourably compared his patron to King Shudraka of ancient times.Kamath (2001), p50Narasimhacharya (1988), p18 The great Kannada poet Ranna was patronised by Chavundaraya in his early literary days.One among the three gems of Kannada literature (Sastri 1955, p356) Ranna's classic ''Parashurama charite'' is considered a eulogy of his patron who held such titles as ''Samara Parashurama''.
Nagavarma I Nāgavarma I (c. 990) was a noted Jain writer and poet in the Kannada language in the late 10th century. His two important works, both of which are extant, are ''Karnātaka Kādambari'', a ''champu'' (mixed prose-verse metre) based romance n ...
, a brahmin scholar who came from
Vengi Vengi (or Venginadu) is a delta region spread over the Krishna and Godavari River, (also called Godavari and Krishna districts), the region is also known as Godavari Delta, that used to house world famous diamond mines in the Medieval period ...
in modern Andhra Pradesh (late 10th century) was also patronised by Chavundaraya. He wrote ''Chandombudhi'' (ocean of prosody) addressed to his wife. This is considered the earliest available Kannada writing in prosody. He also wrote one of the earliest available
romance Romance (from Vulgar Latin , "in the Roman language", i.e., "Latin") may refer to: Common meanings * Romance (love), emotional attraction towards another person and the courtship behaviors undertaken to express the feelings * Romance languages, ...
classics in Kannada called ''Karnataka Kadambari'' in sweet and flowing ''champu'' (mixed verse and prose) style. It is based on an earlier romantic work in Sanskrit by poet Bana and is popular among critics. ''Gajashtaka'' (hundred verses on elephants), a rare Kannada work on elephant management was written by King Shivamara II around 800 CE but this work is now considered extinct.Kamath (2001), p50 Other writers such as Manasiga and Chandrabhatta were known to be popular in the 10th century.Narasimhacharya (1988), p19 In an age of classical Sanskrit literature, Madhava II (brother of King Vishnugopa) wrote a treatise ''Dattaka Sutravritti'' which was based on an earlier work on erotics by a writer called Dattaka. A Sanskrit version of ''Vaddakatha'', a commentary on
Pāṇini , era = ;;6th–5th century BCE , region = Indian philosophy , main_interests = Grammar, linguistics , notable_works = ' (Sanskrit#Classical Sanskrit, Classical Sanskrit) , influenced= , notable_ideas=Descript ...
's grammar called ''Sabdavathara'' and a commentary on the 15th chapter of a Sanskrit work called ''Kiratarjunneya'' by poet Bharavi (who was in Durvinita's court) are ascribed to Durvinita.Kamath (2001), p49 King Shivamara II is known to have written ''Gajamata Kalpana''. Hemasena, also known as Vidya Dhananjaya authored ''Raghavapandaviya'', a narration of the stories of
Rama Rama (; ), Ram, Raman or Ramar, also known as Ramachandra (; , ), is a major deity in Hinduism. He is the seventh and one of the most popular '' avatars'' of Vishnu. In Rama-centric traditions of Hinduism, he is considered the Supreme Bein ...
and the
Pandava The Pandavas (Sanskrit: पाण्डव, IAST: Pāṇḍava) refers to the five legendary brothers— Yudhishthira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula and Sahadeva—who are the central characters of the Hindu epic ''Mahabharata''. They are acknowledg ...
s simultaneously through puns.Venkatasubbiah in Kamath (2001), p50 ''Gayachintamani'' and ''Kshatrachudamini'' which were based on poet Bana's work ''Kadambari'' were written by Hemasena's pupil Vadeebhasimha in prose style. and Chavundaraya wrote ''Charitarasara''.


Architecture

The Western Ganga style of architecture was influenced by the Pallava and Badami Chalukya architectural features, in addition to indigenous Jain features.Reddy, Sharma and Krishna Rao in Kamath (2001), pp 50–52 The Ganga pillars with a conventional lion at the base and a circular shaft of the pillar on its head, the stepped ''
Vimana Vimāna are mythological flying palaces or chariots described in Hindu texts and Sanskrit epics. The "Pushpaka Vimana" of Ravana (who took it from Kubera; Rama returned it to Kubera) is the most quoted example of a vimana. Vimanas are also men ...
'' of the shrine with horizontal mouldings and square pillars were features inherited from the Pallavas. These features are also found in structures built by their subordinates, the Banas and
Nolambas The Nolamba dynasty the area they held sway over is referred to as ''Nolambasa-37'' of Henjeru (Hemavathi), ''Nolambalige'' (''Nolambavadi''-32000), etc. R. Narasimhacharya states that the Nolambas were a native Kannada dynasty. Officers and kings ...
. The monolith of
Gomateshwara Bahubali (), a much revered figure among Jains, was the son of Rishabadeva (the first ''tirthankara'' of Jainism) and the brother of Bharata Chakravartin. He is said to have meditated motionless for a year in a standing posture (''kayotsarg ...
commissioned by Chavundaraya is considered the high point of the Ganga sculptural contribution in ancient Karnataka. Carved from fine-grained white granite, the image stands on a lotus. It has no support up to the thighs and is tall with the face measuring . With the serene expression on the face of the image, its curled hair with graceful locks, its proportional anatomy, the monolith size, and the combination of its artistry and craftsmanship have led it to be called the mightiest achievement in sculptural art in medieval Karnataka.Seshadri in Kamath (2001), p51 It is the largest monolithic statue in the world. Their free standing pillars called ''Mahasthambha'' or ''Bhrahmasthambha'' are also considered unique, examples of which are the Brahmadeva pillar and Tyagada Brahmadeva Pillar.If there is one aspect of Indian architecture which has its perfection and weakness, it is these free standing pillars (Fergusson in Kamath 2001, p52)Sarma (1992), p153, p206, p208 At the top of the pillar whose shaft (cylindrical or octagonal) is decorated with creepers and other floral motifs is the seated ''Brahma'' and the base of the pillar normally has engravings of important Jain personalities and inscriptions.In the whole of Indian art, nothing perhaps equals these pillars in good taste, Vincent Smith in Kamath (2001), p52 Other important contributions are the Jain basadis' whose towers have gradually receding stories (''talas'') ornamented with small models of temples. These tiny shrines have in them engravings of tirthankars (Jain saints). Semicircular windows connect the shrines and decorative
Kirtimukha Kirtimukha (Sanskrit: कीर्तिमुख ,', also ', a bahuvrihi compound translating to "glorious face") is the name of a swallowing fierce monster face with huge fangs, and gaping mouth, very common in the iconography of Hindu temple a ...
(demon faces) are used at the top. The
Chavundaraya basadi Chavundaraya basadi or Chamundaraya basadi or Boppa-Chaityalya is one of the fifteen basadis (Jain temples) located on the Chandragiri Hill in Shravanabelagola in the Indian state of Karnataka. Archaeological Survey of India has listed the Chav ...
built in the 10th or 11th century, Chandragupta basadi built in the 6th century and the monolithic of
Gomateshwara Bahubali (), a much revered figure among Jains, was the son of Rishabadeva (the first ''tirthankara'' of Jainism) and the brother of Bharata Chakravartin. He is said to have meditated motionless for a year in a standing posture (''kayotsarg ...
of 982 are the most important monuments at
Shravanabelagola Shravanabelagola () is a town located near Channarayapatna of Hassan district in the Indian state of Karnataka and is from Bengaluru. The Gommateshwara Bahubali statue at Shravanabelagola is one of the most important tirthas (pilgrimage de ...
.Some historians claim the Chavundaraya basadi was built by Chavundaraya himself while others argue it was the work of his on Jinadevana (Gopal et al. in Adiga 2006, p256). Another view holds that the original shrine was consecrated in the 11th century and built in memory of Chavundaraya (Settar in Adiga 2006, 256) Some features were added to the Chandragupta basadi by famous Hoysala sculptor Dasoja in the 12th century. The decorative doorjambs and perforated screen windows which depict scenes from the life of King
Chandragupta Maurya Chandragupta Maurya (350-295 BCE) was a ruler in Ancient India who expanded a geographically-extensive kingdom based in Magadha and founded the Maurya dynasty. He reigned from 320 BCE to 298 BCE. The Maurya kingdom expanded to become an empi ...
are known to be his creation.Adiga 2006, p269 The Panchakuta Basadi at Kambadahalli (five towered Jan temple) of about 900 with a Brahmadeva pillar is an excellent example of Dravidian art.Sarma (1992), pp153–167 The wall niches here are surmounted by ''torana'' (
lintel A lintel or lintol is a type of beam (a horizontal structural element) that spans openings such as portals, doors, windows and fireplaces. It can be a decorative architectural element, or a combined ornamented structural item. In the case of w ...
) with carvings of floral motifs, flying divine creatures (''gandharva'') and imaginary monsters ( ''makara'') ridden by ''Yaksas'' (attendants of saints) while the niches are occupied by images of tirthankars themselves.Adiga 2006, p268 Other notable constructions were the Vallimalai Jain caves and the Seeyamangalam Jain temple during the reign of
Rachamalla II Rachamalla II () was an emperor of the Western Ganga dynasty. Biography Rachamalla II was an emperor of the Western Ganga dynasty whose minister was Chavundaraya. See also * Vallimalai Jain caves Notes References

* 9th-century Indi ...
,Aravamuthan (1992), p30 and the 5th or 6th century Parshvanatha temple at the
Kanakagiri Jain tirth Kanakagiri Jain tirth kshetra also known as Kanakadri and Hemantha Desha is situated at about 3 km from Maleyuru, Chamarajanagar district, 53 km from the Mysore city and 182 km from Bengaluru. History It is one of the important ...
.Jain (2019), p18 The Gangas built many Hindu temples with impressive Dravidian gopuras containing stucco figures from the Hindu pantheon, decorated pierced screen windows which are featured in the ''mantapa'' (hall) along with '' saptamatrika'' carvings (seven heavenly mothers).Kamath (2001), p51 Some well known examples are the Arakeshvara Temple at Hole Alur,Sarma (1992), pp.105–111 Kapileswara temple at Manne, Kolaramma temple at Kolar, Rameshvara temple at Narasamangala,Sarma (1992), pp91–102 Nagareshvara temple at BegurSarma (1992), pp78–83 and the Kallesvara temple at Aralaguppe.Sarma (1992), pp88–91 At Talakad they built the Maralesvara temple, the Arakesvara temple and the Patalesvara temple. Unlike the Jain temples where floral frieze decoration is common, Hindu temples were distinguished by friezes (slab of stone with decorative sculptures) illustrating episodes from the epics and
purana Purana (; sa, , '; literally meaning "ancient, old"Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature (1995 Edition), Article on Puranas, , page 915) is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly about legends an ...
s. Another unique legacy of the Gangas are the number of ''virgal'' (hero stones) they have left behind; memorials containing sculptural details in relief of war scenes, Hindu deities, ''saptamatrikas'', Jain tirthankars and ritual death (such as the Doddahundi hero stone).Sarma (1992), p17, p202, p204


Language

The Western Gangas used Kannada and Sanskrit extensively as their language of administration. Some of their inscriptions are also bilingual in these languages. In bilingual inscriptions the formulaic passages stating origin myths, genealogies, titles of Kings and benedictions tended to be in Sanskrit, while the actual terms of the grant such as information on the land or village granted, its boundaries, participation of local authorities, rights and obligations of the grantee, taxes and dues and other local concerns were in the local language.Thapar 2003, pp393–394 The usage of these two languages showed important changes over the centuries. During the first phase (350–725), Sanskrit copper plates dominated, indicating the initial ascendancy of the local language as a language of administration and the fact that majority of the records from this phase were ''
brahmadeya Brahmadeya (Sanskrit for "given to Brahmana") was tax free land gift either in form of single plot or whole villages donated to Brahmanas in the early medieval India. It was initially practiced by the ruling dynasties and was soon followed up by t ...
'' grants (grants to Brahmin temples).Adiga (2006), p110 In the second phase (725–1000), lithic inscriptions in Kannada outnumbered Sanskrit copper plates, consistent with the patronage Kannada received from rich and literate Jains who used Kannada as their medium to spread the Jain faith.Thapar 2003, p396 Recent excavations at Tumbula near Mysore have revealed a set of early copper plate bilingual inscriptions dated 444. The genealogy of the kings of the dynasty is described in Sanskrit while Kannada was used to describe the boundary of the village. An interesting inscription discovered at Beguru near modern
Bangalore Bangalore (), officially Bengaluru (), is the capital and largest city of the Indian state of Karnataka. It has a population of more than and a metropolitan population of around , making it the third most populous city and fifth most ...
that deserves mention is the epigraph dated 890 that refers to a ''Bengaluru'' war. This is in ''Hale Kannada'' (old Kannada) language and is the earliest mention of the name of
Bangalore Bangalore (), officially Bengaluru (), is the capital and largest city of the Indian state of Karnataka. It has a population of more than and a metropolitan population of around , making it the third most populous city and fifth most ...
city. The Western Gangas minted coins with Kannada and Nagari legends,Kamath (2001), p12 the most common feature on their coins was the image of an elephant on the obverse and floral petal symbols on the reverse. The Kannada legend ''Bhadr'', a royal umbrella or a conch shell appeared on top of the elephant image. The denominations are the ''pagoda'' (weighing 52 grains), the ''fanam'' weighting one tenth or one half of the ''pagoda'' and the quarter ''fanams''.


Timeline

The template below shows the Timeline of Karnataka. Note the extent of time (around 700 years) the Ganga kingdom flourished.


See also

*
History of India According to consensus in modern genetics, anatomically modern humans first arrived on the Indian subcontinent from Africa between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago. Quote: "Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonization of South Asia by m ...
* History of South India


Notes


Bibliography

Books * * * * * * * * * * * * Web
"Gangas of Talakad"
by
S. Srikanta Sastri Sondekoppa Srikanta Sastri (5 November 1904 – 10 May 1974) was an Indian historian, Indologist, and polyglot. He authored around 12 books, over two hundred articles, several monographs and book reviews over four decades in English, Kannada, ...
* * * * * * * * * * * * {{Karnataka topics States and territories established in the 350s States and territories established in the 4th century States and territories disestablished in the 1000s Hindu monarchs Dynasties of India Former countries in South Asia Ganga Jain dynasties 4th-century establishments in India 11th-century disestablishments in India