Ibn Taymiyyah (January 22, 1263 – September 26, 1328; ar, ابن تيمية), birth name Taqī ad-Dīn ʾAḥmad ibn ʿAbd al-Ḥalīm ibn ʿAbd al-Salām
al-Numayrī al-Ḥarrānī ( ar, تقي الدين أحمد بن عبد الحليم بن عبد السلام النميري الحراني ),
[Ibn Taymiyyah, Taqi al-Din Ahmad, The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001/acref-9780195125580-e-959 ] was a
Sunni Muslim ʿĀlim,
muhaddith
Hadith studies ( ar, علم الحديث ''ʻilm al-ḥadīth'' "science of hadith", also science of hadith, or science of hadith criticism or hadith criticism)
consists of several religious scholarly disciplines used by Muslim scholars in th ...
, judge,
proto-Salafist theologian, and sometimes controversial thinker and political figure.
He is known for his diplomatic involvement with the
Ilkhanid
The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate ( fa, ایل خانان, ''Ilxānān''), known to the Mongols as ''Hülegü Ulus'' (, ''Qulug-un Ulus''), was a khanate established from the southwestern sector of the Mongol Empire. The Ilkhanid realm, ...
ruler
Ghazan Khan
Mahmud Ghazan (5 November 1271 – 11 May 1304) (, Ghazan Khan, sometimes archaically spelled as Casanus by the Westerners) was the seventh ruler of the Mongol Empire's Ilkhanate division in modern-day Iran from 1295 to 1304. He was the son of A ...
and for his involvement at the
Battle of Marj al-Saffar which ended the
Mongol invasions of the Levant.
A member of the
Hanbali school
The Hanbali school ( ar, ٱلْمَذْهَب ٱلْحَنۢبَلِي, al-maḏhab al-ḥanbalī) is one of the four major traditional Sunni schools (''madhahib'') of Islamic jurisprudence. It is named after the Arab scholar Ahmad ibn Hanbal ...
, Ibn Taymiyyah's
iconoclastic
Iconoclasm (from Ancient Greek, Greek: grc, wikt:εἰκών, εἰκών, lit=figure, icon, translit=eikṓn, label=none + grc, wikt:κλάω, κλάω, lit=to break, translit=kláō, label=none)From grc, wikt:εἰκών, εἰκών + wi ...
views that condemned numerous folk practices associated with
saint veneration and the
visitation of tomb-shrines made him unpopular with many scholars and rulers of the time, and he was imprisoned several times.
[Laoust, H., "Ibn Taymiyya", in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Consulted online on December 13, 2016 ]
A polarising figure in his own times and in the centuries that followed, Ibn Taymiyyah has emerged as one of the most influential medieval writers in contemporary
Sunni Islam.
He was also noteworthy for engaging in intense religious polemics that defended
Athari
Atharī theology or Atharism ( ar, الأثرية: / , " archeological"), otherwise referred to as Traditionalist theology or Scripturalist theology, is one of the main Sunni schools of Islamic theology. It emerged as an Islamic scholarly mov ...
school against the followers of rival schools of ''
Kalam
''ʿIlm al-Kalām'' ( ar, عِلْم الكَلام, literally "science of discourse"), usually foreshortened to ''Kalām'' and sometimes called "Islamic scholastic theology" or "speculative theology", is the philosophical study of Islamic doc ...
'' (speculative theology); namely
Ash'ari
Ashʿarī theology or Ashʿarism (; ar, الأشعرية: ) is one of the main Sunnī schools of Islamic theology, founded by the Muslim scholar, Shāfiʿī jurist, reformer, and scholastic theologian Abū al-Ḥasan al-Ashʿarī in t ...
sm and
Maturidi
Māturīdī theology or Māturīdism ( ar, الماتريدية: ''al-Māturīdiyyah'') is one of the main Sunnī schools of Islamic theology, founded by the Persian Muslim scholar, Ḥanafī jurist, reformer (''Mujaddid''), and scholastic ...
sm. This would prompt numerous clerics and state authorities to accuse Ibn Taymiyyah and his disciples of being guilty of "''tashbīh''" (
anthropomorphism); which eventually led to the censoring of his works and subsequent incarceration. Nevertheless, Ibn Taymiyya's numerous treatises that advocated "creedal Salafism" (''al-salafiyya al-iʿtiqādīyya''), based on his particular interpretations of the
Qur'an
The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters (pl.: , s ...
and the
Sunnah, constitute the most popular classical reference for later
Salafi movements.
Ibn Taymiyya's rejection of some aspects of classical Islamic tradition are believed to have had considerable influence on contemporary
militant Islamist movements such as
Salafi-Jihadism.
Major aspects of his teachings such as upholding the pristine monotheism of the early Muslim generations and campaigns to uproot what he regarded as ''
shirk'' (idolatry); had a profound influence on
Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab
Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab ibn Sulayman al-Tamimi ( ar, محمد بن عبد الوهاب بن سليمان , translit=Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb ibn Sulaymān al-Tamīmī; 1703–1792) was an Arabian Islamic scholar, theologian, preacher, ac ...
, the founder of the Hanbali reform movement practiced in
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is a country in Western Asia. It covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula, and has a land area of about , making it the fifth-largest country in Asia, the second-largest in the A ...
, and on other later
Sunni scholars.
Syrian Salafi theologian
Muhammad Rashid Rida
Muḥammad Rashīd ibn ʿAlī Riḍā ibn Muḥammad Shams al-Dīn ibn Muḥammad Bahāʾ al-Dīn ibn Munlā ʿAlī Khalīfa (23 September 1865 or 18 October 1865 – 22 August 1935 CE/ 1282 - 1354 AH), widely known as Sayyid Rashid Rida ( ar, ...
(d. 1935 C.E/ 1354 A.H), one of the major modern proponents of his works, designated Ibn Taymiyya as the ''
Mujaddid
A ''mujaddid'' ( ar, مجدد), is an Islamic term for one who brings "renewal" ( ar, تجديد, translit=tajdid, label=none) to the religion. According to the popular Muslim tradition, it refers to a person who appears at the turn of every ...
'' (renewer) of the Islamic 7th century of
Hijri year
The Hijri year ( ar, سَنة هِجْريّة) or era ( ''at-taqwīm al-hijrī'') is the era used in the Islamic lunar calendar. It begins its count from the Islamic New Year in which Muhammad and his followers migrated from Mecca to Yathr ...
. Ibn Taymiyyah's doctrinal positions on the necessity of an
Islamic political entity and his controversial ''
fatwas'', such as his ''
Takfir
''Takfir'' or ''takfīr'' ( ar, تكفير, takfīr) is an Arabic and Islamic term which denotes excommunication from Islam of one Muslim by another, i.e. accusing another Muslim to be an apostate. The word is found neither in the Quran nor in the ...
'' (declaration of unbelief) of the
Mongol
The Mongols ( mn, Монголчууд, , , ; ; russian: Монголы) are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, Inner Mongolia in China and the Buryatia Republic of the Russian Federation. The Mongols are the principal member ...
Ilkhanate
The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate ( fa, ایل خانان, ''Ilxānān''), known to the Mongols as ''Hülegü Ulus'' (, ''Qulug-un Ulus''), was a khanate established from the southwestern sector of the Mongol Empire. The Ilkhanid realm ...
s, allowing
jihad against other self-professed Muslims, are referenced by
al-Qaeda and other
jihadist
Jihadism is a neologism which is used in reference to "militant Islamic movements that are perceived as existentially threatening to the West" and "rooted in political Islam."Compare: Appearing earlier in the Pakistani and Indian media, Wes ...
groups to justify militant overthrowal of contemporary governments of the
Muslim world
The terms Muslim world and Islamic world commonly refer to the Islamic community, which is also known as the Ummah. This consists of all those who adhere to the religious beliefs and laws of Islam or to societies in which Islam is practiced. I ...
.
Name
Ibn Taymiyyah's full name is Taqiy al-Din 'Abu al-Abbas 'Aḥmad ibn ʿAbd al-Ḥalīm ibn ʿAbd as-Salām'' ''ibn ʿAbdullāh ibn al-Khiḍr ibn Muḥammad ibn al-Khiḍr ibn ʾIbrāhīm ibn ʿAli ibn ʿAbdullāh an-Numayrī al-Ḥarrānī''
( ar, أحمد بن عبد الحليم بن عبد السلام بن عبد الله بن الخضر بن محمد بن الخضر بن إبراهيم بن علي بن عبد الله النميري الحراني).
Ibn Taymiyyah's () name is unusual in that it is derived from a female member of his family as opposed to a male member, which was the normal custom at the time and still is now. The title "''Taymiyyah''" comes from the mother of his forefathers who was called ''Taymiyahh.'' She was an admonisher and he was ascribed to her and became known through the name, "''Ibn Taymiyahh''".
Taymiyyah was a prominent woman, famous for her scholarship and piety and the name Ibn Taymiyyah was taken up by many of her male descendants.
Overview
Ibn Taymiyyah had a simple life, most of which he dedicated to learning, writing, and teaching. He never married nor did he have a female companion throughout his years.
Al-Matroudi says that this may be why he was able to engage fully with the political affairs of his time without holding any official position such as that of a judge.
An offer of an official position was made to him but he never accepted.
His life was that of a religious scholar and a political activist.
In his efforts he was persecuted and imprisoned on six occasions with the total time spent inside prison coming to over six years.
Other sources say that he spent over twelve years in prison.
His detentions were due to certain elements of his creed and his views on some jurisprudential issues.
However, according to
Yahya Michot, "the real reasons were more trivial". Michot gives five reasons as to why Ibn Taymiyyah was imprisoned, they being: not complying with the "doctrines and practices prevalent among powerful religious and Sufi establishments, an overly outspoken personality, the jealousy of his peers, the risk to public order due to this popular appeal and political intrigues."
Baber Johansen, a professor at the Harvard Divinity School, says that the reasons for Ibn Taymiyyah's incarcerations were, "as a result of his conflicts with Muslim mystics, jurists, and theologians, who were able to persuade the political authorities of the necessity to limit Ibn Taymiyyah's range of action through political censorship and incarceration."
Ibn Taymiyyah's own relationship, as a religious scholar, with the ruling apparatus was not always amicable.
It ranged from silence to open rebellion.
On occasions when he shared the same views and aims as the ruling authorities his contributions were welcomed, but when Ibn Taymiyyah went against the status quo, he was seen as "uncooperative", and on occasions spent much time in prison.
Ibn Taymiyyah's attitude towards his own rulers was based on the actions of
Muhammad's companions
The Companions of the Prophet ( ar, اَلصَّحَابَةُ; ''aṣ-ṣaḥāba'' meaning "the companions", from the verb meaning "accompany", "keep company with", "associate with") were the disciples and followers of Muhammad who saw or m ...
when they made an oath of allegiance to him as follows; "to obey within obedience to God, even if the one giving the order is unjust; to abstain from disputing the authority of those who exert it; and to speak out the truth, or take up its cause without fear in respect of God, of blame from anyone."
Early years
Family
Ibn Taymiyyah's father had the Hanbali chair in
Harran
Harran (), historically known as Carrhae ( el, Kάρραι, Kárrhai), is a rural town and district of the Şanlıurfa Province in southeastern Turkey, approximately 40 kilometres (25 miles) southeast of Urfa and 20 kilometers from the border cr ...
and later at the
Umayyad Mosque
The Umayyad Mosque ( ar, الجامع الأموي, al-Jāmiʿ al-Umawī), also known as the Great Mosque of Damascus ( ar, الجامع الدمشق, al-Jāmiʿ al-Damishq), located in the old city of Damascus, the capital of Syria, is one of the ...
. Harran was a city part of the
Sultanate of Rum, now Harran is a small city on the border of
Syria and Turkey, currently in
Şanlıurfa Province
Şanlıurfa Province ( tr, Şanlıurfa ili; ku, Parêzgeha Rihayê) or simply Urfa Province is a province in southeastern Turkey. The city of Şanlıurfa is the capital of the province which bears its name. The population is 1,845,667 (2014). The ...
.
At the beginning of the Islamic period, Harran was located in the land of the
Mudar
The Mudar ( ar, مُضَر) are one of the most powerful northern Arab tribal groupings.
History
The Mudar and Rabi'a are recorded in central Arabia in the Arabic histories of the pre-Islamic period; the kings of the Kindah bore the title o ...
tribe (
Diyar Mudar
Diyar Mudar ( ar, دِيَارُ مُضَرَ, Diyār Muḍar, abode of Mudar) is the medieval Arabic name of the westernmost of the three provinces of al-Jazira (Upper Mesopotamia), the other two being Diyar Bakr and Diyar Rabi'a. According to t ...
). Before its
destruction by the Mongols, Harran was also well known since the early days of Islam for its
Hanbali
The Hanbali school ( ar, ٱلْمَذْهَب ٱلْحَنۢبَلِي, al-maḏhab al-ḥanbalī) is one of the four major traditional Sunni schools (''madhahib'') of Islamic jurisprudence. It is named after the Arab scholar Ahmad ibn Hanbal ...
school and tradition, to which Ibn Taymiyyah's family belonged.
His grandfather,
Abu al-Barkat Majd ad-Din ibn Taymiyyah
Abu al-Barkat Majd ad-Din ibn Taymiyyah ( ar, عبد السلام بن عبد الله بن الخضر بن محمد بن تيمية الحراني، أبو البركات مجد الدين) (1194 - 1255) was Muslim scholar muhaddith, theologian, ...
al-Hanbali (d. 1255) and his uncle, Fakhr al-Din (d. 1225) were reputable scholars of the
Hanbali
The Hanbali school ( ar, ٱلْمَذْهَب ٱلْحَنۢبَلِي, al-maḏhab al-ḥanbalī) is one of the four major traditional Sunni schools (''madhahib'') of Islamic jurisprudence. It is named after the Arab scholar Ahmad ibn Hanbal ...
school of law
A law school (also known as a law centre or college of law) is an institution specializing in legal education, usually involved as part of a process for becoming a lawyer within a given jurisdiction.
Law degrees Argentina
In Argentina, l ...
.
Likewise, the scholarly achievements of his father,
Shihab al-Din Abd al-Halim ibn Taymiyyah
Shihab al-Din Abd al-Halim ibn Taymiyyah ( ar, شهاب الدين أبي المحاسن عبد الحليم بن مجد الدين أبي البركات عبد السلام بن عبد الله الحراني) (1230 - 1284) was Muslim scholar ...
(d. 1284) were also well known.
Education
In 1269, aged seven, Ibn Taymiyyah, left Harran together with his father and three brothers. The city was completely destroyed by the ensuing Mongol invasion.
Ibn Taymiyyah's family moved and settled in
Damascus,
Syria, which at the time was ruled by the
Mamluk Sultanate
The Mamluk Sultanate ( ar, سلطنة المماليك, translit=Salṭanat al-Mamālīk), also known as Mamluk Egypt or the Mamluk Empire, was a state that ruled Egypt, the Levant and the Hejaz (western Arabia) from the mid-13th to early 16t ...
.
In Damascus, his father served as the director of the Sukkariyya Madrasa, a place where Ibn Taymiyyah also received his early education.
Ibn Taymiyyah acquainted himself with the
religious and secular sciences of his time. His religious studies began in his early teens, when he committed the entire Qur'an to memory and later on came to learn the Islamic disciplines of the Qur'an. From his father he learnt the religious science of ''
fiqh
''Fiqh'' (; ar, فقه ) is Islamic jurisprudence. Muhammad-> Companions-> Followers-> Fiqh.
The commands and prohibitions chosen by God were revealed through the agency of the Prophet in both the Quran and the Sunnah (words, deeds, and ...
'' (jurisprudence) and
''usul al-fiqh'' (principles of jurisprudence). Ibn Taymiyyah learnt the works of
Ahmad ibn Hanbal
Ahmad ibn Hanbal al-Dhuhli ( ar, أَحْمَد بْن حَنْبَل الذهلي, translit=Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal al-Dhuhlī; November 780 – 2 August 855 CE/164–241 AH), was a Muslim jurist, theologian, ascetic, hadith traditionist, and ...
,
al-Khallal,
Ibn Qudamah
Ibn Qudāmah al-Maqdisī Muwaffaq al-Dīn Abū Muḥammad ʿAbd Allāh b. Aḥmad b. Muḥammad ( ar, ابن قدامة المقدسي موفق الدين ابو محمد عبد الله بن احمد بن محمد ; 1147 - 7 July 1223), often re ...
and also the works of his grandfather, Abu al-Barakat Majd ad-Din.
His study of jurisprudence was not limited to the Hanbali tradition but he also learnt the other schools of jurisprudence.
The number of scholars under which he studied
hadith
Ḥadīth ( or ; ar, حديث, , , , , , , literally "talk" or "discourse") or Athar ( ar, أثر, , literally "remnant"/"effect") refers to what the majority of Muslims believe to be a record of the words, actions, and the silent approva ...
is said to number more than two hundred,
four of whom were women. Those who are known by name amount to forty hadith teachers, as recorded by Ibn Taymiyyah in his book called ''Arba`un Hadithan''. Serajul Haque says, based on this, Ibn Taymiyyah started to hear hadith from the age of five. One of his teachers was the first Hanbali Chief Justice of Syria, Shams ud-Din Al-Maqdisi who held the newly created position instituted by
Baibars as part of a reform of the judiciary.
Al-Maqdisi later on, came to give Ibn Taymiyyah permission to issue Fatawa (legal verdicts) when he became a
mufti
A Mufti (; ar, مفتي) is an Islamic jurist qualified to issue a nonbinding opinion (''fatwa'') on a point of Islamic law (''sharia''). The act of issuing fatwas is called ''iftāʾ''. Muftis and their ''fatwas'' played an important role ...
at the age of 17.
Ibn Taymiyyah's secular studies led him to devote attention to Arabic language and
Arabic literature
Arabic literature ( ar, الأدب العربي / ALA-LC: ''al-Adab al-‘Arabī'') is the writing, both as prose and poetry, produced by writers in the Arabic language. The Arabic word used for literature is '' Adab'', which is derived from ...
by studying Arabic grammar and
lexicography
Lexicography is the study of lexicons, and is divided into two separate academic disciplines. It is the art of compiling dictionaries.
* Practical lexicography is the art or craft of compiling, writing and editing dictionaries.
* Theoreti ...
under Ali ibn `Abd al-Qawi al-Tufi.
He went on to master the famous book of Arabic grammar, ''Al-Kitab'', by the Persian grammarian
Sibawayhi. He also studied mathematics, algebra,
calligraphy, theology (
''kalam''), philosophy, history and heresiography.
Based on the knowledge he gained from history and philosophy, he used to refute the prevalent philosophical discourses of his time, one of which was
Aristotelian philosophy.
Ibn Taymiyyah learnt about
Sufism and stated that he had reflected on the works of;
Sahl al-Tustari
Sahl al-Tustarī ( ar, سهل التستري) or Sahl Shushtarī ( fa, سهل شوشتری) according to Persian custom, born Abū Muḥammad Sahl ibn ʿAbd Allāh (c.818 CE (203 AH) – c.896 CE (283 AH)), was a Persian Sunni Muslim schola ...
,
Junayd of Baghdad
Junayd of Baghdad (; 830–910) was a Persian mystic and one of the most famous of the early Islamic saints. He is a central figure in the spiritual lineage of many Sufi orders.
Junayd taught in Baghdad throughout his lifetime and was an impo ...
,
Abu Talib al-Makki Abu Talib Muhammad ibn Ali al-Makki (; died 386 AH/996 AD in Baghdad), was a hadith scholar, Shafi'i jurist, and Sufi mystic.
Biography
He was born in the Abbasid province of Jibal in the early 3rd AH / 9th AD centuries.
Al-Makki grew up in Mecca ...
,
Abdul-Qadir Gilani,
Abu Hafs Umar al-Suhrawardi and
Ibn Arabi
Ibn ʿArabī ( ar, ابن عربي, ; full name: , ; 1165–1240), nicknamed al-Qushayrī (, ) and Sulṭān al-ʿĀrifīn (, , ' Sultan of the Knowers'), was an Arab Andalusian Muslim scholar, mystic, poet, and philosopher, extremely influen ...
.
At the age of 20 in the year 1282, Ibn Taymiyyah completed his education.
Life as a scholar
After his father died in 1284, he took up the then vacant post as the head of the Sukkariyya madrasa and began giving lessons on Hadith.
A year later he started giving lessons, as chair of the Hanbali
Zawiya on Fridays at the
Umayyad Mosque
The Umayyad Mosque ( ar, الجامع الأموي, al-Jāmiʿ al-Umawī), also known as the Great Mosque of Damascus ( ar, الجامع الدمشق, al-Jāmiʿ al-Damishq), located in the old city of Damascus, the capital of Syria, is one of the ...
, on the subject of
tafsir
Tafsir ( ar, تفسير, tafsīr ) refers to exegesis, usually of the Quran. An author of a ''tafsir'' is a ' ( ar, مُفسّر; plural: ar, مفسّرون, mufassirūn). A Quranic ''tafsir'' attempts to provide elucidation, explanation, in ...
(exegesis of Qur'an).
In November 1292, Ibn Taymiyyah performed the
Hajj and after returning 4 months later, he wrote his first book aged twenty nine called ''Manasik al-Hajj'' (Rites of the Pilgrimage), in which he criticized and condemned the
religious innovations he saw take place there.
Ibn Taymiyyah represented the Hanbali school of thought during this time. The Hanbali school was seen as the most traditional school out of the four legal systems (
Hanafi
The Hanafi school ( ar, حَنَفِية, translit=Ḥanafiyah; also called Hanafite in English), Hanafism, or the Hanafi fiqh, is the oldest and one of the four traditional major Sunni schools ( maddhab) of Islamic Law (Fiqh). It is named a ...
,
Maliki
The ( ar, مَالِكِي) school is one of the four major schools of Islamic jurisprudence within Sunni Islam. It was founded by Malik ibn Anas in the 8th century. The Maliki school of jurisprudence relies on the Quran and hadiths as primary ...
and
Shafii
The Shafii ( ar, شَافِعِي, translit=Shāfiʿī, also spelled Shafei) school, also known as Madhhab al-Shāfiʿī, is one of the four major traditional schools of religious law (madhhab) in the Sunnī branch of Islam. It was founded by ...
) because it was "suspicious of the
Hellenist
Classics or classical studies is the study of classical antiquity. In the Western world, classics traditionally refers to the study of Classical Greek and Roman literature and their related original languages, Ancient Greek and Latin. Classics ...
disciplines of philosophy and
speculative theology."
He remained faithful throughout his life to this school, whose doctrines he had mastered, but he nevertheless called for ''
ijtihad'' (independent reasoning by one who is qualified) and discouraged ''
taqlid
''Taqlid'' (Arabic تَقْليد ''taqlīd'') is an Islamic term denoting the conformity of one person to the teaching of another. The person who performs ''taqlid'' is termed ''muqallid''. The definite meaning of the term varies depending on con ...
''.
Relationship with the authorities
Ibn Taymiyyah's emergence in the public and political spheres began in 1293 when he was 30 years old, when the authorities asked him to issue a
fatwa (legal verdict) on Assaf al-Nasrani, a Christian cleric who was accused of insulting Muhammad.
He accepted the invitation and delivered his fatwa, calling for the man to receive the death penalty.
Despite the fact that public opinion was very much on Ibn Taymiyyah's side,
the Governor of Syria attempted to resolve the situation by asking Assaf to accept Islam in return for his life, to which he agreed.
This resolution was not acceptable to Ibn Taymiyyah who then, together with his followers, protested against it outside the governor's palace, demanding that Assaf be put to death,
on the grounds that any person—Muslim or non-Muslim—who insults Muhammad must be killed.
His unwillingness to compromise, coupled with his attempt to protest against the governor's actions, resulted in him being punished with a prison sentence, the first of many such imprisonments which were to come.
The French orientalist
Henri Laoust says that during his incarceration, Ibn Taymiyyah "wrote his first great work, ''al-Ṣārim al-maslūl ʿalā shātim al-Rasūl (The Drawn Sword against those who insult the Messenger).''"
Ibn Taymiyyah, together with the help of his disciples, continued with his efforts against what, "he perceived to be un-Islamic practices" and to implement what he saw as his religious duty of commanding good and forbidding wrong.
Yahya Michot says that some of these incidences included: "shaving children's heads", leading "an anti-debauchery campaign in brothels and taverns", hitting an atheist before his public execution, destroying what was thought to be a sacred rock in a mosque, attacking astrologers and obliging "deviant Sufi Shaykhs to make public acts of contrition and adhere to the Sunnah."
Ibn Taymiyyah and his disciples used to condemn wine sellers and they would attack wine shops in Damascus by breaking wine bottles and pouring them onto the floor.
A few years later in 1296, he took over the position of one of his teachers (Zayn al-Din Ibn al-Munadjdjaal), taking the post of professor of Hanbali jurisprudence at the Hanbaliyya madrasa, the oldest such institution of this tradition in Damascus.
This is seen by some to be the peak of his scholarly career.
The year when he began his post at the Hanbaliyya madrasa, was a time of political turmoil. The Mamluk sultan
Al-Adil Kitbugha
Kitbugha ( ar, كتبغا), royal name: al-Malik al-Adil Zayn-ad-Din Kitbugha Ben Abd-Allah al-Mansuri al-Turki al-Mughli; ar, الملك العادل زين الدين كتبغا بن عبد الله المنصورى التركى المغل ...
was deposed by his vice-sultan
Al-Malik al-Mansur Lajin who then ruled from 1297 to 1299. Lajin desired to commission an expedition against the Christians of the
Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia who formed an alliance with the
Mongol Empire and participated in the military campaign which lead to the destruction of Baghdad, the capital of the
Abbasid Caliphate
The Abbasid Caliphate ( or ; ar, الْخِلَافَةُ الْعَبَّاسِيَّة, ') was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abdul-Muttalib ...
, and the destruction of Harran, the birthplace of Ibn Taymiyyah, for that purpose, he urged Ibn Taymiyyah to call the Muslims to Jihad.
In 1298, Ibn Taymiyyah wrote his explanation for the ayat al-mutashabihat (the unclear verses of the Qur'an) titled Al-`Aqidat al-Hamawiyat al-Kubra (The creed of the great people of Hama).
The book is about divine attributes and it served as an answer to a question from the city of
Hama, Syria.
At that particular time
Ash'ari
Ashʿarī theology or Ashʿarism (; ar, الأشعرية: ) is one of the main Sunnī schools of Islamic theology, founded by the Muslim scholar, Shāfiʿī jurist, reformer, and scholastic theologian Abū al-Ḥasan al-Ashʿarī in t ...
tes held prominent positions within the Islamic scholarly community in both Syria and Egypt, and they held a certain position on the divine attributes of God. Ibn Taymiyyah in his book strongly disagreed with their views and this heavy opposition to the common Ash'ari position, caused considerable controversy.
Once more, Ibn Taymiyyah collaborated with the Mamluks in 1300, when he joined the
punitive expedition
A punitive expedition is a military journey undertaken to punish a political entity or any group of people outside the borders of the punishing state or union. It is usually undertaken in response to perceived disobedient or morally wrong beh ...
against the
Alawites
The Alawis, Alawites ( ar, علوية ''Alawīyah''), or pejoratively Nusayris ( ar, نصيرية ''Nuṣayrīyah'') are an ethnoreligious group that lives primarily in Levant and follows Alawism, a sect of Islam that originated from Shia Isl ...
and
Shiites
Shīʿa Islam or Shīʿīsm is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his successor (''khalīfa'') and the Imam (spiritual and political leader) after him, most n ...
, in the Kasrawan region of the
Lebanese mountains.
Ibn Taymiyyah believed that the Alawites were "more heretical than Jews and Christians",
and according to Carole Hillenbrand, the confrontation with the Alawites occurred because they "were accused of collaborating with Christians and Mongols."
Ibn Taymiyya had further active involvements in campaigns against the Mongols and their alleged Alawite allies.
In 1305, Ibn Taymiyyah took part in a second military offensive against the Alawites and the
Isma`ilis in the Kasrawan region of the Lebanese mountains where they were defeated.
The majority of the Alawis and Ismailis eventually converted to Twelver Shiism and settled in south Lebanon and the Bekaa valley, with a few Shia pockets that survived in the Lebanese mountains.
Involvement in the Mongol invasions
First invasion
The first invasion took place between December 1299 and April 1300 due to the military campaign by the Mamluks against the
Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia who were allied with the Mongols.
Due to the Mongol legal system that neglected ''
sharia'' and implemented
Yassa
Yassa (alternatively: ''Yasa'', ''Yasaq'', ''Jazag'', ''Zasag'', mn, Их засаг, ''Ikh Zasag'') was the oral law code of the Mongols declared in public in Bukhara by Genghis Khan'' de facto'' law of the Mongol Empire even though the "law" ...
; Ibn Taymiyya had declared ''
Takfir
''Takfir'' or ''takfīr'' ( ar, تكفير, takfīr) is an Arabic and Islamic term which denotes excommunication from Islam of one Muslim by another, i.e. accusing another Muslim to be an apostate. The word is found neither in the Quran nor in the ...
'' upon the Ilkhanid regime and its armies for ruling by
man-made laws, despite these laws being rarely enforced in Muslim majority regions in an extensive manner. Openly rejecting
Ghazan Khan
Mahmud Ghazan (5 November 1271 – 11 May 1304) (, Ghazan Khan, sometimes archaically spelled as Casanus by the Westerners) was the seventh ruler of the Mongol Empire's Ilkhanate division in modern-day Iran from 1295 to 1304. He was the son of A ...
's claim to "''pādishāh al-islām''" (King of Islam), a title which Ghazan took to legitimise his military campaigns, Ibn Taymiyya denounced him as an "infidel king" and issued numerous ''
fatwas
A fatwā ( ; ar, فتوى; plural ''fatāwā'' ) is a legal ruling on a point of Islamic law (''sharia'') given by a qualified '' Faqih'' (Islamic jurist) in response to a question posed by a private individual, judge or government. A jurist i ...
'' condemning the political order of the Tatars. The Ilkhanate army managed to managed to defeat the
Mamluk Sultanate
The Mamluk Sultanate ( ar, سلطنة المماليك, translit=Salṭanat al-Mamālīk), also known as Mamluk Egypt or the Mamluk Empire, was a state that ruled Egypt, the Levant and the Hejaz (western Arabia) from the mid-13th to early 16t ...
in
The Third Battle of Homs and reach
Damascus by the end of December 1299. Fearful of Mongol atrocities, many scholars, intellectuals and officers began to flee Damascus in panic. Ibn Taymiyya was one of those clerics who stood firm alongside the vulnerable Damascene citizens and called for an uncompromisng and heroic resistance to the
Tatar
The Tatars ()[Tatar]
in the Collins English Dictionary is an umbrella term for different invaders. Ibn Taymiyya drew parallels of their crisis with the
Riddah wars (Apostate wars) fought by the first
Muslim Caliph,
Abubakr, against the renegade
Arabian tribes
The Tribes of Arabia () or Arab tribes () are the ethnic Arab tribes and clans that originated in the Arabian Peninsula. The tribes of Arabia descend from either one of the two Arab ancestors, Adnan or Qahtan. Arab tribes have historically inhabit ...
that abandoned ''sharia''. Ibn Taymiyya severely rebuked those Muslims escaping in the face of Mongol onslaught and compared their state to the withdrawal of Muslims in the
Battle of Uhud.
In a passionate letter to the commander of the
Damascene Citadel, Ibn Taymiyya appealed:
"Until there stands even a single rock, do everything in your power to not surrender the castle. There is great benefit for the people of Syria. Allah declared it a sanctuary for the people of Shām—where it will remain a land of faith
Faith, derived from Latin ''fides'' and Old French ''feid'', is confidence or trust in a person, thing, or In the context of religion, one can define faith as " belief in God or in the doctrines or teachings of religion".
Religious people ofte ...
and '' sunna'' until the descent of the Prophet Jesus.”
Despite political pressure, Ibn Taymiyya's directives were heeded by the Mamluk officer and Mongol negotiations to surrender the Citadel stalled. Shortly after, Ibn Taymiyya and a number of his acolytes and pupils took part in a
counter-offensive
In the study of military tactics, a counter-offensive is a large-scale strategic offensive military operation, usually by forces that had successfully halted the enemy's offensive, while occupying defensive positions.
The counter-offensive ...
targeting various
Shia
Shīʿa Islam or Shīʿīsm is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his successor (''khalīfa'') and the Imam (spiritual and political leader) after him, mo ...
tribes allied to the Mongols in the peripheral regions of the city; thereby repelling the Mongol attack. Ibn Taymiyyah went with a delegation of
Islamic scholars to talk to
Ghazan Khan
Mahmud Ghazan (5 November 1271 – 11 May 1304) (, Ghazan Khan, sometimes archaically spelled as Casanus by the Westerners) was the seventh ruler of the Mongol Empire's Ilkhanate division in modern-day Iran from 1295 to 1304. He was the son of A ...
, who was the
Khan of the Mongol
Ilkhanate
The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate ( fa, ایل خانان, ''Ilxānān''), known to the Mongols as ''Hülegü Ulus'' (, ''Qulug-un Ulus''), was a khanate established from the southwestern sector of the Mongol Empire. The Ilkhanid realm ...
of Iran, to plead clemency
and to stop his attack on the Muslims. It is reported that none of the scholars said anything to the Khan except Ibn Taymiyyah who said:
You claim that you are Muslim and you have with you Mu'adhdhins, Mufti
A Mufti (; ar, مفتي) is an Islamic jurist qualified to issue a nonbinding opinion (''fatwa'') on a point of Islamic law (''sharia''). The act of issuing fatwas is called ''iftāʾ''. Muftis and their ''fatwas'' played an important role ...
s, Imams and Shaykhs
Sheikh (pronounced or ; ar, شيخ ' , mostly pronounced , plural ' )—also transliterated sheekh, sheyikh, shaykh, shayk, shekh, shaik and Shaikh, shak—is an honorific title in the Arabic language. It commonly designates a chief of ...
but you invaded us and reached our country for what? While your father and your grandfather, Hulagu
Hulagu Khan, also known as Hülegü or Hulegu ( mn, Хүлэгү/ , lit=Surplus, translit=Hu’legu’/Qülegü; chg, ; Arabic: fa, هولاکو خان, ''Holâku Khân;'' ; 8 February 1265), was a Mongol ruler who conquered much of West ...
were non-believers, they did not attack and they kept their promise. But you promised and broke your promise.
By early January 1300, the Mongol allies, the Armenians and Georgians, had caused widespread damage to Damascus and they had taken Syrian prisoners.
The Mongols effectively occupied Damascus for the first four months of 1303.
Most of the military had fled the city, including most of the civilians.
Ibn Taymiyyah however, stayed and was one of the leaders of the resistance inside Damascus and he went to speak directly to the Ilkhan,
Mahmud Ghazan
Mahmud Ghazan (5 November 1271 – 11 May 1304) (, Ghazan Khan, sometimes archaically spelled as Casanus by the Westerners) was the seventh ruler of the Mongol Empire's Ilkhanate division in modern-day Iran from 1295 to 1304. He was the son of ...
, and his vizier
Rashid al-Din Tabib.
He sought the release of Muslim and
dhimmi prisoners which the Mongols had taken in Syria, and after negotiation, secured their release.
Second invasion
The second invasion lasted between October 1300 and January 1301.
Ibn Taymiyyah at this time began giving sermons on jihad at the Umayyad mosque.
As the civilians began to flee in panic; Ibn Taymiyya pronounced ''
fatwas
A fatwā ( ; ar, فتوى; plural ''fatāwā'' ) is a legal ruling on a point of Islamic law (''sharia'') given by a qualified '' Faqih'' (Islamic jurist) in response to a question posed by a private individual, judge or government. A jurist i ...
'' declaring the
religious duty upon Muslims to fight the Mongol armies to death, inflict a massive defeat and expel them from Syria in its entirety. Ibn Taymiyyah also spoke to and encouraged the Governor of Damascus, al-Afram, to achieve victory over the Mongols.
He became involved with al-Afram once more, when he was sent to get reinforcements from Cairo.
Narrating Ibn Taymiyya's fierce stance on fighting the Mongols, Ibn Kathir reports:
Third invasion and ''Takfir'' of Ilkhanate Allies
The year 1303 saw the third
Mongol invasion
The Mongol invasions and conquests took place during the 13th and 14th centuries, creating history's largest contiguous empire: the Mongol Empire (1206- 1368), which by 1300 covered large parts of Eurasia. Historians regard the Mongol devastati ...
of Syria by Ghazan Khan.
What has been called Ibn Taymiyyah's "most famous" ''
fatwā
A fatwā ( ; ar, فتوى; plural ''fatāwā'' ) is a legal ruling on a point of Islamic law (''sharia'') given by a qualified '' Faqih'' (Islamic jurist) in response to a question posed by a private individual, judge or government. A jurist ...
''
[Janin, Hunt. ''Islamic Law: The Sharia from Muhammad's Time to the Present'' by Hunt Janin and Andre Kahlmeyer, McFarland and Co. Publishers, 2007 p.79] was his third ''fatwa'' issued against the Mongols in the
Mamluk's war. Ibn Taymiyyah declared that jihad against the Mongol attack on the Malmuk sultanate was not only permissible, but
obligatory
An obligation is a course of action that someone is required to take, whether legal or moral. Obligations are constraints; they limit freedom. People who are under obligations may choose to freely act under obligations. Obligation exists when ther ...
.
The reason being that the Mongols could not, in his opinion, be true Muslims despite the fact that they had converted to Sunni Islam because they ruled using what he considered 'man-made laws' (their traditional
Yassa
Yassa (alternatively: ''Yasa'', ''Yasaq'', ''Jazag'', ''Zasag'', mn, Их засаг, ''Ikh Zasag'') was the oral law code of the Mongols declared in public in Bukhara by Genghis Khan'' de facto'' law of the Mongol Empire even though the "law" ...
code) rather than Islamic law or ''Sharia'', whilst believing that the Yassa code was better than the Sharia law. Because of this, he reasoned they were living in a state of
jahiliyyah
The Age of Ignorance ( ar, / , "ignorance") is an Islamic concept referring to the period of time and state of affairs in Arabia before the advent of Islam in 610 CE. It is often translated as the "Age of Ignorance". The term ''jahiliyyah'' ...
, or
pre-Islamic pagan ignorance.
[Kepel, Gilles, ''The Prophet and the Pharaoh'', (2003), p.194] Not only were
Ilkhanate
The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate ( fa, ایل خانان, ''Ilxānān''), known to the Mongols as ''Hülegü Ulus'' (, ''Qulug-un Ulus''), was a khanate established from the southwestern sector of the Mongol Empire. The Ilkhanid realm ...
political elites and its military disbelievers in the eyes of Ibn Taymiyya; but anybody who joined their ranks were as guilty of ''
riddah'' (apostasy) as them:
The ''fatwa'' broke new Islamic legal ground because "no jurist had ever before issued a general authorization for the use of lethal force against Muslims in battle", and would later influence modern-day
Jihadists
Jihadism is a neologism which is used in reference to "militant Islamic movements that are perceived as existentially threatening to the West" and "rooted in political Islam."Compare: Appearing earlier in the Pakistani and Indian media, Wes ...
in their use of violence against other Muslims whom they deemed as apostates.
In his legal verdicts issued to inform the populace, Ibn Taymiyya classified the Tatars and their advocates into four types:
* ''Kaafir Asli'' (i.e, those original non-Muslims fighting inTatar armies and never embraced Islam)
* Muslims of other ethincities who became apostates due to their alliance with Mongols
* Irreligious Muslims aligned with Ilkhanids whom Ibn Taymiyya analogized with renegade Arabian tribes of the
Riddah wars
* Personally pious Muslims affiliated with the Mongol armies. Ibn Taymiyya harshly rebuked these people as the "most evil" faction; and argued that their piety was useless because of their decision to ally with non-Muslims who ruled by
man-made laws. This rationale was also expanded to
excommunicate
Excommunication is an institutional act of religious censure used to end or at least regulate the Koinonia, communion of a member of a congregation with other members of the religious institution who are in normal communion with each other. The ...
those "court scholars" who vindicated the Tatar authorities
Ibn Taymiyyah called on the Muslims to jihad once again and personally participated in the
Battle of Marj al-Saffar against the Ilkhanid army; leading his disciples in the field with a sword.
The battle began on April 20 of that year.
On the same day, Ibn Taymiyyah declared a ''fatwa'' which exempted Mamluk soldiers from fasting during
Ramadan so that they could preserve their strength.
Within two days the Mongols were severely crushed and the battle was won; thus ending Mongol control of Syria. These incidents greatly increased the scholarly prestige and social stature of Ibn Taymiyya amongst the masses, despite opposition from the establishment clergy. He would soon be appointed as the chief professor of the elite scholarly institute "''Kāmiliyya Dār al-Haḍīth''."
Contemporary Impact
Ibn Taymiyya's three unprecedented ''
fatwas'' (legal verdicts) that
excommunicated
Excommunication is an institutional act of religious censure used to end or at least regulate the communion of a member of a congregation with other members of the religious institution who are in normal communion with each other. The purpose ...
the
Ilkhanid
The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate ( fa, ایل خانان, ''Ilxānān''), known to the Mongols as ''Hülegü Ulus'' (, ''Qulug-un Ulus''), was a khanate established from the southwestern sector of the Mongol Empire. The Ilkhanid realm, ...
authorities and their supporters as
apostates
Apostasy (; grc-gre, ἀποστασία , 'a defection or revolt') is the formal disaffiliation from, abandonment of, or renunciation of a religion by a person. It can also be defined within the broader context of embracing an opinion that ...
over their neglect to govern by ''Sharia'' (Islamic law) and preference of the traditional
Mongol imperial code of
Yassa
Yassa (alternatively: ''Yasa'', ''Yasaq'', ''Jazag'', ''Zasag'', mn, Их засаг, ''Ikh Zasag'') was the oral law code of the Mongols declared in public in Bukhara by Genghis Khan'' de facto'' law of the Mongol Empire even though the "law" ...
; would form the theological basis of 20th century
Islamist and
Jihadist
Jihadism is a neologism which is used in reference to "militant Islamic movements that are perceived as existentially threatening to the West" and "rooted in political Islam."Compare: Appearing earlier in the Pakistani and Indian media, Wes ...
scholars and ideologues. Reviving Ibn Taymiyya's fatwas during the late 20th-century, Jihadist ideologues like
Sayyid Qutb
Sayyid 'Ibrāhīm Ḥusayn Quṭb ( or ; , ; ar, سيد قطب إبراهيم حسين ''Sayyid Quṭb''; 9 October 1906 – 29 August 1966), known popularly as Sayyid Qutb ( ar, سيد قطب), was an Egyptian author, educator, Islamic ...
,
Abd al-Salam al-Faraj,
Abdullah Azzam
Abdullah Yusuf Azzam ( ar, عبد الله يوسف عزام, translit=‘Abdu’llāh Yūsuf ‘Azzām; ) was a Salafi jihadist, a Palestinian scholar, and theologian of Sunni Islam. During the Soviet–Afghan War of the 1980s, he advocated " d ...
,
Usama bin Laden
Osama bin Mohammed bin Awad bin Laden (10 March 1957 – 2 May 2011) was a Saudi-born extremist militant who founded al-Qaeda and served as its leader from 1988 until his death in 2011. Ideologically a pan-Islamist, his group is designated ...
,
Ayman al-Zawahiri, etc. made public ''Takfir'' (excommunication) of contemporary governments of the
Muslim world
The terms Muslim world and Islamic world commonly refer to the Islamic community, which is also known as the Ummah. This consists of all those who adhere to the religious beliefs and laws of Islam or to societies in which Islam is practiced. I ...
and called for their revolutionary overthrowal through armed
Jihad.
Imprisonment on charges of anthropomorphism
Ibn Taymiyyah was imprisoned several times for conflicting with the prevailing opinions of the jurists and theologians of his day. A judge from the city of
Wasit
Wasit ( ar, وَاسِط, Wāsiṭ, syr, ܘܐܣܛ) is an ancient city in Wasit Governorate, south east of Kut in eastern Iraq.
History
The city was built by al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf in c. 702 CE on the west bank of the Tigris across from the hi ...
, Iraq, requested that Ibn Taymiyyah write a book on creed. His subsequent creedal work, ''
Al-Aqidah Al-Waasitiyyah, ''caused him trouble with the authorities.
Ibn Taymiyyah adopted the view that God should be described as he was literally described in the Qur'an and in the hadith,
and that all Muslims were required to believe this because according to him it was the view held by the early Muslim community (''salaf'').
Within the space of two years (1305–1306) four separate religious council hearings were held to assess the correctness of his creed.
The first hearing was held with
Ash'ari
Ashʿarī theology or Ashʿarism (; ar, الأشعرية: ) is one of the main Sunnī schools of Islamic theology, founded by the Muslim scholar, Shāfiʿī jurist, reformer, and scholastic theologian Abū al-Ḥasan al-Ashʿarī in t ...
scholars who accused Ibn Taymiyyah of
anthropomorphism.
At the time Ibn Taymiyyah was 42 years old. He was protected by the then Governor of Damascus,
Aqqush al-Afram Jamal al-Din Aqqush al-Afram al-Mansuri (died 1336) was a high-ranking Mamluk emir and defector, who served as the Mamluk viceroy of Damascus and later the Ilkhanid governor of Hamadan.
Mamluk emir
Aqqush al-Afram was an ethnic Circassian and beg ...
, during the proceedings.
The scholars suggested that he accept that his creed was simply that of the Hanbalites and offered this as a way out of the charge.
However, if Ibn Taymiyyah ascribed his creed to the Hanbali school of law then it would be just one view out of the four schools which one could follow rather than a creed everybody must adhere to.
Uncompromising, Ibn Taymiyyah maintained that it was obligatory for all scholars to adhere to his creed.
Two separate councils were held a year later on January 22 and 28, 1306.
The first council was in the house of the Governor of Damascus Aqqush al-Afram, who had protected him the year before when facing the Shafii scholars.
A second hearing was held six days later where the Indian scholar
Safi al-Din al-Hindi found him innocent of all charges and accepted that his creed was in line with the "Qur'an and the Sunnah".
Regardless, in April 1306 the chief Islamic judges of the Mamluk state declared Ibn Taymiyyah guilty and he was incarcerated.
He was released four months later in September.
After his release in Damascus, the doubts regarding his creed seemed to have resolved but this was not the case.
A Shafii scholar, Ibn al-Sarsari, was insistent on starting another hearing against Ibn Taymiyyah which was held once again at the house of the Governor of Damascus, Al-Afram.
His book ''Al-Aqidah Al-Waasitiyyah'' was still not found at fault.
At the conclusion of this hearing, Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn al-Sarsari were sent to Cairo to settle the problem.
Life in Egypt
His debate on anthropomorphism and his imprisonment
On the arrival of Ibn Taymiyyah and the Shafi'ite scholar in Cairo in 1306, an open meeting was held. The Mamluk sultan at the time was
Al-Nasir Muhammad
Al-Malik an-Nasir Nasir ad-Din Muhammad ibn Qalawun ( ar, الملك الناصر ناصر الدين محمد بن قلاوون), commonly known as an-Nasir Muhammad ( ar, الناصر محمد), or by his kunya: Abu al-Ma'ali () or as Ibn Qal ...
and his deputy attended the open meeting. Ibn Taymiyyah was found innocent. Despite the open meeting, objections regarding his creed continued and he was summoned to the Citadel in Cairo for a ''munazara'' (legal debate), which took place on April 8, 1306. During the ''munazara'', his views on divine attributes, specifically whether a direction could be attributed to God, were debated by the Indian scholar Safi al-Din al-Hindi, in the presence of Islamic judges.
Ibn Taymiyyah failed to convince the judges of his position and so was incarcerated for the charge of anthropomorphism on the recommendation of al-Hindi.
Thereafter, he together with his two brothers were imprisoned in the Citadel of the Mountain (''Qal'at al-Jabal''), in Cairo until September 25, 1307.
He was freed due to the help he received from two ''amirs'';
Salar and
Muhanna ibn Isa, but he was not allowed to go back to Syria.
He was then again summoned for a legal debate, but this time he convinced the judges that his views were correct and he was allowed to go free.
His trial for intercession and his imprisonment
![Porte de la citadelle et mosquee Mouhammed Aly](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Porte_de_la_citadelle_et_mosquee_Mouhammed_Aly.jpg)
Ibn Taymiyyah continued to face troubles for his views which were found to be at odds with those of his contemporaries. His strong opposition to what he believed to be religious innovations, caused upset among the prominent Sufis of Egypt including
Ibn Ata Allah and Karim al-Din al-Amuli, and the locals who started to protest against him.
Their main contention was Ibn Taymiyyah's stance on
tawassul (intercession).
In his view, a person could not ask anyone other than God for help except on the
Day of Judgement when intercession in his view would be possible. At the time, the people did not restrict intercession to just the Day of Judgement but rather they said it was allowed in other cases. Due to this, Ibn Taymiyyah, now aged 45, was ordered to appear before the Shafi'i judge Badr al-Din in March 1308 and was questioned on his stance regarding intercession.
Thereafter, he was incarcerated in the prison of the judges in Cairo for some months.
After his release, he was allowed to return to Syria, should he so wish.
Ibn Taymiyyah however stayed in Egypt for a further five years.
House arrest in Alexandria
1309, the year after his release, saw a new Mamluk sultan accede to the throne,
Baibars al-Jashnakir. His reign, marked by economical and political unrest, only lasted a year.
In August 1309, Ibn Taymiyyah was taken into custody and placed under house arrest for seven months in the new sultan's palace in
Alexandria
Alexandria ( or ; ar, ٱلْإِسْكَنْدَرِيَّةُ ; grc-gre, Αλεξάνδρεια, Alexándria) is the second largest city in Egypt, and the largest city on the Mediterranean coast. Founded in by Alexander the Great, Alexandri ...
.
He was freed when al-Nasir Muhammad retook the position of sultan on March 4, 1310.
Having returned to Cairo a week later, he was received by al-Nasir.
The sultan would sometimes consult Ibn Taymiyyah on religious affairs and policies during the rest of his three-year stay in Cairo.
During this time he continued to teach and wrote his famous book Al-''Kitab al-Siyasa al-shar'iyya'' ''(Treatise on the Government of the Religious Law)'', a book noted for its account of the role of religion in politics.
Return to Damascus and later years
He spent his last fifteen years in Damascus. Aged 50, Ibn Taymiyyah returned to Damascus via Jerusalem on February 28, 1313.
Damascus was now under the governorship of
Tankiz
Sayf ad-Din Tankiz ibn Abdullah al-Husami an-Nasiri better known simply as Tankiz ( ar, تنكيز) (died May 1340) was the Damascus-based Turkic ''na'ib al-saltana'' (viceroy) of Syria from 1312 to 1340 during the reign of the Bahri Mamluk sult ...
. There, Ibn Taymiyyah continued his teaching role as professor of Hanbali fiqh. This is when he taught his most famous student,
Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya
Shams al-Dīn Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn Abī Bakr ibn Ayyūb al-Zurʿī l-Dimashqī l-Ḥanbalī (29 January 1292–15 September 1350 CE / 691 AH–751 AH), commonly known as Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya ("The son of the principal of he school ...
, who went on to become a noted scholar in Islamic history.
Ibn Qayyim was to share in Ibn Taymiyyah's renewed persecution.
Three years after his arrival in the city, Ibn Taymiyyah became involved in efforts to deal with the increasing Shia influence amongst Sunni Muslims.
An agreement had been made in 1316 between the ''amir'' of
Mecca
Mecca (; officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, commonly shortened to Makkah ()) is a city and administrative center of the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia, and the holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow ...
and the Ilkhanid ruler
Öljaitü
Öljaitü ( mn, , Öljaitü Qaghan, fa, اولجایتو), also known as Mohammad-e Khodabande ( fa, محمد خدابنده, ''khodābande'' from Persian meaning the "slave of God" or "servant of God"; 1280 – December 16, 1316), was the eig ...
, brother of Ghazan Khan, to allow a favourable policy towards Shi'ism in the city.
Around the same time the Shia theologian
Al-Hilli, who had played a crucial role in the Mongol ruler's decision to make Shi'ism the state religion of Persia, wrote the book
''Minhaj al-Karamah'''' (''The Way of Charisma'),
which dealt with the Shia doctrine of the
Imamate and also served as a refutation of the Sunni doctrine of the
caliphate
A caliphate or khilāfah ( ar, خِلَافَة, ) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with the title of caliph (; ar, خَلِيفَة , ), a person considered a political-religious successor to th ...
. In response, Ibn Taymiyyah wrote his famous book, ''
Minhaj as-Sunnah an-Nabawiyyah
Minhaj as-Sunnah an-Nabawiyyah ( ar, منهاج السنة النبوية) is a work by Ibn Taymiyyah. It was written as a refutation of a book by the Shi'a- Ithna'ashari theologian
Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the div ...
'', as a refutation of Al-Hilli's work.
his fatwa on divorce and imprisonment
In 1318, Ibn Taymiyyah wrote a treatise that would curtail the ease with which a Muslim man could
divorce
Divorce (also known as dissolution of marriage) is the process of terminating a marriage or marital union. Divorce usually entails the canceling or reorganizing of the legal duties and responsibilities of marriage, thus dissolving the ...
his wife. Ibn Taymiyyah's fatwa on divorce was not accepted by the majority of scholars of the time and this continued into the
Ottoman era
The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...
.
However, almost every modern Muslim nation-state has come to adopt Ibn Taymiyyah's position on this issue of divorce.
At the time he issued the fatwa, Ibn Taymiyyah revived an edict by the sultan not to issue fatwas on this issue but he continued to do so, saying, "I cannot conceal my knowledge".
As in previous instances, he stated that his fatwa was based on the Qur'an and hadith. His view on the issue was at odds with the Hanbali position.
This proved controversial among the people in Damascus as well as the Islamic scholars who opposed him on the issue.
According to the scholars of the time, an oath of divorce counted as a full divorce and they were also of the view that three oaths of divorce taken under one occasion counted as three separate divorces.
The significance of this was, that a man who divorces the same partner three times is no longer allowed to remarry that person until and if that person marries and divorces another person.
Only then could the man, who took the oath, remarry his previous wife.
Ibn Taymiyyah accepted this but rejected the validity of three oaths taken under one sitting to count as three separate divorces as long as the intention was not to divorce.
Moreover, Ibn Taymiyyah was of the view that a single oath of divorce uttered but not intended, also does not count as an actual divorce.
He stated that since this is an oath much like an oath taken in the name of God, a person must expiate for an unintentional oath in a similar manner.
Due to his views and also by not abiding to the sultan's letter two years before forbidding him from issuing a fatwa on the issue, three council hearings were held, in as many years (1318, 1319 and 1320), to deal with this matter.
The hearing were overseen by the Viceroy of Syria, Tankiz.
This resulted in Ibn Taymiyyah being imprisoned on August 26, 1320, in the
Citadel of Damascus
The Citadel of Damascus ( ar, قلعة دمشق, Qalʿat Dimašq) is a large medieval fortified palace and citadel in Damascus, Syria. It is part of the Ancient City of Damascus, which was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979.
The loc ...
.
He was released about five months and 18 days later, on February 9, 1321, by order of the Sultan Al-Nasir.
Ibn Taymiyyah was reinstated as teacher of Hanbali law and he resumed teaching.
His risāla on visits to tombs and his final imprisonment
In 1310, Ibn Taymiyyah had written a ''
risāla'' (treatise) called ''Ziyārat al-Qubūr''
or according to another source, ''Shadd al-rihal''. It dealt with the validity and permissibility of making a journey to visit the tombs of prophets and
saints. It is reported that in the book "he condemned the cult of saints"
and declared that traveling with the sole purpose of visiting
Muhammad's grave was a blameworthy religious innovation. For this, Ibn Taymiyyah, was imprisoned in the Citadel of Damascus sixteen years later on July 18, 1326, aged 63, along with his student Ibn Qayyim. The sultan also prohibited him from issuing any further fatwas.
Hanbali scholar Ahmad ibn Umar al-Maqdisi accused Ibn Taymiyah of apostasy over the treatise.
His life in prison
![Damaskus4](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Damaskus4.jpg)
Ibn Taymiyyah referred to his imprisonment as "a divine blessing".
During his incarceration, he wrote that, "when a scholar forsakes what he knows of the Book of God and of the ''sunnah'' of His messenger and follows the ruling of a ruler which contravenes a ruling of God and his messenger, he is a renegade, an unbeliever who deserves to be punished in this world and in the hereafter."
During his imprisonment, he encountered opposition from the Maliki and Shafii Chief Justices of Damascus, Taḳī al-Dīn al-Ikhnāʾī.
He remained in prison for over two years and ignored the sultan's prohibition, by continuing to deliver fatwas.
During his incarceration Ibn Taymiyyah wrote three works which are extant; ''Kitāb Maʿārif al-wuṣūl, Rafʿ al-malām'', and ''Kitāb al-Radd ʿala 'l-Ikhnāʾī'' (The response to al-Ikhnāʾī).
The last book was an attack on Taḳī al-Dīn al-Ikhnāʾī and explained his views on saints (wali).
When the Mongols invaded Syria in 1300, he was among those who called for a Jihad against them and he ruled that even though they had recently converted to Islam, they should be considered unbelievers. He went to Egypt in order to acquire support for his cause and while he was there, he got embroiled in religious-political disputes. Ibn Taymiyyah's enemies accused him of advocating
anthropomorphism, a view that was objectionable to the teachings of the
Ash'ari
Ashʿarī theology or Ashʿarism (; ar, الأشعرية: ) is one of the main Sunnī schools of Islamic theology, founded by the Muslim scholar, Shāfiʿī jurist, reformer, and scholastic theologian Abū al-Ḥasan al-Ashʿarī in t ...
school of Islamic theology, and in 1306, he was imprisoned for more than a year. Upon his release, he condemned popular Sufi practices and he also condemned the influence of
Ibn Arabi
Ibn ʿArabī ( ar, ابن عربي, ; full name: , ; 1165–1240), nicknamed al-Qushayrī (, ) and Sulṭān al-ʿĀrifīn (, , ' Sultan of the Knowers'), was an Arab Andalusian Muslim scholar, mystic, poet, and philosopher, extremely influen ...
(d. 1240), causing him to earn the enmity of leading Sufi shaykhs in Egypt and causing him to serve another prison sentence. In 1310, he was released by the Egyptian Sultan.
In 1313, the Sultan allowed Ibn Taymiyyah to return to Damascus, where he worked as a teacher and a jurist. He had supporters among the powerful, but his outspokenness and his nonconformity to traditional Sunni doctrines and his denunciation of Sufi ideals and practices continued to draw the wrath of the religious and political authorities in Syria and Egypt. He was arrested and released several more times, but while he was in prison, he was allowed to write Fatwas (advisory opinions on matters of law) in defense of his beliefs. Despite the controversy that surrounded him, Ibn Taymiyyah's influence grew and it spread from Hanbali circles to members of other Sunni legal schools and Sufi groups. Among his foremost students were Ibn Kathir (d. 1373), a leading medieval historian and a Quran commentator, and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziya (d. 1350), a prominent Hanbali jurist and a theologian who helped spread his teacher's influence after his teacher's death in 1328. Ibn Taymiyyah died while he was a prisoner in the citadel of Damascus and he was buried in the city's Sufi cemetery.
Death
He fell ill in early September 1328 and died at the age of 65, on September 26 of that year, whilst in prison at the Citadel of Damascus.
Once this news reached the public, there was a strong show of support for him from the people. After the authorities had given permission, it is reported that thousands of people came to show their respects. They gathered in the Citadel and lined the streets up to the Umayyad Mosque. The
funeral prayer was held in the citadel by scholar Muhammad Tammam, and a second was held in the mosque. A third and final funeral prayer was held by Ibn Taymiyyah's brother, Zain al-Din. He was buried in Damascus, in ''Maqbara Sufiyya'' ("the cemetery of the Sufis"). His brother Sharafuddin had been buried in that cemetery before him.
Oliver Leaman says that being deprived of the means of writing led to Ibn Taymiyyah's death.
It is reported that two hundred thousand men and fifteen to sixteen thousand women attended his funeral prayer.
Ibn Kathir says that in the history of Islam, only the funeral of Ahmad ibn Hanbal received a larger attendance.
This is also mentioned by Ibn `Abd al-Hadi.
Caterina Bori says that, "In the Islamic tradition, wider popular attendance at funerals was a mark of public reverence, a demonstration of the deceased's rectitude, and a sign of divine approbation."
Ibn Taymiyya is said to have "spent a lifetime objecting to tomb veneration, only to cast a more powerful posthumous spell than any of his Sufi contemporaries."
On his death, his personal effects were in such demand "that bidders for his lice-killing camphor necklace pushed its price up to 150 dirhams, and his skullcap fetched a full 500."
A few mourners sought and succeeded in "drinking the water used for bathing his corpse."
[Laoust, Henri, ''Essai sur les doctrines sociales et politiques de Taki-d-Din Ahmad b Timiya'', Cairo, 1939, pp.149–50] His tomb received "pilgrims and sightseers" for 600 years.
Almost 600 years after his death, the large Sufi cemetery where he was buried in was razed for redevelopment by French colonial authorities. His grave alone was left untouched after the Arab demolition teams "insisted" that his grave "was too holy to touch." . His resting place is now "in the parking lot of a maternity ward", though as of 2009 its headstone was broken, according to author
Sadakat Kadri
Sadakat Kadri (born 1964 in London) is a lawyer, author, travel writer and journalist. One of his foremost roles as a barrister was to assist in the prosecution of former Malawian president Hastings Banda. As a member of the New York Bar he has w ...
.
Students
Several of Ibn Taymiyyah's students became scholars in their own right.
His students came from different backgrounds and belonged to various different schools (madhabs).
His most famous students were
Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya
Shams al-Dīn Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad ibn Abī Bakr ibn Ayyūb al-Zurʿī l-Dimashqī l-Ḥanbalī (29 January 1292–15 September 1350 CE / 691 AH–751 AH), commonly known as Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya ("The son of the principal of he school ...
and
Ibn Kathir.
His other students include:
Legacy
In the 21st century, Ibn Taymiyya is one of the most cited medieval authors and his treatises are regarded to be of central intellectual importance by several Islamic revivalist movements. Ibn Taymiyya's disciples, consisting of both
Hanbali
The Hanbali school ( ar, ٱلْمَذْهَب ٱلْحَنۢبَلِي, al-maḏhab al-ḥanbalī) is one of the four major traditional Sunni schools (''madhahib'') of Islamic jurisprudence. It is named after the Arab scholar Ahmad ibn Hanbal ...
s and non-Hanbalis, were attracted to his advocacy of ''
ijtihad'' outside the established boundaries of the ''
madhabs
A ( ar, مذهب ', , "way to act". pl. مَذَاهِب , ) is a school of thought within ''fiqh'' (Islamic jurisprudence).
The major Sunni Mathhab are Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i and Hanbali.
They emerged in the ninth and tenth centuries CE an ...
'' and shared his taste for activism and religious reform. Some of his unorthodox legal views in the field of
Fiqh
''Fiqh'' (; ar, فقه ) is Islamic jurisprudence. Muhammad-> Companions-> Followers-> Fiqh.
The commands and prohibitions chosen by God were revealed through the agency of the Prophet in both the Quran and the Sunnah (words, deeds, and ...
were also regarded as a challenge by mainstream
Fuqaha. Many scholars have argued that Ibn Taymiyyah did not enjoy popularity among the intelligentsia of his day. Yossef Rapoport and Shahab Ahmed assert that he was a minority figure in his own times and the centuries that followed. Caterina Bori goes further, arguing that despite popularity Ibn Taymiyya may have enjoyed among the masses, he appears to have been not merely unpopular among the scholars of his day, but somewhat of an embarrassment.
Khalid El-Rouayheb notes similarly that Ibn Taymiyyah had "very little influence on mainstream Sunni Islam until the nineteenth century"
and that he was "a little-read scholar with problematic and controversial views."
He also comments "the idea that Ibn Taymiyyah had an immediate and significant impact on the course of Sunni Islamic religious history simply does not cohere with the evidence that we have from the five centuries that elapsed between his death and the rise of Sunni revivalism in the modern period."
It was only since the late nineteenth and the early twentieth centuries that the scholarly influence of Ibn Taymiyya has come to acquire an unprecedented prominence in Muslim societies, due to the efforts of Islamic revivalists like
Rashid Rida
Muḥammad Rashīd ibn ʿAlī Riḍā ibn Muḥammad Shams al-Dīn ibn Muḥammad Bahāʾ al-Dīn ibn Munlā ʿAlī Khalīfa (23 September 1865 or 18 October 1865 – 22 August 1935 CE/ 1282 - 1354 AH), widely known as Sayyid Rashid Rida ( ar, ...
. On the other hand, Prof. Al-Matroudi of
SOAS university says that Ibn Taymiyyah, "was perhaps the most eminent and influential Hanbali jurist of the Middle Ages and one of the most prolific among them. He was also a renowned scholar of Islam whose influence was felt not only during his lifetime but extended through the centuries until the present day."
Ibn Taymiyyah's followers often deemed him as
Sheikh ul-Islam, an honorific title with which he is sometimes still termed today.
In the pre-modern era, Ibn Taymiyyah was considered a controversial figure within Sunni Islam and had a number of critics during his life and in the centuries thereafter.
The
Shafi'i
The Shafii ( ar, شَافِعِي, translit=Shāfiʿī, also spelled Shafei) school, also known as Madhhab al-Shāfiʿī, is one of the four major traditional schools of religious law (madhhab) in the Sunnī branch of Islam. It was founded by ...
scholar
Ibn Hajar al-Haytami
Shihāb al-Dīn Abū al-ʿAbbās Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAlī ibn Ḥajar al-Haytamī al-Makkī al-Anṣārī known as Ibn Hajar al-Haytami al-Makki ( ar, ابن حجر الهيتمي المكي) was an Egyptian Arab muhaddith and theologi ...
stated that,
He also stated that,
Taqi al-Din al-Hisni condemned Ibn Taymiyya in even stronger terms by referring to him as the "heretic from Harran"
and similarly,
Munawi considered Ibn Taymiyyah to be an innovator though not an unbeliever.
Taqi al-Din al-Subki
Abu Al-Hasan Taqī al-Dīn Ali ibn Abd al-Kafi ibn Ali al-Khazraji al-Ansari al-Subkī ( ar, أبو الحسن تقي الدين علي بن عبد الكافي بن علي الخزرجي الأنصاري السبكي), was a leading polymath a ...
criticised Ibn Taymiyyah for "contradicting the consensus of the Muslims by his anthropomorphism, by his claims that accidents exist in God, by suggesting that God was speaking in time, and by his belief in the eternity of the world."
Ibn Battūta (d. 770/1369) famously wrote a work questioning Ibn Taymiyyah's mental state. The possibility of psychological abnormalities not with-standing, Ibn Taymiyya's personality, by multiple accounts, was fiery and oftentimes unpredictable. The historian
Al-Maqrizi
Al-Maqrīzī or Maḳrīzī (Arabic: ), whose full name was Taqī al-Dīn Abū al-'Abbās Aḥmad ibn 'Alī ibn 'Abd al-Qādir ibn Muḥammad al-Maqrīzī (Arabic: ) (1364–1442) was a medieval Egyptian Arab historian during the Mamluk era, kn ...
said, regarding the rift between the
Sunni Ash'ari's and Ibn Taymiyyah, "People are divided into two factions over the question of Ibn Taymiyyah; for until the present, the latter has retained admirers and disciples in Syria and Egypt."
Both his supporters and rivals grew to respect Ibn Taymiyyah because he was uncompromising in his views.
Dhahabi
Shams ad-Dīn adh-Dhahabī (), also known as Shams ad-Dīn Abū ʿAbdillāh Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn ʿUthmān ibn Qāymāẓ ibn ʿAbdillāh at-Turkumānī al-Fāriqī ad-Dimashqī (5 October 1274 – 3 February 1348) was an Islamic historia ...
's views towards Ibn Taymiyya were ambivalent.
His praise of Ibn Taymiyya is invariably qualified with criticism and misgivings
and he considered him to be both a "brilliant Shaykh"
and also "cocky" and "impetuous".
The
Hanafi
The Hanafi school ( ar, حَنَفِية, translit=Ḥanafiyah; also called Hanafite in English), Hanafism, or the Hanafi fiqh, is the oldest and one of the four traditional major Sunni schools ( maddhab) of Islamic Law (Fiqh). It is named a ...
-
Maturidi
Māturīdī theology or Māturīdism ( ar, الماتريدية: ''al-Māturīdiyyah'') is one of the main Sunnī schools of Islamic theology, founded by the Persian Muslim scholar, Ḥanafī jurist, reformer (''Mujaddid''), and scholastic ...
scholar
'Ala' al-Din al-Bukhari
Ala' al-Din al-Bukhari ( ar, علاء الدين البخاري), was a Hanafi jurist ( faqih), Maturidi theologian, commentator of the Qur'an (mufassir), and a mystic (Sufi). Sa'id Foudah suggest that he followed the Naqshbandi path.
He is p ...
said that anyone that gives Ibn Taymiyya the title
Shaykh al-Islām is a disbeliever. As a reaction, his contemporary Nasir ad-Din ad-Dimashqi wrote a refutation in which he quoted the 85 greatest scholars, from Ibn Taymiyyah's till his time, who called Ibn Taymiyyah with the title Shaykh al-Islam.
Despite the prevalent condemnations of Ibn Taymiyya outside Hanbali school during the pre-modern period, many prominent non-Hanbali scholars such as
Ibrahim al-Kurrani (d.1690),
Shāh Walī Allāh al-Dihlawi (d. 1762),
Mehmet Birgiwi (d. 1573), Ibn al-Amīr Al-San'ani (d. 1768),
Muḥammad al-Shawkānī (d. 1834), etc. would come to the defense of Ibn Taymiyya and advocate his ideas during this era. In the 18th century, influential South Asian
Islamic scholar
In Islam, the ''ulama'' (; ar, علماء ', singular ', "scholar", literally "the learned ones", also spelled ''ulema''; feminine: ''alimah'' ingularand ''aalimath'' lural are the guardians, transmitters, and interpreters of religious ...
and
revivalist Shah Waliullah Dehlawi would become the most prominent advocate of the doctrines of Ibn Taymiyya, and profoundly transformed the religious thought in South Asia. His seminary, ''Madrasah-i-Rahimya'', became a hub of intellectual life in the country, and the ideas developed there quickly spread to wider academic circles.
Making a powerful defense of Ibn Taymiyya and his doctrines, Shah Waliullah wrote:
The reputation and stature of Ibn Taymiyya amongst non-Ḥanbalī Sunni scholars would significantly improve between the eighteenth and twentieth centuries. From a little-read scholar considered controversial by many, he would become one of the most popular scholarly figures in the Sunni religious tradition. The nineteenth-century Iraqi scholar Khayr al-Dīn al-Ālūsī (d. 1899) wrote an influential treatise titled ''Jalā’ al-‘aynayn fi muḥākamat al-Aḥmadayn'' in defense of Ibn Taymiyya. The treatise would make great impact on major scholars of the Salafiyya movement in Syria and Egypt, such as
Jamāl al-Dīn al-Qāsimī (d. 1914) and Muḥammad Rashīd Riḍā (d. 1935). Praising Ibn Taymiyya as a central and heroic Islamic figure of the classical era, Rashid Rida wrote:
Ibn Taymiyyah's works served as an inspiration for later Muslim scholars and historical figures, who have been regarded as his admirers or disciples.
In the contemporary world, he may be considered at the root of
Wahhabism
Wahhabism ( ar, ٱلْوَهَّابِيَةُ, translit=al-Wahhābiyyah) is a Sunni Islamic revivalist and fundamentalist movement associated with the reformist doctrines of the 18th-century Arabian Islamic scholar, theologian, preacher, and ...
, the
Senussi order and other later reformist movements.
Ibn Taymiyyah has been noted to have influenced
Rashid Rida
Muḥammad Rashīd ibn ʿAlī Riḍā ibn Muḥammad Shams al-Dīn ibn Muḥammad Bahāʾ al-Dīn ibn Munlā ʿAlī Khalīfa (23 September 1865 or 18 October 1865 – 22 August 1935 CE/ 1282 - 1354 AH), widely known as Sayyid Rashid Rida ( ar, ...
,
Abul A`la Maududi,
Sayyid Qutb
Sayyid 'Ibrāhīm Ḥusayn Quṭb ( or ; , ; ar, سيد قطب إبراهيم حسين ''Sayyid Quṭb''; 9 October 1906 – 29 August 1966), known popularly as Sayyid Qutb ( ar, سيد قطب), was an Egyptian author, educator, Islamic ...
,
Hassan al-Banna
Sheikh Hassan Ahmed Abdel Rahman Muhammed al-Banna ( ar, حسن أحمد عبد الرحمن محمد البنا; 14 October 1906 – 12 February 1949), known as Hassan al-Banna ( ar, حسن البنا), was an Egyptian schoolteacher and imam, b ...
,
Abdullah Azzam
Abdullah Yusuf Azzam ( ar, عبد الله يوسف عزام, translit=‘Abdu’llāh Yūsuf ‘Azzām; ) was a Salafi jihadist, a Palestinian scholar, and theologian of Sunni Islam. During the Soviet–Afghan War of the 1980s, he advocated " d ...
, and
Osama bin Laden.
The terrorist organization
Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant
An Islamic state is a state that has a form of government based on Islamic law (sharia). As a term, it has been used to describe various historical polities and theories of governance in the Islamic world. As a translation of the Arabic term ...
used a fatwa of Ibn Taymiyyah to justify the burning alive of Jordanian pilot
Muath al-Kasasbeh. After the Iranian revolution, conservative Sunni ''
ulema
In Islam, the ''ulama'' (; ar, علماء ', singular ', "scholar", literally "the learned ones", also spelled ''ulema''; feminine: ''alimah'' ingularand ''aalimath'' lural are the guardians, transmitters, and interpreters of religious ...
'' robustly championed Ibn Taymiyya's
anti-Shia
Anti-Shi'ism is hatred of, prejudice against, discrimination against, persecution of, and violence against Shia Muslims because of their religious beliefs, traditions, and cultural heritage. The term was first used by Shia Rights Watch in 2 ...
polemics across the
Islamic World since the 1980s; and vast majority of Sunni intellectual circles adopted Ibn Taymiyya's rhetoric against Shi'ism.
Influences
Ibn Taymiyyah was taught by scholars who were renowned in their time. However, there is no evidence that any of the contemporary scholars influenced him.
A strong influence on Ibn Taymiyyah was the founder of the Hanbali school of Islamic jurisprudence, Ahmad ibn Hanbal. Ibn Taymiyyah was trained in this school and he had studied Ibn Hanbal's
Musnad in great detail, having studied it over multiple times. Though he spent much of his life following this school, in the end he renounced
taqlid
''Taqlid'' (Arabic تَقْليد ''taqlīd'') is an Islamic term denoting the conformity of one person to the teaching of another. The person who performs ''taqlid'' is termed ''muqallid''. The definite meaning of the term varies depending on con ...
(blind following).
His work was most influenced by the sayings and actions of the
Salaf
Salaf ( ar, سلف, "ancestors" or "predecessors"), also often referred to with the honorific expression of "al-salaf al-ṣāliḥ" (, "the pious predecessors") are often taken to be the first three generations of Muslims. This comprises Muhamm ...
(first 3 generation of Muslims) and this showed in his work where he would give preference to the Salaf over his contemporaries. The modern
Salafi movement derives its name from this school of thought.
In what may justifiably be described as an unscrupulous attempt of magnifying the purported influence of Ibn Taymiyyah on Jewish theology, the claim of the late Pakistani Islamic scholar Mawdudi deserves to be mentioned; if only for the purpose of correcting the published record. In his treatise ''Tajdīd-o-Ahyā-e-Dīn'' (Lahore: Islamic Publications, 31st Printing: 1999, p. 76; English edition translated by Al-Ash`ari titled: ''A Short History of the Revivalist Movement in Islam,'' Lahore: Islamic Publications, 9th edition: 2004, p. 43), Mawdudi advances the following claim about the influence of Ibn Taymiyyah by appealing to the authority of the great scholar Goldziher:
... he had acquired such an insight into the Jewish and Christian literatures and the differences between their religious sects that, according to Goldziher, no scholar who wanted to deal with the characters of the Bible could lose sight of and set aside the researches of Ibn-i-Taimiyyah.
As a matter of fact Goldziher expressed his views and analyses about Ibn Taymiyyah's influence in his ''The Zāhirīs'' (Engl. tr. 2008, pp. 173–177) as well as in his article on Ibn Taymiyyah in the ''Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics'' (Vol. 7, p. 72). In neither of the mentioned writings does Goldziher say anything amounting to what Mawdudi attributed to him in his above-cited claim. What Goldziher did write was the following:
In his writings he .e. Ibn Taymiyyahis a zealous adversary of Greek philosophy, Judaism, and Christianity. By way of inciting the Muslims against them, he pointed to the Mongol invasion which had just swept over Syria, asserting that the visitation was in part due to the laxity of his co-religionists. He issued a fatwa demanding
that the Jewish synagogues in Cairo should be destroyed, and urging his people not to allow the chapels of other faiths to exist in their midst...
Views
God's attributes
![Tadmurria2](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Tadmurria2.JPG)
Ibn Taymiyyah said that God should be described as he has described himself in the Qur'an and the way Muhammad has described God in the Hadith.
He rejected the
Ta'tili's who denied these attributes, those who compare God with the creation (
Tashbih
''Tashbih'' ( ar, تشبيه) is an Islamic religious concept meaning anthropomorphism, assimilating/comparing God to His creatures. In Islamic theology, two opposite terms are attributed to Allah, ''tashbih'' and ''tanzih'' (transcendence).
Ho ...
) and those who engage in
esoteric interpretations (ta'wil) of the Qur'an or use symbolic exegesis.
Ibn Taymiyyah said that those attributes which we know about from the two above mentioned sources, should be ascribed to God.
Anything regarding God's attributes which people have no knowledge of, should be approached in a manner, according to Ibn Taymiyyah, where the mystery of the unknown is left to God (called tafwid) and the Muslims submit themselves to the word of God and the prophet (called taslim).
Henri Laoust says that through this framework, this doctrine, "provides authority for the widest possible scope in personal internationalization of religion."
In 1299, Ibn Taymiyyah wrote the book ''Al-Aqida al-hamawiyya al-kubra'', which dealt with, among other topics, theology and creed. When he was accused of anthropomorphism, a private meeting was held between scholars in the house of Al-Din `Umar al-Kazwini who was a Shafii judge.
After careful study of this book, he was cleared of those charges.
Ibn Taymiyyah also wrote another book dealing with the attributes of God called, ''Al-Aqidah Al-Waasitiyyah''. He faced considerable hostility towards these views from the Ash'ari's of whom the most notable were,
Taqi al-Din al-Subki
Abu Al-Hasan Taqī al-Dīn Ali ibn Abd al-Kafi ibn Ali al-Khazraji al-Ansari al-Subkī ( ar, أبو الحسن تقي الدين علي بن عبد الكافي بن علي الخزرجي الأنصاري السبكي), was a leading polymath a ...
and his son
Taj al-Din al-Subki
Abū Naṣr Tāj al-Dīn ʻAbd al-Wahhāb ibn ʿAlī ibn ʻAbd al-Kāfī al-Subkī (), or Tāj al-Dīn al-Subkī ()or simply Ibn al-Subki was a leading Islamic scholar, a faqīh, a muḥaddith and a historian from the celebrated al-Subkī family ...
who were influential Islamic jurists and also chief judge of Damascus in their respective times.
Ibn Taymiyyah's highly intellectual discourse at explaining "The Wise Purpose of God, Human Agency, and the Problems of Evil & Justice" using God's Attributes as a means has been illustrated by Dr. Jon Hoover in his work ''Ibn Taymiyyah's Theodicy of Perpetual Optimism''.
Ibn Taymiyya regarded ''Tawhid al-Asma wa Sifat'' (‘monotheism of God's Names and Attributes’) as the third aspect of ''
Tawhid
Tawhid ( ar, , ', meaning "unification of God in Islam (Allāh)"; also romanized as ''Tawheed'', ''Tawhid'', ''Tauheed'' or ''Tevhid'') is the indivisible oneness concept of monotheism in Islam. Tawhid is the religion's central and single m ...
'' and as part of ''Tawhid al-Uluhiyya'' (monotheism of Worship). According to Ibn Taymiyya, God must be worshipped by His Own Names and Attributes – by which He described himself in the ''
Qur’ān
The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters (pl.: , sin ...
'' and ''
Hadith
Ḥadīth ( or ; ar, حديث, , , , , , , literally "talk" or "discourse") or Athar ( ar, أثر, , literally "remnant"/"effect") refers to what the majority of Muslims believe to be a record of the words, actions, and the silent approva ...
'' – and to do otherwise would be to commit ''
shirk'' (polytheism) by associating
God
In monotheistic thought, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. Swinburne, R.G. "God" in Honderich, Ted. (ed)''The Oxford Companion to Philosophy'', Oxford University Press, 1995. God is typically ...
with improper ideas.
Duration of Hellfire
Ibn Taymiyyah held the belief that Hell was not eternal even for unbelievers.
According to Ibn Taymiyyah, Hell is therapeutic and reformative, and God's wise purpose in chastising unbelievers is to make them fit to leave the Fire.
This view contradicted the mainstream Sunni doctrine of eternal hell-fire for unbelievers.
Ibn Taymiyyah was criticised for holding this view by the chief
Shafi
The Shafii ( ar, شَافِعِي, translit=Shāfiʿī, also spelled Shafei) school, also known as Madhhab al-Shāfiʿī, is one of the four major traditional schools of religious law (madhhab) in the Sunnī branch of Islam. It was founded by ...
scholar
Taqi al-Din al-Subki
Abu Al-Hasan Taqī al-Dīn Ali ibn Abd al-Kafi ibn Ali al-Khazraji al-Ansari al-Subkī ( ar, أبو الحسن تقي الدين علي بن عبد الكافي بن علي الخزرجي الأنصاري السبكي), was a leading polymath a ...
who presented a large body of Qur'anic evidence to argue that unbelievers will abide in hell-fire eternally.
Ibn Taymiyyah was partially supported in his view by the
Zaydi
Zaydism (''h'') is a unique branch of Shia Islam that emerged in the eighth century following Zayd ibn Ali‘s unsuccessful rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate. In contrast to other Shia Muslims of Twelver Shi'ism and Isma'ilism, Zaydis, ...
Shi'ite
Shīʿa Islam or Shīʿīsm is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his successor (''khalīfa'') and the Imam (spiritual and political leader) after him, most ...
Ibn al-Wazir.
Sources of Sharīʿa
Of the four fundamental sources of the sharia accepted by thirteenth century Sunni jurists—
#
Qur'an
The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters (pl.: , s ...
,
#
sunnah,
#
consensus of jurists (ijma), and
#
qiyas (analogical reasoning),
—Ibn Taymiyyah opposed the use of consensus of jurists, replacing it with the consensus of the "companions" (''
sahaba
The Companions of the Prophet ( ar, اَلصَّحَابَةُ; ''aṣ-ṣaḥāba'' meaning "the companions", from the verb meaning "accompany", "keep company with", "associate with") were the disciples and followers of Muhammad who saw or m ...
'').
Like all Islamic jurists Ibn Taymiyyah believed in a hierarchy sources for the Sharia. Most important was the Quran, and the sunnah or any other source could not abrogate a verse of the Qur'an. (For him,
an abrogation of a verse, known in Arabic as ''Naskh'', was only possible through another verse in the Qur'an.) Next was sunnah which other sources (besides the Quran) must not contradict.
Consensus (''ijmaʾ'')
Concerning Consensus (''ijma''), he believed that consensus of any Muslims other than that of the companions of Muhammad could not be "realistically verifiable" and so was speculative,
and thus not a legitimate source of Islamic law (except in certain circumstances).
The consensus (ijma) used must be that of the companions found in their reported sayings or actions. According one supporter, Serajul Haque, his rejection of the consensus of other scholars was justified, on the basis of the instructions given to the jurist
Shuraih ibn al-Hârith from the Caliph
Umar
ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb ( ar, عمر بن الخطاب, also spelled Omar, ) was the second Rashidun caliph, ruling from August 634 until his assassination in 644. He succeeded Abu Bakr () as the second caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate ...
, one of the companions of Muhammad; to make decisions by first referring to the Qur'an, and if that is not possible, then to the sayings of Muhammad and finally to refer to the agreement of the companions like himself.
An example of Ibn Taymiyyah use of his interpretation was in defense of the (temporary) closing of all Christian churches in 1299 in the Mamluk Sultanate during hostility against crusader states. The closing was in violation of a 600-year-old covenant with Christian ''
dhimmis'' known as the
Pact of Umar
The Pact of Umar (also known as the Covenant of Umar, Treaty of Umar or Laws of Umar; ar, شروط عمر or or ), is a treaty between the Muslims and the non-Muslim inhabitants of either Syria, Mesopotamia, or Jerusalem that later gained ...
. But as Ibn Taymiyyah pointed out, while venerable, the pact was written 60 years or so after the time of the companions and so had no legal effect.
Analogy (''qiyās'')
Ibn Taymiyyah considered the use of
analogy (''
qiyas'') based on literal meaning of scripture as a valid source for deriving legal rulings.
Analogy is the primary instrument of legal rationalism in Islam.
He acknowledged its use as one of the four fundamental
principles of Islamic jurisprudence
Principles of Islamic jurisprudence, also known as ''uṣūl al-fiqh'' ( ar, أصول الفقه, lit. roots of fiqh), are traditional methodological principles used in Islamic jurisprudence (''fiqh'') for deriving the rulings of Islamic law ('' ...
. Ibn Taymiyyah argued against the certainty of
syllogistic arguments and in favour of analogy. He argues that concepts founded on induction are themselves not certain but only probable, and thus a syllogism based on such concepts is no more certain than an argument based on analogy. He further claimed that induction itself depends on a process of analogy. His model of analogical reasoning was based on that of juridical arguments.
[, pp. 16–36] Works by American
computer scientists like
John F. Sowa have, for example, have used Ibn Taymiyyah's model of analogy.
He attached caveats however to the use of analogy because he considered the use of reason to be secondary to the use of revelation.
Ibn Taymiyyah's view was that analogy should be used under the framework of revelation, as a supporting source.
There were some jurists who thought rulings derived through analogy could contradict a ruling derived from the Qur'an and the authentic hadith.
However, Ibn Taymiyyah disagreed because he thought a contradiction between the definitive canonical texts of Islam, and definitive reason was impossible
and that this was also the understanding of the salaf.
Racha el-Omari says that on an epistemological level, Ibn Taymiyyah considered the Salaf to be better than any other later scholars in understanding the agreement between revelation and reason.
One example for this is the use of analogy in the Islamic legal principle of
maslaha
Maslaha or maslahah ( ar, مصلحة, lit=public interest) is a concept in shari'ah ( Islamic divine law) regarded as a basis of law.I. Doi, Abdul Rahman. (1995). "Mașlahah". In John L. Esposito. ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic W ...
(public good) about which Ibn Taymiyya believed, if there were to be any contradiction to revelation then it is due to a misunderstanding or misapplication of the concept of utility.
He said that to assess the utility of something, the criteria for benefit and harm should come from the Qur'an and sunnah, a criterion which he also applied to the establishment of a correct analogy.
An example of Ibn Taymiyyah's use of analogy was in a fatwa forbidding the use of
hashish on the grounds that it was analogous to
wine
Wine is an alcoholic drink typically made from fermented grapes. Yeast consumes the sugar in the grapes and converts it to ethanol and carbon dioxide, releasing heat in the process. Different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts are m ...
, and users should be given 80 lashes in punishment. "Anyone who disagreed was an apostate, he added, whose corpse ought not to be washed or given a decent burial."
Prayer (''Duʿāʾ'')
Ibn Taymiyyah issued a ''
fatwa'' deeming it acceptable to perform
dua
In Islam, ( ar, دعاء , plural: ' ) is a prayer of invocation, supplication or request, even asking help or assistance from God.
Role in Islam
Muslims regard this as a profound act of worship. Muhammad is reported to have said ...
in languages other than
Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walter ...
:
It is permissible to make du’aa’ in Arabic and in languages other than Arabic. Allaah knows the intention of the supplicant and what he wants, no matter what language he speaks, because He hears all the voices in all different languages, asking for all kinds of needs.
This view was also shared by an earlier theologian and jurist,
Abu Hanifa.
Interest (''Rįbā'')
Ibn Taymiyya held the view that the lender of a loan is allowed to recover the original, inflation adjusted value.
Ahmad ibn Hanbal
Ahmad ibn Hanbal al-Dhuhli ( ar, أَحْمَد بْن حَنْبَل الذهلي, translit=Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal al-Dhuhlī; November 780 – 2 August 855 CE/164–241 AH), was a Muslim jurist, theologian, ascetic, hadith traditionist, and ...
, the eponym of the
Hanbali madh'hab believed that only the practice of 'pay or increase' – which extended delay to debtors in exchange for rise in the principal – as the only form of ''
riba
The Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) is a professional body for architects primarily in the United Kingdom, but also internationally, founded for the advancement of architecture under its royal charter granted in 1837, three supp ...
'' (i.e., ''Riba al-Jahiliyya'') that was definitively and conclusively prohibited in ''
Shari'ah
Sharia (; ar, شريعة, sharīʿa ) is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition. It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam and is based on the sacred scriptures of Islam, particularly the Quran and the ...
'' (Islamic law).
Ibn Qudama, another notable Hanbali jurist that preceded Ibn Taymiyya; opined that debtors who took loans involving unweighable, immeasurable objects should give back the original value to the creditors. This provided a basis for the argument that a creditor is allowed to "recover a sum equivalent to the amount by which the original principal lent has depreciated in real terms during the period of the loan". Building on Ibn Qudama's specific argument on unweighable objects, Ibn Taymiyya would argue for a more general view. He stipulated that the lender should be able to recover the original, inflation-adjusted value; reasoning that lenders unable to recover for losses from inflation would be far less inclined to grant future loans. In Ibn Taymiyya's view, such a lender was not involved in ''riba'', since he has not made any actual profit out of the transaction.
Ibn Taymiyya held that the term ''riba'' also included all types of interest resulting from late payment (''riba al-nasi'ah'') or due to unequal exchange of the same commodity (''riba al-fadl''). ''Riba'' thus covers some cases of barter which involve exchanges unequal by way of quantity or time of delivery.
Reason (ʿ''Aql'')
Issues surrounding the use of reason (
'Aql
‘Aql ( ar, عقل, meaning "intellect"), is an Arabic language term used in Islamic philosophy or theology for the intellect or the rational faculty of the soul or mind. It is the normal translation of the Greek term '' nous''. In jurisprudence ...
) and rational came about in relation to the attributes of God for which he faced much resistance.
At the time, Ashari and
Maturidi
Māturīdī theology or Māturīdism ( ar, الماتريدية: ''al-Māturīdiyyah'') is one of the main Sunnī schools of Islamic theology, founded by the Persian Muslim scholar, Ḥanafī jurist, reformer (''Mujaddid''), and scholastic ...
theologians thought the literal attributes of God as stated in the Qur'an were contradictory to reason so sought to interpret them metaphorically.
Ibn Taymiyyah believed that reason itself validated the entire Qur'an as being reliable and in light of that he argued, if some part of the scripture was to be rejected then this would render the use of reason as an unacceptable avenue through which to seek knowledge.
He thought that the most perfect rational method and use of reason was contained within the Qur'an and sunnah and that the theologians of his time had used rational and reason in a flawed manner.
Condemning
formal logic
Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It includes both formal and informal logic. Formal logic is the science of deductively valid inferences or of logical truths. It is a formal science investigating how conclusions follow from premis ...
as "laughable and boring", Ibn Taymiyya writes:
"The validity of the form of the syllogism is irrefutable, but it does not lead to knowledge of things in the external world... Even if the syllogism yields certitude, it cannot alone lead to certainty about things existing in the external world... It must be maintained that the numerous figures they have elaborated and the conditions they have stipulated for their validity are useless, tedious, and prolix. These resemble the flesh of a camel found of the summit of a mountain, the mountain is not easy to climb, nor the flesh plump enough to make it worth the hauling"
Criticism of the grammarians
Ibn Taymiyyah had mastered the grammar of Arabic and one of the books which he studied was the book of Arabic grammar called Al-Kitab, by
Sibawayh
Sibawayh ( ar, سِيبَوَيْهِ ' or ; fa, سِیبُویه ' ; c. 760–796), whose full name is Abu Bishr Amr ibn Uthman ibn Qanbar al-Basri (, '), was a Persian leading grammarian of Basra and author of the earliest book on Arabic ...
. In later life he met the Quranic exegete and grammarian
Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati
Abū Ḥayyān Athīr ad-Dīn al-Gharnāṭī ( ar, أَبُو حَيَّان أَثِير ٱلدِّين ٱلْغَرْنَاطِيّ, November 1256 – July 1344 CE / 654 - 745 AH), whose full name is Muḥammad ibn Yūsuf bin ‘Alī ibn Yūsuf ...
to whom he expressed that, "Sibawayh was not the prophet of
syntax, nor was he infallible. He committed eighty mistakes in his book which are not intelligible to you." Ibn Taymiyyah is thought to have severely criticized Sibawayh but the actual substance of those criticisms is not known because the book within which he wrote the criticisms, ''al-Bahr'', has been lost. He stated that when there is an explanation of an
Ayah of the Qur'an or a Hadith, from the prophet himself, the use of philology or a grammatical explanation becomes obsolete. He also said one should refer only to the understanding of the Salaf (first three generations of Muslims) when interpreting a word within the scriptural sources.
However he did not discount the contributions of the grammarians completely. Ibn Taymiyyah stated that the Arabic nouns within the scriptural sources have been divided by the
fuqaha (Islamic jurists) into three categories; those that are defined by the shari'a, those defined by
philology
Philology () is the study of language in oral and written historical sources; it is the intersection of textual criticism, literary criticism, history, and linguistics (with especially strong ties to etymology). Philology is also defined as th ...
(lugha) and finally those that are defined by
social custom (`urf). For him each of these categories of nouns had to be used in their own appropriate manner.
Maddhabs
Ibn Taymiyyah censured the
scholars for blindly conforming (''
Taqlid
''Taqlid'' (Arabic تَقْليد ''taqlīd'') is an Islamic term denoting the conformity of one person to the teaching of another. The person who performs ''taqlid'' is termed ''muqallid''. The definite meaning of the term varies depending on con ...
'') to the precedence of early jurists without any resort to the ''
Qur'an
The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters (pl.: , s ...
'' and ''
Sunnah''. He contended that although juridical precedence has its place, blindly giving it authority without contextualization, sensitivity to societal changes, and evaluative mindset in light of the ''Qur'an'' and ''Sunnah'' can lead to ignorance and stagnancy in
Islamic Law
Sharia (; ar, شريعة, sharīʿa ) is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition. It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam and is based on the sacred scriptures of Islam, particularly the Quran and the ...
. Ibn Taymiyyah likened the extremism of ''
Taqlid
''Taqlid'' (Arabic تَقْليد ''taqlīd'') is an Islamic term denoting the conformity of one person to the teaching of another. The person who performs ''taqlid'' is termed ''muqallid''. The definite meaning of the term varies depending on con ...
'' (blind conformity to juridical precedence or school of thought) to the practice of Jews and Christians who took their
rabbi
A rabbi () is a spiritual leader or religious teacher in Judaism. One becomes a rabbi by being ordained by another rabbi – known as ''semikha'' – following a course of study of Jewish history and texts such as the Talmud. The basic form of ...
s and