Norwegian literature is literature composed in

Norway Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic country in Northern Europe, the mainland territory of which comprises the western and northernmost portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula. The remote Arctic island of Jan Mayen and t ...

or by

Norwegian people Norwegians ( no, nordmenn) are a North Germanic ethnic group and nation native to Norway, where they form the vast majority of the population. They share a common culture and speak the Norwegian language. Norwegians are descended from the ...

. The history of Norwegian literature starts with the

pagan Paganism (from classical Latin ''pāgānus'' "rural", "rustic", later "civilian") is a term first used in the fourth century by early Christians for people in the Roman Empire who practiced polytheism, or ethnic religions other than Judaism. ...

Eddaic poems The ''Poetic Edda'' is the modern name for an untitled collection of Old Norse anonymous narrative poems, which is distinct from the ''Prose Edda'' written by Snorri Sturluson. Several versions exist, all primarily of text from the Icelandic med ...

and

skaldic verse A skald, or skáld (Old Norse: , later ; , meaning "poet"), is one of the often named poets who composed skaldic poetry, one of the two kinds of Old Norse poetry, the other being Eddic poetry, which is anonymous. Skaldic poems were traditionally ...

of the 9th and 10th centuries with poets such as

Bragi Boddason Bragi Boddason, known as Bragi the Old (Old Norse: ''Bragi hinn gamli'') was a Norwegian skald active in the first half of the 9th century, the earliest known skald from whom verses have survived. Portions of his ''Ragnarsdrápa'' are preserved ...

and Eyvindr Skáldaspillir. The arrival of Christianity around the year 1000 brought Norway into contact with European medieval learning, hagiography and history writing. Merged with native oral tradition and Icelandic influence, this was to flower into an active period of literature production in the late 12th and early 13th centuries. Major works of that period include ''

Historia Norwegie Historia may refer to: * Historia, the local version of the History channel in Spain and Portugal * Historia (TV channel), a Canadian French language specialty channel * Historia (newspaper), a French monthly newspaper devoted to History topics * ...

'', '' Thidreks saga'' and ''

Konungs skuggsjá ''Konungs skuggsjá'' (Old Norse for "King's mirror"; Latin: ''Speculum regale'', modern Norwegian: ''Kongsspegelen'' (Nynorsk) or ''Kongespeilet'' (Bokmål)) is a Norwegian didactic text in Old Norse from around 1250, an example of speculum lite ...

.'' The period from the 14th century to the 19th is considered a Dark Age in the nation's literature though Norwegian-born writers such as

Peder Claussøn Friis Peder Claussøn Friis (1 April 1545 – 15 October 1614) was a Norwegian clergyman, author and historian. He is most associated with his translation of ''Snorre Sturlessøns Norske Kongers Chronica''. Peder Claussen Friis grew up in Audnedal i ...

Dorothe Engelbretsdatter Dorothe Engelbretsdatter (16 January 163419 February 1716) was a Norwegian author. She principally wrote hymns and poems which were strongly religious. She has been characterized as Norway's first recognized female author as well as Norway's fi ...

and

Ludvig Holberg Ludvig Holberg, Baron of Holberg (3 December 1684 – 28 January 1754) was a writer, essayist, philosopher, historian and playwright born in Bergen, Norway, during the time of the Dano-Norwegian dual monarchy. He was influenced by Humanism, ...

contributed to the common literature of

Denmark–Norway Denmark–Norway (Danish and Norwegian: ) was an early modern multi-national and multi-lingual real unionFeldbæk 1998:11 consisting of the Kingdom of Denmark, the Kingdom of Norway (including the then Norwegian overseas possessions: the Faroe I ...

. With the advent of nationalism and the struggle for independence in the early 19th century, a new period of national literature emerged. In a flood of nationalistic romanticism, the '' great four'' emerged:

Henrik Ibsen Henrik Johan Ibsen (; ; 20 March 1828 – 23 May 1906) was a Norwegian playwright and theatre director. As one of the founders of modernism in theatre, Ibsen is often referred to as "the father of realism" and one of the most influential playw ...

Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson Bjørnstjerne Martinius Bjørnson ( , ; 8 December 1832 – 26 April 1910) was a Norwegian writer who received the 1903 Nobel Prize in Literature "as a tribute to his noble, magnificent and versatile poetry, which has always been distinguishe ...

Alexander Kielland Alexander Lange Kielland (; 18 February 1849 – 6 April 1906) was a Norwegian realistic writer of the 19th century. He is one of the so-called " The Four Greats" of Norwegian literature, along with Henrik Ibsen, Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson a ...

, and Jonas Lie. The dramatist

Henrik Wergeland Henrik Arnold Thaulow Wergeland (17 June 1808 – 12 July 1845) was a Norwegian writer, most celebrated for his poetry but also a prolific playwright, polemicist, historian, and linguist. He is often described as a leading pioneer in the develop ...

was the most-influential author of the period while the later works of

were to earn Norway a key place in Western European literature.

Modernist literature Literary modernism, or modernist literature, originated in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and is characterized by a self-conscious break with traditional ways of writing, in both poetry and prose fiction writing. Modernism experimented ...

was introduced to Norway through the literature of

Knut Hamsun Knut Hamsun (4 August 1859 – 19 February 1952) was a Norwegian writer who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1920. Hamsun's work spans more than 70 years and shows variation with regard to consciousness, subject, perspective a ...

and

Sigbjørn Obstfelder Sigbjørn Obstfelder (21 November 1866 – 29 July 1900) was a 19th-century Norwegian writer and poet. Background Obstfelder was born in Stavanger, Norway on November 21, 1866. He was the eighth child in a family of sixteen children, being o ...

in the 1890s. In the 1930s

Emil Boyson Emil Boyson (4 September 1897 – 2 June 1979) was a Norwegian poet, writer, and translator. Biography Carl Emil Steen Boyson was born in Bergen, Norway. His parents were Immanuel Boysen (1854–1921) and Christine Steen (1869–1905). He gre ...

, Gunnar Larsen,

Haakon Bugge Mahrt Haakon Bugge Mahrt (1901–1990) was a Norwegian writer and attaché. He was born in Vardø and took the ''licencié ès lettres'' degree in Paris in 1928. He worked at the Norwegian embassy in Paris as a press attaché from 1946 to 1971. Books i ...

Rolf Stenersen Rolf Kristian Eckersberg Stenersen (13 February 1899 – 15 October 1978) was a Norwegian businessman, non-fiction writer, essayist, novelist, playwright and biographer. He was also a track and field athlete and art collector. Background ...

and

Edith Øberg Edith Justine Øberg (October 5, 1895 – September 21, 1968) was a Norwegian novelist. Biography She was born in Lysekil, Sweden, and grew up in Kristiania Oslo ( , , or ; sma, Oslove) is the capital and most populous city of Norway. I ...

were among the Norwegian authors who experimented with prose modernism. The literature in the first years after the

Second World War World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...

was characterized by a long series of documentary reports from people who had been in German custody, or who had participated in the resistance efforts during the occupation. In the 20th century notable Norwegian writers include the two Nobel Prize-winning authors,

and

Sigrid Undset Sigrid Undset () (20 May 1882 – 10 June 1949) was a Norwegian-Danish novelist who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1928. Undset was born in Kalundborg, Denmark, but her family moved to Norway when she was two years old. In 1924, ...

. The period after 1965 represented a sharp expansion of market for Norwegian fiction and the 1970s produced both politicization and empowerment of Norwegian authors. The 1980s has been labeled the "fantasy decade" in Norwegian literature.

Medieval poetry

The earliest preserved examples of Old Norse literature are the

Eddic poems The ''Poetic Edda'' is the modern name for an untitled collection of Old Norse anonymous narrative poems, which is distinct from the '' Prose Edda'' written by Snorri Sturluson. Several versions exist, all primarily of text from the Icelandic m ...

, the oldest of which may have been composed in early 9th century Norway drawing on the common Germanic tradition of

alliterative verse In prosody, alliterative verse is a form of verse that uses alliteration as the principal ornamental device to help indicate the underlying metrical structure, as opposed to other devices such as rhyme. The most commonly studied traditions of ...

. In the 9th century the first instances of

skaldic poetry A skald, or skáld (Old Norse: , later ; , meaning "poet"), is one of the often named poets who composed skaldic poetry, one of the two kinds of Old Norse poetry, the other being Eddic poetry, which is anonymous. Skaldic poems were traditional ...

also appear with the skalds

Þjóðólfr of Hvinir Þjóðólfr ór Hvini (anglicized as Thjódólf of Hvinir or Thiodolf; fl. late 9th–early 10th c. AD), was a Norwegian skald, said to have been one of the court-poets of the semi-legendary Norwegian king Harald Fairhair. His name suggests that h ...

and the court poets of

Harald Fairhair Harald Fairhair no, Harald hårfagre Modern Icelandic: ( – ) was a Norwegian king. According to traditions current in Norway and Iceland in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, he reigned from 872 to 930 and was the first King of Nor ...

. This tradition continued through the 10th century with the major Norwegian poet being Eyvindr skáldaspillir. By the late 10th century the tradition of skaldic verse had increasingly moved to Iceland and Norwegian rulers such as

Eiríkr Hákonarson Erik Hakonsson, also known as Eric of Hlathir or Eric of Norway, (, 960s – 1020s) was Earl of Lade, Governor of Norway and Earl of Northumbria. He was the son of Earl Hákon Sigurðarson and brother of the legendary Aud Haakonsdottir of Lade. He ...

and St. Olaf employed mostly Icelandic poets.

Medieval prose

In pagan times the

runic alphabet Runes are the letters in a set of related alphabets known as runic alphabets native to the Germanic peoples. Runes were used to write various Germanic languages (with some exceptions) before they adopted the Latin alphabet, and for specialised ...

was the only one used in Norway. The preserved inscriptions from that time are mostly short memorial dedications or magical formulas. One of the longest inscriptions is that on the 8th century

Eggjum stone The Eggja stone (also known as the Eggum or Eggjum stone), listed as N KJ101 in the Rundata catalog, is a grave stone with a runic inscription that was ploughed up in 1917 on the farm Eggja in Sogndal, Nordre Bergenhus amt (now in Vestland county) ...

, containing cryptic religious or magical allusions. Around the years 1000 to 1030, Christianity became established in Norway, bringing with it the

Latin alphabet The Latin alphabet or Roman alphabet is the collection of letters originally used by the ancient Romans to write the Latin language. Largely unaltered with the exception of extensions (such as diacritics), it used to write English and the o ...

. The oldest preserved Norwegian prose works are from the mid-12th century, the earliest are Latin hagiographical and historical texts such as ''

Passio Olavi ''Passio Olavi'', more correctly ''Passio a miracule beati Olavi'' (The Passion and miracles of the Blessed Olaf) is a collection of legends about the Norwegian national saint Olaf II the Holy. The text was probably collected while Eysteinn Erl ...

'', ''

Acta sanctorum in Selio Saint Sunniva (10th century; Old Norse ''Sunnifa'', from Old English ''Sunngifu'') is the patron saint of the Norwegian Church of Norway Diocese of Bjørgvin, as well as all of Western Norway. Sunniva was venerated alongside her brother Alban, ...

'', ''

'' and '' Historia de Antiquitate Regum Norwagiensium''. At the end of the 12th century, historical writing expanded to the vernacular with ''

Ágrip af Nóregskonungasögum ''Ágrip af Nóregskonungasögum'' ( Icelandic for "''Summary of the Norwegian Kings' Sagas''"), often shortened to ''Ágrip'', is a history of the kings of Norway. Written in Old Norse, it is, along with the ''Historia Norvegiæ'', one of the N ...

'' followed by the ''

Legendary Saga of St. Olaf ''The Legendary Saga of St. Olaf'' or ''Helgisaga Óláfs konungs Haraldssonar'' is one of the kings' sagas, a 13th-century biography of the 11th-century Saint Olaf II of Norway. It is based heavily on the largely lost ''Oldest Saga of St. Olaf''. T ...

'' and ''

Fagrskinna ''Fagrskinna'' ( ; is, Fagurskinna ; trans. "Fair Leather" from the type of parchment) is one of the kings' sagas, written around 1220. It is an intermediate source for the ''Heimskringla'' of Snorri Sturluson, containing histories of Norwegian k ...

''. Medieval Norwegian literature is closely tied with medieval

Icelandic literature Icelandic literature refers to literature written in Iceland or by Icelandic people. It is best known for the sagas written in medieval times, starting in the 13th century. As Icelandic and Old Norse are almost the same, and because Icelandic wo ...

, and together, they are considered

Old Norse literature Old Norse literature refers to the vernacular literature of the Scandinavian peoples up to c. 1350. It chiefly consists of Icelandic writings. In Britain From the 8th to the 15th centuries, Vikings and Norse settlers and their descendants colon ...

. The greatest Norse author of the 13th century was the Icelander

Snorri Sturluson Snorri Sturluson ( ; ; 1179 – 22 September 1241) was an Icelandic historian, poet, and politician. He was elected twice as lawspeaker of the Icelandic parliament, the Althing. He is commonly thought to have authored or compiled portions of the ...

. He recorded

Norse mythology Norse, Nordic, or Scandinavian mythology is the body of myths belonging to the North Germanic peoples, stemming from Old Norse religion and continuing after the Christianization of Scandinavia, and into the Nordic folklore of the modern period ...

in the form of the ''

Prose Edda The ''Prose Edda'', also known as the ''Younger Edda'', ''Snorri's Edda'' ( is, Snorra Edda) or, historically, simply as ''Edda'', is an Old Norse textbook written in Iceland during the early 13th century. The work is often assumed to have been t ...

'', a book of poetic language providing an important understanding of Norse culture prior to Christianity. He was also the author of the ''

Heimskringla ''Heimskringla'' () is the best known of the Old Norse kings' sagas. It was written in Old Norse in Iceland by the poet and historian Snorre Sturlason (1178/79–1241) 1230. The name ''Heimskringla'' was first used in the 17th century, derived ...

'', a detailed history of the Norwegian kings that begins in the legendary ''

Ynglinga saga ''Ynglinga saga'' ( ) is a Kings' saga, originally written in Old Norse by the Icelandic poet and historian Snorri Sturluson about 1225. It is the first section of his ''Heimskringla''. It was first translated into English and published in 1844 ...

'' and continues to document much of early Norwegian history. The period of common Old Norse literature continued up through the 13th century with Norwegian contributions such as '' Thidreks saga'' and ''

'' but by the 14th century saga writing was no longer cultivated in Norway and Icelandic literature became increasingly isolated.

"Four Hundred Years of Darkness"

Norwegian literature was virtually nonexistent during the period of the Scandinavian Union and the subsequent Dano-Norwegian union (1387–1814). Ibsen characterized this period as "Four Hundred Years of Darkness". During the period of union with Denmark, Danish replaced Norwegian. The university and cultural center of Denmark–Norway was Copenhagen, where young men went to study.Blankner 1938. The reformation was imposed on Norway in 1537 and the Dano-Norwegian rulers used it to also impose Danish culture; this was effected through the pulpit as well as through written records, as pastors were trained in Copenhagen. Thus, written Norwegian became closely related to Danish, causing the literature to become essentially Danish. Geble Pedersson (1490–1557) was the first Lutheran

Bishop of Bergen The Catholic Diocese of Bergen or Diocese of Bjørgvin in Norway existed from the eleventh century to the Protestant Reformation (1537),

and a man of broad humanistic views; his adopted son, Absalon Pederssøn Beyer (1528–1575), followed in his footsteps as a humanist and a nationalist, writing an important historical work, ''Concerning the Kingdom of Norway'' (1567).

(1545–1615) was also a humanist who both revived the ''

'' by translating it into the language of the period and wrote the first natural history of Norway as well as an important topographic study of Norway. The seventeenth century was a period of meager literary activity in Norway, but there were significant contributions.

Petter Dass Petter Pettersen Dass (c. 1647 – 17 August 1707) was a Lutheran priest and the foremost Norwegian poet of his generation, writing both baroque hymns and topographical poetry. Biography He was born at Northern Herøy (Dønna), Nordland, No ...

(1647–1707) wrote ''Nordlands Trompet'' (The Trumpet of Nordland) which described in graphic verse the landscape, mode of life, conditions and character of the northern Norwegian people. Two other authors merit mention. Dorothe Engelbretsdotter (1634–1713), was Norway's first recognized woman author who wrote powerful religious poetry. Her first work, ''Siælens Sang-offer'', was published in 1678. ''Taare-Offer'' was her second collected works and was published for the first time in 1685. Another gifted poet was Anders Arrebo who translated the Psalms into Norwegian and composed the creation poem, ''Hexaemeron''. Norway also contributed significantly to the joint literature of Denmark–Norway. One of the first names in Danish literature, Peder Claussøn Friis (1545–1614), was Norwegian-born. Other important Norwegian by birth 'Danish' authors of the period included

(Bergen, 1684–1754), Christian Tullin (Christiania, 1728–1765), and

Johan Herman Wessel Johan Herman Wessel (6 October 1742 – 29 December 1785) was an 18th-century Danish-Norwegian poet, satirist and playwright. His written work was characterized by the use of parody and satiric wit. Biography Wessel was born and raised at Vest ...

(1742–1785).

Rebirth

Two major events precipitated a major resurgence in Norwegian literature. In 1811, a Norwegian university was established in Christiania (later renamed Oslo). Seized by the spirit of revolution following the American and French Revolutions, as well as bridling as a result of the forced separation from Denmark and subordination to Sweden subsequent to the Napoleonic wars, Norwegians signed their first constitution in 1814. Virtually immediately, the cultural backwater that was Norway brought forth a series of strong authors recognized first in Scandinavia, and then worldwide.

is generally recognized as the father of a new Norwegian literature. The enthusiastic nationalism of Wergeland and his young following brought conflict with the establishment, which was unwilling to accept everything as good, simply because it was Norwegian. This period also saw collection of Norwegian folk tales by Peter Asbjørnsen and Bishop

Jørgen Moe Jørgen Engebretsen Moe (22 April 1813–27 March 1882) was a Norwegian folklorist, bishop, poet, and author. He is best known for the ''Norske Folkeeventyr'', a collection of Norwegian folk tales which he edited in collaboration with Peter ...

. This collection, which paralleled those by the

Brothers Grimm The Brothers Grimm ( or ), Jacob (1785–1863) and Wilhelm (1786–1859), were a brother duo of German academics, philologists, cultural researchers, lexicographers, and authors who together collected and published folklore. They are among the ...

in Germany and

Hans Christian Andersen Hans Christian Andersen ( , ; 2 April 1805 – 4 August 1875) was a Danish author. Although a prolific writer of plays, travelogues, novels, and poems, he is best remembered for his literary fairy tales. Andersen's fairy tales, consisti ...

in Denmark, captured an important overview of the folk culture of the mountains and fjords. At least as important in the creation of a Norwegian literature was the effort to introduce a pure Norwegian language, based on the dialects spoken in the areas more isolated from capital. The genius of

Ivar Aasen Ivar Andreas Aasen (; 5 August 1813 – 23 September 1896) was a Norwegian philologist, lexicographer, playwright, and poet. He is best known for having assembled one of the two official written versions of the Norwegian language, Nynorsk, from va ...

(1813–1898) was at the heart of this effort. Aasen, a self-taught linguistic scholar and philologist, documented a written grammar and dictionary for the spoken Norwegian folk language, which became Nynorsk (New Norwegian) – the "speech of the country" as opposed to the official language largely imported from Denmark. Nynorsk is one of the two official written norms of the Norwegian language to this day.

National Romantic Period

By the late 19th century, in a flood of nationalistic romanticism, the '' great four'' emerged:

, and Jonas Lie. A unity of purpose pervades the whole period, creation of a national culture based on the almost forgotten and certainly neglected past, as well as celebration of the ''bondekultur'' or

Norwegian farm culture Norwegian, Norwayan, or Norsk may refer to: *Something of, from, or related to Norway, a country in northwestern Europe *Norwegians, both a nation and an ethnic group native to Norway *Demographics of Norway *The Norwegian language, including the ...

. The realism of Kielland (e.g., ''Skipper Worse'') gave way to the romantic and nationalistic spirit which swept Europe and rekindled the Norwegian interest in their glorious

Viking Vikings ; non, víkingr is the modern name given to seafaring people originally from Scandinavia (present-day Denmark, Norway and Sweden), who from the late 8th to the late 11th centuries raided, pirated, traded and se ...

past (e.g., Ibsen's ''

The Vikings at Helgeland ''The Vikings at Helgeland'' (''Hærmændene paa Helgeland'') is Henrik Ibsen's seventh play. It was written during 1857 and first performed at Christiania Norske Theater in Oslo on 24 November 1858. The plot takes place during the time of Erik B ...

''), the struggles of the

Middle Ages In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...

(e.g., Ibsen's '' Lady Inger of Østeraad''), peasant stories (e.g., Bjørnson's ''A Happy Boy'') and the wonders of myths and folks tales of the mountains (e.g., Ibsen's ''

Peer Gynt ''Peer Gynt'' (, ) is a five- act play in verse by the Norwegian dramatist Henrik Ibsen published in 1876. Written in Norwegian, it is one of the most widely performed Norwegian plays. Ibsen believed ''Per Gynt'', the Norwegian fairy tale on wh ...

'') and the sea (e.g., Lie's ''The Visionary'').

Transition to Realism

Although a strong contributor to early Norwegian romanticism,

is perhaps best known as an influential Norwegian playwright who was largely responsible for the popularity of modern realistic drama in Europe, with plays like ''

The Wild Duck ''The Wild Duck'' (original Norwegian title: ''Vildanden'') is an 1884 play by the Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen. It is considered the first modern masterpiece in the genre of tragicomedy. ''The Wild Duck'' and ''Rosmersholm'' are "often t ...

'' and ''

A Doll's House ''A Doll's House'' ( Danish and nb, Et dukkehjem; also translated as ''A Doll House'') is a three-act play written by Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen. It premiered at the Royal Theatre in Copenhagen, Denmark, on 21 December 1879, having be ...

''. In this, he built on a theme first evident in Norway with plays like Bjørnson's ''En fallit'' (A Bankruptcy).

Emigration Literature

Although a side note to the mainstream of Norwegian literature, the literature which documents the experience of Norwegian emigrants to America is as important as the Norwegian immigrants became to the growing America of the 19th century. Three authors are recognized in this genre; Ole Rølvaag wrote about immigrants, while Johan Bojer and

Ingeborg Refling Hagen Ingeborg Refling Hagen (19 December 1895 – 30 October 1989) was a Norwegian author, poet, and artistic director. Her writings and activities in support of the arts made her a significant cultural figure in Norway during much of the 20th century. ...

wrote about emigrants. Ole E. Rølvaag, who immigrated to America, experienced life in the prairies, and rose to become professor of Norwegian at St. Olaf College in Northfield,

Minnesota Minnesota () is a state in the upper midwestern region of the United States. It is the 12th largest U.S. state in area and the 22nd most populous, with over 5.75 million residents. Minnesota is home to western prairies, now given over to ...

, provided a strong record of the joys and pains of the immigrant in adapting to the harsh realities of and carving out a new life in a wild new country. Norwegian author Johan Bojer provided a mirror image, depicting the struggles and processes which led to the decisions to emigrate. Ingeborg Refling Hagen, having two brothers and a sister in the United States contemplated the emigrant's longing for home and their harsh struggle "over there" in a known collection of emigrant poems from 1935.

Modernism in Norway

was introduced to Norway through the literature of

and

in the 1890s. In the 1930s,

, Gunnar Larsen,

and

were among the Norwegian authors who experimented with prose modernism. The books of the 1930s did not receive the same recognition as modernist works after the war. In 1947,

Tarjei Vesaas Tarjei Vesaas (20 August 1897 – 15 March 1970) was a Norwegian poet and novelist. Vesaas is widely considered to be one of Norway's greatest writers of the twentieth century and perhaps its most important since World War II. Biography Vesaas ...

published a poetry collection, ''Leiken og lynet'', that led to major debate about the shape and rhythm for Norwegian poetry. This evolved further in the 1950s. Rolf Jacobsen achieved recognition as a poet of modernistic style after the war.

Kristofer Uppdal Kristofer Oliver Uppdal (19 February 1878 – 26 December 1961), born Opdal, was a Norwegian poet and author, born in Beitstad, Nord-Trøndelag. As a boy, Uppdal worked as a shepherd, and later as a miner and construction worker. In 1907 he star ...

was also recognized for his work.

The Twentieth Century

After the death of the great four and

Amalie Skram Amalie Skram (22 August 1846 – 15 March 1905) was a Norwegian author and feminist who gave voice to a woman's point of view with her naturalist writing. In Norway, she is frequently considered the most important female writer of the Modern Bre ...

, a new period of Norwegian literature took place. The year 1905, when Norway was free from the union with Sweden, marks a new period in the history of Norwegian literature. In the 20th century, three Norwegian novelists won the

Nobel prize The Nobel Prizes ( ; sv, Nobelpriset ; no, Nobelprisen ) are five separate prizes that, according to Alfred Nobel's will of 1895, are awarded to "those who, during the preceding year, have conferred the greatest benefit to humankind." Alfr ...

in literature. The first was

, whose prize reflected work of the previous century. The second was awarded to

for the idealistic novel ''Markens Grøde'' (

Growth of the Soil ''Growth of the Soil'' ( Norwegian ''Markens Grøde'') is a novel by Knut Hamsun which won him the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1920. It follows the story of a man who settles and lives in rural Norway. First published in 1917, it has since been tr ...

, 1917) in 1920. The third was

for the trilogy of Kristin Lavransdatter and the two books of Olav Audunssøn, in 1927. Knut Hamsun was especially criticized because of his sympathy for

Nasjonal Samling Nasjonal Samling (, NS; ) was a Norwegian far-right political party active from 1933 to 1945. It was the only legal party of Norway from 1942 to 1945. It was founded by former minister of defence Vidkun Quisling and a group of supporters such a ...

, a Norwegian Nazi-party, during the Second World War. Other important Norwegian writers include:

Trygve Gulbranssen Trygve Emanuel Gulbranssen (baptized ''Trygve Emanuel Gulbrandsen''; 15 June 1894 – 10 October 1962) was a Norwegian novelist, businessman and journalist. Gulbranssen is best known for writing the Bjørndal Trilogy – ''Og bakom synger sko ...

Jens Bjørneboe Jens Ingvald Bjørneboe (9 October 1920 – 9 May 1976) was a Norwegian writer whose work spanned a number of literary formats. He was also a painter and a Waldorf school teacher. Bjørneboe was a harsh and eloquent critic of Norwegian society a ...

Agnar Mykle Agnar Mykle (8 August 1915 – 15 January 1994) was a Norwegian author. He became one of the most controversial figures in Norwegian literature in the 20th century. Early life Born in Norway's third largest city, Trondheim, Mykle was often ...

Olav Duun Olav Duun (21 November 1876 – 13 September 1939) was a noteworthy author of Norwegian fiction. He is generally recognized to be one of the more outstanding writers in Norwegian literature. He once lacked only one vote to receive the Nobel ...

Cora Sandel Sara Cecilia Görvell Fabricius (20 December 1880 – 3 April 1974), better known by her pen name Cora Sandel, was a Norwegian writer and painter who lived most of her adult life abroad. Her best-known works are the novels now known as the ''Alb ...

Kjartan Fløgstad Kjartan Fløgstad (born 7 June 1944) is a Norwegian author. Fløgstad was born in the industrial city of Sauda in Ryfylke, Rogaland. He studied literature and linguistics at the University of Bergen. Subsequently, he worked for a period as an ind ...

Arne Garborg Arne Garborg (born Aadne Eivindsson Garborg) (25 January 1851 – 14 January 1924) was a Norwegian writer. Garborg championed the use of Landsmål (now known as Nynorsk, or New Norwegian), as a literary language; he translated the Odyssey into ...

Aksel Sandemose Aksel Sandemose (né Axel Nielsen; 19 March 1899 – 6 August 1965) was a Danish-Norwegian writer whose works frequently elucidate the theme that the repressions of society lead to violence. Biography Axel Nielsen was born at Nykøbing Mors on t ...

Lars Saabye Christensen Lars Saabye Christensen (born 21 September 1953 in Oslo) is a Norwegian/Danish author. Saabye Christensen was raised in the Skillebekk neighbourhood of Oslo, but lived for many years in Sortland in northern Norway; both places play a major r ...

Kjell Askildsen Kjell Askildsen (30 September 1929 – 23 September 2021) was a Norwegian writer probably best known for his minimalistic short stories. Personal life Askildsen was born in Mandal as a son of bailiff and politician Arne Askildsen (1898–1982) ...

Johan Borgen Johan Collett Müller Borgen (28 April 1902 – 16 October 1979) was a Norwegian writer, journalist and critic. His best-known work is the novel ''Lillelord'' for which he was awarded the Norwegian Critics Prize for Literature in 1955. He was ...

Dag Solstad Dag Solstad (born 16 July 1941) is a Norwegian novelist, short-story writer, and dramatist whose work has been translated into 20 languages. He has written nearly 30 books and is the only author to have received the Norwegian Literary Critic ...

, Herbjørg Wassmo,

Jon Fosse Jon Olav Fosse (born 29 September 1959) is a Norwegian author and dramatist. Biography Jon Fosse was born in Haugesund, Norway. A serious accident at age seven brought him close to death; the experience significantly influenced his adulthood wr ...

Hans Herbjørnsrud Hans Herbjørnsrud (born 2 January 1938) is a Norwegian author of short stories. His works frequently play with the differences between Norwegian languages Bokmål and Nynorsk and the various Norwegian dialects. His stories' characters sometimes ...

Jan Erik Vold Jan Erik Vold (born 18 October 1939) is a Norwegian lyric poet, jazz vocal reciter, translator and author. He was a core member of the so-called "''Profil'' generation", the circle attached to the literary magazine ''Profil''. Throughout his care ...

, Roy Jacobsen, Bergljot Hobæk Haff,

Hans E. Kinck Hans Ernst Kinck (; 11 October 1865 – 13 October 1926) was a Norwegian author and philologist who wrote novels, short stories, dramas, and essays. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature seven times. Life Kinck was born in Øksfjo ...

Olav H. Hauge Olav Håkonson Hauge (18 August 1908 – 23 May 1994) was a Norwegian horticulturist, translator and poet. Biography Hauge was born at the village of Ulvik in Hordaland, Norway. His parents Håkon Hauge (1877-1954) and Katrina Hakestad (1873-19 ...

, Rolf Jacobsen,

Gunvor Hofmo Gunvor Hofmo (30 June 1921 – 17 October 1995) was a Norwegian writer, often considered one of Norway's most influential modernist poets. Background Gunvor Hofmo was born in Oslo, Norway. Her parents were Erling Hofmo (1893–1959) and Bertha B ...

Arnulf Øverland Ole Peter Arnulf Øverland (27 April 1889 – 25 March 1968) was a Norwegian poet and artist. He is principally known for his poetry which served to inspire the Norwegian resistance movement during the German occupation of Norway during Wor ...

Olaf Bull Olaf Jacob Martin Luther Breda Bull (10 November 1883 – 29 June 1933) was a Norwegian poet. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature six times. Biography Olaf Bull was born in Kristiania (now Oslo), Norway. His parents were autho ...

Aasmund Olavsson Vinje Aasmund Olavsson Vinje (6 April 1818 – 30 July 1870) was a Norwegian poet and journalist who is remembered for poetry, travel writing, and his pioneering use of Landsmål (now known as Nynorsk). Background Vinje was born into a poor but ...

, Tor Ulven,

Torborg Nedreaas Torborg Nedreaas (13 November 1906 – 30 June 1987) was a Norwegian writer. She received the Norwegian Critics Prize for Literature, the Dobloug Prize, the Nordic Council's Literature Prize. Biography She was born in Bergen, Norway. Until 1947 ...

Stein Mehren Stein Mehren (16 May 1935 – 28 July 2017) was a Norwegian poet, essayist and playwright. He made his literary debut as poet with ''Gjennom stillheten en natt'' (1960). He wrote more than fifty books, mainly poetry.

Jan Kjærstad Jan Kjærstad (born 6 March 1953 in Oslo) is a Norwegian author.Jan Kjærstad
in Georg Johannesen,

Aslaug Vaa Aslaug Vaa (25 August 1889 – 28 November 1965) was a Norwegian poet and playwright. Her works contain elements from local tradition and landscape mixed with international influence. Personal life Aslaug Vaa was born on Nystog in Rauland, ...

Halldis Moren Vesaas Halldis Moren Vesaas (18 November 1907 – 8 September 1995) was a Norwegian poet, translator and writer of children's books. She established herself as one of the leading Norwegian writers of her generation. Biography She was born on a f ...

Sigurd Hoel Sigurd Hoel (December 14, 1890 – October 14, 1960) was a Norwegian author and publishing consultant, born in Nord-Odal. He debuted with the collection of short stories (The Way We Go) in 1922. His breakthrough came with (Sinners in Summertim ...

Johan Falkberget Johan Falkberget, born Johan Petter Lillebakken, (30 September 1879 – 5 April 1967) was a Norwegian author. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature. Life and career Johan Falkberget was born on the Lillebakken farm in the Rugl ...

, Hans Børli and

Axel Jensen Axel Buchardt Jensen (12 February 1932 – 13 February 2003) was a Norwegian author. From 1957 until 2002, he published both fiction and non-fiction texts which include novels, poems, essays, a biography, and manuscripts for cartoons and animated ...

The Post-war Period (1945–1965)

The literature in the first years after the

was characterized by a long series of documentary reports from people who had been in German custody, or who had participated in the resistance efforts during the occupation. The most famous among these were Lise Børsums's ''Fange i Ravensbrück'',

Odd Nansen Odd Nansen (6 December 1901 – 27 June 1973) was a Norwegian architect, writer, and humanitarian. He is credited with being a co-founder of UNICEF and for his humanitarian efforts on behalf of Jews in the early years of World War II. Biogr ...

's ''Fra dag til dag'' (From Day to Day) and the posthumously published ''Petter Moens dagbok'' ( Petter Moen's diary). Some years later, biographies of heroes of resistance, such as Fridtjof Sælen's '' Shetlands-Larsen'', about Leif Andreas Larsen, and David Armin Howarth's ''Ni liv. Historien om Jan Baalsrud'' (Nine Lives – the story of

Jan Baalsrud Jan Sigurd Baalsrud, MBE (13 December 1917 – 30 December 1988) was a commando in the Norwegian resistance trained by the British during World War II. Biography Early life Jan Baalsrud was born in Kristiania (now Oslo), Norway and moved wi ...

), became major publishing successes. Fiction of the period also centered on the war.

Sigurd Evensmo Sigurd Evensmo (14 February 1912 – 17 October 1978) was a Norwegian author and journalist.

's ''Englandsfarere'' (published in English as "A Boat for England") about a group of resistance fighters who are captured.

symbolically addressed the war experience in '' Huset i mørkret'' (The House in the Dark). A significant portion of the post-war literature was concerned with the question of why some remained good Norwegian patriots while others, seemingly ordinary people, served the enemy. Examples of this include

's ''Møte ved milepelen'' from 1947,

Kåre Holt Kåre Holt (10 October 1916 – 15 March 1997) was a Norwegian author. He wrote plays, poetry and about forty books. Biography Holt was born in the village of Våle in Vestfold, Norway. His parents were Peder Anton Kristiansen (1870-1958) and M ...

's ''Det store veiskillet'' (The Big Fork) from 1949 and

's ''Varulven'' (The Werewolf) from 1958, which provide psychological explanations for

collaboration Collaboration (from Latin ''com-'' "with" + ''laborare'' "to labor", "to work") is the process of two or more people, entities or organizations working together to complete a task or achieve a goal. Collaboration is similar to cooperation. Most ...

. Poetry written during the war, which had either been broadcast from London or had circulated illegally, was published as collections in the spring of 1945, and enjoyed a popularity that Norwegian poetry has not seen before or since. In particular

's ''Vi overlever alt'' (We survive everything) and Nordahl Grieg's ''Friheten'' (Freedom) were well received. Some of those who were young during the war found that the traditional lyrical forms were insufficient to express horrors of war, atomic bombs and the emerging Cold War.

, who was personally affected by the war, came with the remarkable collections ''Jeg vil hjem til menneskene'' (I Want to Go Home to the People) and ''Fra en annen virkelighet'' (From an Alternate Reality).

Modernism Modernism is both a philosophy, philosophical and arts movement that arose from broad transformations in Western world, Western society during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The movement reflected a desire for the creation of new fo ...

appeared on a broad front in the Norwegian poetry of the 1950s. It impacted the lyrics produced by Tarjei Vesaas,

Ernst Orvil Ernst Orvil (née Ernst Richard Nilsen; 12 April 1898 – 16 June 1985) was a Norwegian novelist, short story writer, poet and playwright. Biography Ernst Richard Orvil was born in Kristiania (now Oslo), Norway. His parents Johan Nilsen (Rev ...

Astrid Tollefsen Astrid Tollefsen (11 December 1897 – 9 October 1973) was a Norwegian poet. She was born in Horten. She made her literary debut with the poetry collection ''Portrett i speil'' (1947). She lived in a long-term relationship with the lyricist G ...

and

. Among the younger poets, such as

Astrid Hjertenæs Andersen Astrid Hjertenæs Andersen (5 September 1915 – 21 April 1985) was a Norwegian poet and travel-writer. She is a recipient of the Norwegian Critics Prize for Literature (''Kritikerprisen''), Riksmål Society Literature Prize (''Riksmålsprisen''), D ...

Paal Brekke Paal Brekke (17 September 1923 – 2 December 1993) was a Norwegian lyricist, novelist, translator of poetry, and literary critic. Brekke fled from occupied Norway to Sweden in 1940, when he was 17 years old. He made his literary debut in 1942 ...

Hans Børli Hans Børli (8 December 1918 – 26 August 1989) was a Norwegian poet and writer, who besides his writings worked as a lumberjack all his life. Biography Hans Georg Nilsen Børli was born at Eidskog in Hedmark, Norway. He was the fifth o ...

, Harald Sverdrup and Marie Takvam, free verse was the preferred form. Paal Brekke was modernism's foremost advocate against traditionalists – such as Arnulf Øverland and

André Bjerke Jarl André Bjerke (30 January 1918 – 10 January 1985) was a Norwegian writer and poet. He wrote a wide range of material: poems (both for children and adults), mystery novels (four of them under the pseudonym Bernhard Borge), essays, and arti ...

– in a wide-ranging debate about poetic forms which is recognized as the ''speaking-in-tongues debate''. Georg Johannesen's first publication ''Dikt'' (Poetry) in 1959 introduced a new interest in political and social values, that had not been particularly evident in the 1950s. At the same time, the well-established poet, Rolf Jacobsen, espoused a more critical attitude to the consumer mentality and environmental destruction. In prose, first and foremost it was

who led the attack on the establishment in the 1950s. In ''Jonas'' and ''Den onde hyrde'' (The Evil Shepherd) he attacks the school and prison systems, arguing that there the government shows its authoritarian aspects particularly clearly. One of the highlights of 1950s prose literature is

's ''Lillelord'' trilogy. Borgen' work is characterized by an experimental prose-writing style, which can be seen in several short story collections as well as the experimental novel ''Jeg'' (I) from 1959. Another highlight of 1950s literature was two controversial novels by

's about Ask Burlefot: ''Lasso rundt fru Luna'' (published in English as "Lasso Around The Moon") and ''Sangen om den røde rubin'' ( The Song of the Red Ruby). But as a result of legal intervention against the latter book, the pressure of the court case and surrounding controversy left Mykle a reclusive who published little thereafter.

was another fresh, new voice in the 1950s. In his debut novels ''Ikaros'' and ''Line'' the young protagonist comes to terms with nonsocialistic members of the Social Democratic welfare state. Jensen also introduced a new theme in Norwegian literature with the publication of ''Epp'' in 1965; this novel dealt with a future

dystopia A dystopia (from Ancient Greek δυσ- "bad, hard" and τόπος "place"; alternatively cacotopiaCacotopia (from κακός ''kakos'' "bad") was the term used by Jeremy Bentham in his 1818 Plan of Parliamentary Reform (Works, vol. 3, p. 493). ...

. Besides Johan Borgen, Tarjei Vesaas and

also achieved recognition as excellent short story writers. In 1953,

debuted with the short story collection ''Heretter følger jeg deg helt hjem'' (From now on I'll walk you all the way home). He has since remained at short prose genre, and is today considered one of Norwegian literature's finest short story writers.

Political awareness and social realism (1965–1980)

The period after 1965 represented a sharp expansion of market for Norwegian fiction. In 1965,

instituted a policy for purchasing new literature. The state committed to purchase 1000 copies of each new title of Norwegian literature (conditioned on it meeting minimum standards). These were distributed among the country's libraries. This, combined with the creation of the book club ''Bokklubben Nye Bøker'' (New Books) in 1976 produced increased vitality in the country's literary production. The 1970s produced both politicization and empowerment of Norwegian authors as a group – as well as intellectuals in general. The

Norwegian Authors' Union The Norwegian Authors' Union ( no, Den norske Forfatterforening, DnF) is an association of Norwegian authors. It was established in 1893 to promote Norwegian literature and protect Norwegian authors' professional and economic interests. DnF also w ...

became an arena for political struggle as well as the struggle for academic authors' rights. At one point the author's union split into two camps. Around the country the authors organized themselves in the regional author's organizations, and started a number of literary journals, in which contributions by amateur writers were welcomed. ''

Profil Profil may refer to: *La Mouette Profil, a French hang glider design *Profil (band), a French musical group *''Profil (literary magazine)'', a Norwegian literary magazine *''profil (magazine)'', an Austrian news magazine * ''Profil (Russian magaz ...

'' would eventually become the most-notable literary magazine. From 1965, it published the work of a number of young writers who would put their distinct mark on the literature of the period. The ''Profil'' goal was to bring Norwegian literature abreast of

European literature Western literature, also known as European literature, is the literature written in the context of Western culture in the languages of Europe, as well as several geographically or historically related languages such as Basque and Hungarian, and ...

in general. To achieve this, they rebelled against the traditional

psychological novel In literature, psychological fiction (also psychological realism) is a narrative genre that emphasizes interior characterization and motivation to explore the spiritual, emotional, and mental lives of the characters. The mode of narration examin ...

development. The question of the true identify for the modern state was core.

contributed significantly to this late-1960s figures modernism through his articles, essays and literary works. Poetry already exhibited a modernist style, which was prevalent through the 1950s and early 1960s. Traditionalists who still wrote in fixed stanza forms were out of favor. The younger poets targeted replacing the 1950s-style symbolism, and

was at the forefront of this insurgency. Profil poetry introduced a new simplicity, concretism, and use of everyday language.

was particularly noted for promoting modern European poetry, both as poet and critic. He argued for a renewal of Norwegian poetry, and spread knowledge of foreign literature through translations of English modernist writers like T.S.Eliot. In the mid-1950s, Brekke participated in the debate on lyrical form, and opposed

and

in the so-called ''

Glossolalia Speaking in tongues, also known as glossolalia, is a practice in which people utter words or speech-like sounds, often thought by believers to be languages unknown to the speaker. One definition used by linguists is the fluid vocalizing of sp ...

debate''. Among the established lyrists,

transitioned to modernistic and concretist poetry and enjoyed a renaissance, especially with his collection entitled ''Dropar in austavind,'' which inspired other, younger Norwegian poets, such as

. After a short period the ''Profil'' group went separate routes, as authors such as Dag Solstad,

Espen Haavardsholm Espen Haavardsholm (born 10 February 1945, in Oslo) is a Norwegian novelist, poet, biographer and essayist. He made his literary debut in 1966 with the collection of short stories, ''Tidevann''. He was one of the central writers in the modernist ...

, and

Tor Obrestad Tor Obrestad (12 February 1938 – 25 January 2020) was a Norwegian novelist, poet and documentary writer. Early and personal life Obrestad was born in Hå on 12 February 1938. His parents were farmer Jon R. Obrestad and Sophie Riise. He studie ...

turned to the newly formed party Workers' Communist Party (''Arbeidernes kommunistparti'' or AKP), and become involved in formulating a new political program that based on the view that literature should serve the working people and their uprising against capitalism. Arild Asnes Solstad's ''1970'' is a key novel to understanding the desire of the modern intellectual to connect with something larger and more realistic – the working people and a cause. There were few AKP-authors, yet they managed to set a major part of the agenda for Norwegian fiction through much of the 1970s. Some authors began to write novels and poems in a language targeted so that people could recognize themselves, often known as

social realism Social realism is the term used for work produced by painters, printmakers, photographers, writers and filmmakers that aims to draw attention to the real socio-political conditions of the working class as a means to critique the power structure ...

literature. Well-known works in this genre include Solstad's ''25. septemberplassen'', Obrestad's ''Sauda! Streik!'' and Haavardsholm's ''Historiens kraftlinjer''. Even though a minority wrote AKP-themed literature, there was a general willingness of the larger community of authors to support this literary focus. Besides the class struggle, there were two areas that were subject of serious literature:

feminism Feminism is a range of socio-political movements and ideologies that aim to define and establish the political, economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes. Feminism incorporates the position that society prioritizes the male po ...

and the struggle against the concentration of governmental power into a centralized government. The term

feminist literature Feminist literature is fiction, nonfiction, drama, or poetry, which supports the feminist goals of defining, establishing, and defending equal civil, political, economic, and social rights for women. It often identifies women's roles as unequal ...

or woman's literature was shifting during this period. While some believed that a special term for literature written for women by women about women's experiences were necessary, others were concerned that feminist literature served to place the female writers and readers outside the community, in an isolated cycle. Notwithstanding the debate, important contributions came from new, female authors about women unsatisfactory role in the family and in society.

Liv Køltzow Liv Køltzow (born 14 January 1945) is a Norwegian novelist, playwright, biographer and essayist. Personal life Køltzow was born in Oslo to Oscar Køltzow and Else Mathisen. She was married to writer Espen Haavardsholm from 1966 to 1973, and to ...

's ''Hvem bestemmer over Liv og Unni?'' (Who decides for Liv and Unni?) is central to understanding the new woman's literature.

Bjørg Vik Bjørg Vik (11 September 1935 – 7 January 2018) was a Norwegian novelist, short story writer, playwright, and journalist. Biography Bjørg Turid Vik was born in Oslo, Norway. Her parents were Sverre Thorbjørn Johansen (1903–1958) and Anna So ...

contributed a long series of short story collections and the play ''To akter for fem kvinner'' (Two acts for five women). Both Køltzow's and Vik's work stayed with the realistic tradition. Later

Cecilie Løveid Cecilie Løveid (born 21 August 1951) is a Norwegian novelist, poet, playwright, and writer of children's books. Personal life Løveid was born in Mysen to ship's captain Erik Løveid and actress Ingrid Cecilie Meyer. She had a cohabiting relatio ...

and

Eldrid Lunden Eldrid Lunden (born 5 October 1940) is a Norwegian poet, and 1996 became Norway's first professor in creative writing, at Telemark University College. She was awarded the Dobloug Prize in 1989, and the Brage Prize honorary award in 2000. Lunde ...

created work with a more rebellious language representing a fresh genre of experimental work. Løveid's work is notably committed to finding a new language for a new female role.

Beyond social realism (1980–2000)

The decade of the 1980s was in many ways a response to the social realism in 1970s literature. In 1983,

Kaj Skagen Kaj Skagen (born October 23, 1949 in Strandebarm) is a Norwegian writer. He received the Riksmål Society Literature Prize The Riksmål Society Literature Prize (''Riksmålsforbundets litteraturpris'') is awarded annually by the '' Riksmåls ...

published a polemical-philosophical treatise titled ''Bazarovs barn'' ("Bazarov's Children", alluding to the Russian fictional

nihilist Nihilism (; ) is a philosophy, or family of views within philosophy, that rejects generally accepted or fundamental aspects of human existence, such as objective truth, knowledge, morality, values, or meaning. The term was popularized by Ivan ...

Eugene Bazarov), which reconciled the role of authors who had been on the periphery in the 1970s. Skagen advocated for a more individual-oriented and idealistic literature. Although it is uncertain whether this book created or simplify reflected the transition, many of the 1970s authors shifted in new directions during the 1980s.

published two novels which were retrospectives on the Workers' Communist Party.

wrote a novel titled ''Drift'' and

Edvard Hoem Edvard Hoem (born 10 March 1949) is a Norwegian novelist, dramatist, lyricist, psalmist and government scholar. He made his literary debut in 1969, with the poetry collection ''Som grønne musikantar''. He was awarded the Norwegian Critics Prize ...

authored ''Prøvetid''. All these works focused on middle-aged men who live through the crises of life, while struggling to find new footing. Similarly

Knut Faldbakken Knut Faldbakken (born 31 August 1941, in Hamar) is a Norwegian novelist. He studied psychology at Oslo University, and then worked as a journalist. Faldbakken visited a number of countries, working variously as a bookkeeper, sailor, and factor ...

's novels about the change of men's roles during the women's revolution in the 1970s reflected the new direction. The 1980s generated several major novels that develop a main theme over decades, are centered on a strong-central character person and are built around rural milieu or a local community of a not too distant past. Examples include

's ''Beatles'',

Tove Nilsen Tove Nilsen (born 25 October 1952) is a Norwegian novelist, children's writer and literary critic. She made her literary debut in 1974 with the novel ''Aldri la dem kle deg forsvarsløst naken''. Her adolescence novel from a dormitory town ...

's ''Skyskraperengler'' (Skyscraper Angels),

Ingvar Ambjørnsen Ingvar Even Ambjørnsen-Haefs (born 20 May 1956) is a Norwegian writer. He is best known for his "Elling" tetralogy: ''Utsikt til paradiset'' (1993), ''Fugledansen'' (1995), ''Brødre i blodet'' (1996), and ''Elsk meg i morgen'' (1999). ''Brødr ...

's ''Hvite niggere'' (White Niggers),

Gerd Brantenberg Gerd Mjøen Brantenberg (born October 27, 1941) is a Norwegian author, teacher, and feminist writer. Biography Brantenberg was born in Oslo, but grew up in Fredrikstad. She studied English, History, and Sociology in London, Edinburgh, and Oslo. ...

's St.Croix trilogy, Herbjørg Wassmo's Tora-trilogy and Roy Jacobsen's ''Seierherrene''. The 1980s have also been labeled the "fantasy decade" in Norwegian literature. A number of authors, including

, Mari Osmundsen,

, Arild Nyquist,

Jan Kjærstad Jan Kjærstad (born 6 March 1953 in Oslo) is a Norwegian author.Jan Kjærstad
in Ragnar Hovland Ragnar Hovland (born 15 April 1952 in Bergen) is a Norwegian novelist, essayist, poet, and writer of children's books. Personal life Hovland was born in Bergen to priest Håkon Hovland and schoolteacher Sigrid Indrebø, and grew up in Strandvik ...

produced works with magical, fantastic or improbable elements. Literature written for children and young people also included fantastic elements;

Tormod Haugen Tormod Haugen (12 May 1945 – 18 October 2008) was a Norwegian writer of children's books and translator. For his "lasting contribution to children's literature" he received the international Hans Christian Andersen Medal in 1990. Biography To ...

is the most notable contributor to this genre. A large number of 1980s authors displayed a high degree of literary consciousness. Many of the new authors in this decade were formally educated in literature, philosophy and other academic subjects at the many schools or institutes for writers established throughout Norway. Many novels generated internal conflicts with the text itself or with other texts, and the protagonists was represented as a writer, scientist or artist.

Jan Kjærstad Jan Kjærstad (born 6 March 1953 in Oslo) is a Norwegian author.Jan Kjærstad
in meta-novels,

Karin Moe Karin Moe (born 3 December 1945) is a Norwegian writer and literary critic. She made her literary debut in 1980 with the text collection ''Kjønnskrift''. Other collections are ''39 Fyk'' from 1983, and ''Sjanger'' from 1986. She published the ...

's ''KYKA/1984'' another. Ole Robert Sunde and

Liv Nysted Liv Nysted (27 August 1949 – 21 March 2010) was a Norwegian writer. She was born in Alvdal, and made her debut in 1985 with ''Alltid disse bildene på nippet til å bli synlige''. Later books include ''Samle på i morgen, vente til i går'' (198 ...

also produced works in this genre. Another consequence of more academically oriented authors was the large number of essay collections published in recent years; these often provide an authors' interpretations of other authors or reflections on other forms of art. The period showed a rising interest in crime literature.

Jon Michelet Jon Michelet (14 July 1944, Moss – 14 April 2018, Oslo) was a Norwegian novelist. He had experience in various lines of work, including sailor and dock worker and references to these experiences can be found in his writing. His writing spans sev ...

Gunnar Staalesen Gunnar Staalesen (born 19 October 1947) is a Norwegian writer. He is a major figure in the Nordic noir crime fiction genre through his 19 novels featuring Varg Veum, a private detective in Bergen on the rainy west coast of Norway. The Varg Veum ...

Kim Småge Anne Karin Thorhus (born 23 June 1945), known under the pseudonym Kim Småge, is a Norwegian novelist, crime fiction writer, writer of short stories, and children's writer. Her literary breakthrough came in 1983 with the crime thriller ''Nattdyk ...

and

Fredrik Skagen Fredrik Skagen (30 December 1936 – 20 June 2017) was a Norwegian writer. He was born in Trondheim. He is best known for his crime fiction, but is also the author of some children's books and several radio plays. His first book was publish ...

all were well appreciated by Norwegian readers. In the 1990s female crime writers such as

Karin Fossum Karin Fossum (born 6 November 1954) is a Norwegian author of crime fiction, often referred to as the "Norwegian queen of crime". Early life Karin Mathisen was born on 6 November 1954 in Sandefjord, in Vestfold county, Norway. She currently lives ...

and

Anne Holt Anne Holt (born 16 November 1958) is a Norwegian author, lawyer and former Minister of Justice. Early life She was born in Larvik, grew up in Lillestrøm and Tromsø, and moved to Oslo in 1978. Holt graduated with a law degree from the Universit ...

had great success – the latter's works featured a female investigator. Interest in crime has in no way decreased since the turn of the millennium, and a number of writers have either specialized in crime or have alternated between crime and other prose.

Jo Nesbø Jo Nesbø (; born Jon Nesbø; 29 March 1960) is a Norwegian writer, musician, economist, and former football player and reporter. More than 3 million copies of his novels had been sold in Norway as of March 2014; his work has been translated ...

, Kurt Aust,

Unni Lindell Unni Maria Lindell (born 3 April 1957 in Oslo) is a Norwegian writer. She is best known for her crime novels (whodunits), but has also written a collection of poems and several children's and young adult books. Lindell worked as a journalist bef ...

Tom Egeland Tom Egeland (born 8 July 1959 in Oslo) is a Norwegian author. His great-grandfather was Jon Flatabø from Kvam in Hardanger, one of the pioneer authors of popular literature in Norway. Egeland's novels are published in Norwegian and transelate ...

Tom Kristensen Tom Kristensen (born 7 July 1967) is a Danish former racing driver. He holds the record for the most wins at the 24 Hours of Le Mans with nine, six of which were consecutive (from 2000 to 2005). In 1997, he won the race with the Joest Racing te ...

, Jørn Lier Horst, Stein Morten Lier and Kjell Ola Dahl are among the authors in this category. A stream of translated crime, especially from Sweden and Britain, have influenced Norwegian authors of this genre. Another clear trend is an interest in biographies, especially of authors and artists. Many of the significant living writers during the 1980s have written one or more biographies of deceased artist or other colleagues. In addition, several significant biographies were written. ''The Fall of the Sun God. Knut Hamsun'' by

Jørgen Haugan Jørgen Haugan (born 1941) is a Norwegian author and lecturer. He was written a number of books, principally biographies of noted Scandinavian writers. Haugan earned a doctorate in philosophy in 1977 from the University of Copenhagen with a th ...

and

Ingar Sletten Kolloen Ingar Sletten Kolloen (born 9 July 1951) is a Norwegian journalist, biographer, novelist and playwright. He has written biographies of Tor Jonsson, Knut Hamsun and Joralf Gjerstad. He wrote the play ''Jeg kunne gråte blod'' in 2004, and the novel ...

biography received great attention. There is a trend in these modern biographies – similar to today's cinema and unlike the past – to use source material of a private character. In poetry Rolf Jacobsen's ''Nattåpent'' sold almost 20,000 copies and Harald Sverdrup's ''Lysets øyeblikk'' was also very well received.

, Tor Ulven and

Paal-Helge Haugen Paal-Helge Haugen (born 26 April 1945) is a Norwegian poet, novelist, dramatist and children's writer who has published over 30 books. His titles have been translated into at least 20 languages. His 1968 "punktroman" or "pointillist novel," ''Anne ...

also published significant collections of poetry during this decade.

wrote some of his most political poetry, reminiscent of the 1970s, during the 1990s. The new and emerging poetry shows great diversity. However, only the rare collection of poetry achieves substantial sales or circulation. Poetry can be said to be in a crisis state, unlike newer novels, which often are published in large quantities as the month's book for book clubs. Theater audiences show only moderate interest in new Norwegian plays. Hence drama has been overshadowed by prose and poetry, with one exception: Jon Fosse. Fosse, through the 1990s and later, has achieved an international acclaim not enjoyed by any other Norwegian playwright since Ibsen.

21st century

Karl Ove Knausgård Karl Ove Knausgård (; born 6 December 1968) is a Norwegian author. He became known worldwide for six autobiographical novels, titled ''My Struggle'' (''Min Kamp''). Since the completion of the ''My Struggle'' series in 2011, he has also publis ...

had worldwide success with his six-volume series of

autobiographical novel An autobiographical novel is a form of novel using autofiction techniques, or the merging of autobiographical and fictive elements. The literary technique is distinguished from an autobiography or memoir by the stipulation of being fiction. ...

s entitled ''

My Struggle (; ''My Struggle'' or ''My Battle'') is a 1925 autobiographical manifesto by Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler. The work describes the process by which Hitler became antisemitic and outlines his political ideology and future plans for Ge ...

'' (''Min kamp'' in Norwegian) and was described by

Wall Street Journal ''The Wall Street Journal'' is an American business-focused, international daily newspaper based in New York City, with international editions also available in Chinese and Japanese. The ''Journal'', along with its Asian editions, is published ...

as "one of the 21st-century's greatest literary sensations". Knausgård is also the author of novels (''

Ute av verden ''Ute av verden'' (direct translation: Out of the World) is the 1998 debut novel by Norwegian writer Karl Ove Knausgård. Knausgård was awarded the Norwegian Critics Prize for Literature for the book. This was the first time in the award's histo ...

'', '' En tid for alt'', '' Morgenstjernen''), the autobiographical ''The Seasons Quartet'' and essay collections.

Comics

Norway has a distinct

comic strip A comic strip is a sequence of drawings, often cartoons, arranged in interrelated panels to display brief humor or form a narrative, often serialized, with text in balloons and captions. Traditionally, throughout the 20th and into the 21st ...

and single-panel comic culture that it shares with

Sweden Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden,The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names states that the country's formal name is the Kingdom of SwedenUNGEGN World Geographical Names, Sweden./ref> is a Nordic country located on ...

. Story-driven comics with local themes were popular in the postwar years, including Vangsgutane,

Jens von Bustenskjold ''Jens von Bustenskjold'' is the title of a Norwegian comic strip, which appeared in ''Arbeidermagasinet'' (later renamed ''Magasinet For Alle'') from 1934 to 1970. It's a humoristic comic about a nobleman. The series was created by Sigurd Lybeck, ...

and

Smørbukk ''Smørbukk'' is a Norwegian comic strip. It was started in 1938 by text writer Andreas Haavoll and illustrator Jens R. Nilssen. The first Smørbukk story was based on the fairytale Buttercup collected by Asbjørnsen and Moe. The strip appears in ...

. However, they gradually faded out of popularity, leading to several decades with no major locally produced comics (with the partial exception of

Pyton ''Pyton'' was a Norwegian comic book series which was produced by the company Gevion, and afterwards Bladkompaniet, between the years 1986 until 1996. An anthology magazine with no major main character, its style of humor focused mostly on satir ...

). Starting in the early 1990s, a large number of strip comics were born from the local hype that had surrounded such US strip comics as

Calvin & Hobbes ''Calvin and Hobbes'' is a daily American comic strip created by cartoonist Bill Watterson that was Print syndication, syndicated from November 18, 1985, to December 31, 1995. Commonly cited as "the last great newspaper comic", ''Calvin and Hobb ...

Piranha Club ''Piranha Club'' is a comic strip written and illustrated by Bud Grace. It was originally called ''Ernie'', but the title was changed in 1998. The club is meant as a parody on Lions Club International, and the strip made its debut in February 19 ...

and

Beetle Bailey ''Beetle Bailey'' is an American comic strip created by cartoonist Mort Walker, published since September 4, 1950. It is set on a fictional United States Army post. In the years just before Walker's death in 2018 (at age 94), it was among the old ...

. Significant names include

Frode Øverli Frode Øverli (born August 15, 1968 in Bergen, Norway) is a Norwegian comic strip cartoonist, considered one of the most successful in Scandinavia. Biography He began his career in 1984 when his parodies of ''The Phantom'' became a regular fe ...

(''

Pondus ''Pondus'' is a comic strip created by the Norwegian cartoonist Frode Øverli. Since its start in 1995, it has become one of the most successful comic strips in Scandinavia. It has been translated to several languages, including Danish, Engli ...

'', ''Rutetid''), Lars Lauvik (''Eon'', ''Wildlife''),

Mads Eriksen Mads Eriksen (born 15 July 1977) is a Norwegian cartoonist, best known for the comic strips '' M'' and ''Gnom''. Biography Eriksen was born in Malvik. His career in comics began in 2000, when his first comic strip, ''Gnom'', was accepted into ...

('' M''),

Lise Myhre Lise Myhre (born 1 November 1975 in Lørenskog) is a Norwegian cartoonist. Her most famous cartoon is ''Nemi''. Biography After a short study of graphical design at the Santa Monica College of Art in California, Lise Myhre started her career as ...

(''

Nemi Nemi is a town and ''comune'' in the Metropolitan City of Rome (central Italy), in the Alban Hills overlooking Lake Nemi, a volcanic crater lake. It is northwest of Velletri and about southeast of Rome. The town's name derives from the Lat ...

''), Øyvind Sagosen (''

Radio Gaga ''Radio Gaga'' is a comic strip created by the Norwegian people, Norwegian humourist "Flis" (Øyvind Sagåsen). The series started in 2001, and is about characters who run a local radio station called Radio Gaga. Although the action takes place ...

''), and the duo Emberland & Sveen (''Sleivdal IL''). Starting out with a focus on slapstick comedy, Norwegian comic strips gradually focused more on relationships and family life from the late 2000s onwards, leading to the creation of additional comic strips made by names like

Hanne Sigbjørnsen Hanne Monge Sigbjørnsen (born 8 December 1989) is a Norwegian cartoonist, blogger and nurse under the pseudonym "Tegnehanne". Her Tegnehanne blog has received acclaim by media outlets and awards. Works Sigbjørnsen started her blog in 2010. She ...

(''Tegnehanne'') and Nils Axle Kanten (''Hjalmar'').

Electronic literature

Hans Kristian Rustad's book ''Digital litteratur'' (2012) provides an overview of early Norwegian

electronic literature Electronic literature or digital literature is a genre of literature encompassing works created exclusively on and for digital devices, such as computers, tablets, and mobile phones. A work of electronic literature can be defined as "a constr ...

. See also the Nordic Electronic Literature Collection in the ELMCIP Electronic Literature Knowledge Base. Significant authors include Ottar Ormstad and Anne Bang Steinsvik.

Notes

References

* Blankner, Frederika (1938). ''A History of the Scandinavian Literatures''. Dial Press Inc., New York. * Clough, Ethlyn T. (editor) (1909). ''Norwegian Life''. Bay View Reading Club. * Gjerset, Knut (1915). ''The History of the Norwegian People''. MacMillan. * Griffiths, Tony (2004). ''Scandinavia; at War with Trolls''. Palgrave MacMillan. * Grøndahl, Carl Henrik and Nina Tjomsland (editors) (1978). ''The Literary Masters of Norway, with Samples of Their Works''. Tanum-Norli, Oslo. * Larson, Karen (1948). ''A History of Norway''. Princeton University Press. * Naess, Harald S. (1993). ''A History of Norwegian Literature''. University of Nebraska Press.

External links

Norwegian literature
Columbia Encyclopedia article

A short overview

Article by

Janneken Øverland Janneken Øverland (born 22 August 1946) is a Norwegian editor, biographer and publishing house executive. She was born in Stavanger. She edited the literary magazine ''Vinduet'' from 1980 to 1984. She was co-editor of the three-volume ''Norsk kv ...

Norwegian children's literature: Word games, earnestness – diversity of genre and experiment in form
Article by Karin Beate Vold
Norway Cultural Profile
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