Muhammad Rashid Rida

Muḥammad Rashīd ibn ʿAlī Riḍā ibn Muḥammad Shams al-Dīn ibn Muḥammad Bahāʾ al-Dīn ibn Munlā ʿAlī Khalīfa (23 September 1865 or 18 October 1865 – 22 August 1935 CE/ 1282 - 1354 AH), widely known as Sayyid Rashid Rida ( ar, سيد رشيد رضا, Sayyid Rashīd Riḍā) was a prominent Sunni Islamic scholar, reformer, theologian and revivalist. As an eminent Salafi scholar who called for the revival of Hadith sciences and a theoretician of Islamic State in the modern-age; Rida condemned the rising currents of secularism and nationalism across the Islamic World following the Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate, and called for a global Islamic Renaissance program to re-establish an Islamic Caliphate.

Rashid Rida is considered by many as one of the most influential scholars and jurists of his generation and was initially influenced by the movement for Islamic Modernism founded in Egypt by Muhammad Abduh. Eventually, Rida became a resolute proponent of the works of Ibn Taymiyyah, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, etc. and was the leader of the early ''Salafiyya'' movement. Rida would be an important source of influence for a number of 20th century Salafi scholars such as Taqi ud Din al Hilali, Muhibb al Din al Khatib, Muhammad Hamid al-Fiqi, Muhammad Bahjat al-Bitar, Jamal al-Din al Qasimi, Ibn Uthaymin, 'Abd al-Zahir Abu al-Samh, , Abdur Razzaq Malihabadi, Vakkam Abdul Qadir Moulavi and most notably Muhammad Nasir al-Din al-Albani.

As a young student trained in "traditional Islamic subjects" and classical treatises of Ghazzali and Ibn Taymiyya; Rida believed in the necessity of a "Reformation" to the halt the decline of the Muslim ''Ummah'', eliminate heretical practices associated with Sufism and initiate an Islamic renewal. Rida left Syria for Cairo to work with Abduh and started publishing the influential ''al-Manar'' magazine from 1898.''Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World'', Thompson Gale (2004), p. 597 Through ''Al-Manar'''s popularity across the Islamic World, with an active readership across Java to Morocco, Rida led the Arab Salafi movement and championed its cause. Rashid Rida fiercely opposed freemasonry and the nascent Zionist movement. Rida bolstered anti-semitic, anti-masonic sentiments across the Islamic World via ''Al-Manar'' and laid the foundations for anti-Western pan-Islamist struggle during the early 20th century.

During the last three decades of his life, Rida abandoned his initial rationalist leanings and began espousing Salafi-oriented methodologies such as that of '' Ahl-i Hadith''. He would become an admirer of the Wahhabi movement, revive the works of Ibn Taymiyya and spear-head the ''Salafiyya'' movement into a more conservative direction, adopting a strict Scripturalist approach. Through ''Al-Manar'', Rida popularised Wahhabi teachings throughout the Islamic World. He is regarded by a number of historians as "pivotal in leading Salafism's retreat" from the rationalist school of 'Abduh. Rashid Rida was a staunch opponent of liberalism and was noteworthy for his animosity towards European Imperial powers. He was deeply suspicious towards Western ideas and supported armed '' Jihad'' to expel European influences from the Islamic World. Rida's strategy of rehabilitation of the Muslim Ummah through a return to its Islamic origins and calls for the obligation of re-establishing a Sunni Caliphate would be adopted by Muslim Brotherhood and inspire Jihadist movements such as Al-Qaeda.

Early life

Family Background

Muhammad Rasheed Rida was born in the village of Al-Qalamoun, Beirut Vilayet near Tripoli in 1865. His father was an Imam in the masjid. Riḍā came from a Sunni Shafi'i family of modest means that relied on the revenues of their limited olive-tree holdings and fees earned by some of its members who served as ''ulama''. For generations, the ''ulama'' of the Rida family had been in charge of Al-Qalamoun mosque. He belonged to a family of ''Sayyids'' who claimed descent from the '' Ahl al-Bayt'' (family of the Islamic prophet Muhammad), specifically Husayn ibn Ali. Stories of Al-Husayn were frequently repeated inside the family. Rida himself identified Al-Husayn as one of his "great-grandfathers" and often cursed those responsible for his martyrdom, without naming them.

Education

As a young boy, Rida had received traditional religious education. Riḍā started his elementary education in a local ''Kuttab'' (Qurʾānic school) in Qalamūn, where he learned and memorized the ''Qur'an''. He then moved to the Turkish government elementary school in Tripoli, where he studied grammar, mathematics, geography and religion, in addition to Arabic and Turkish. After one year, Rida enrolled in the National Islamic School (''al-Madrasa al-Islāmiyya al-Waṭaniyya'') of Shaykh Ḥusayn al-Jisr in Tripoli. The language of instruction of the school was Arabic and its curriculum included Islamic religious sciences, logic, mathematics and modern natural sciences. Riḍā's teachers included Maḥmūd Nashābeh (d.1890), who taught him hadith and Shafi'i Fiqh; ʿAbd al-Ghānī al-Rāfiʿī(d. 1890), who introduced him to the works of Yemeni jurist Al-Shawkani; and Muḥammad al-Kawukjī (d. 1887).

As a pious and motivated religious student, Rida started preaching and educating others at a communal level. He gathered the people of his village to the Central mosque where he taught them ''Tafsir'' lessons and other religious sciences. He also arranged separate classes for females, instructing them on the rules of rituals and ''Ibadah''. Rida's accidental discovery of several copies of the periodical '' al-Urwa al-Wuthqa'' during 1884–1885, edited by Jamal al-Din Al-Afghani and Muhammad Abduh, would change the course of his life. Rida collected its various issues from his father and Al-Jisr, became its avid reader and was highly influenced by it. He wrote to Afghani asking him to accept him as a disciple, but Afghani died before Rida had a chance to meet him.

Rida's education introduced him to the religious treatises of major classical scholars such as Ibn Taymiyya, Ibn Qayyim, Ibn Qudama, Ghazzali, Mawardi, Razi, Taftasani, Ibn Rajab etc. which he would regularly cite and re-publish in his later years. According to Lebanese-British historian Albert Hourani, Rashid Rida belonged to the last generation of traditionally trained Islamic scholars who could be "fully educated and yet alive in a self-sufficient Islamic world of thought."

Life in Egypt

''Al-Manar'' Magazine and Collaboration With Abduh

Rida had met Abduh as an exile in Lebanon in the mid-1880s. Rida was able to establish a relationship with Abduh and would refer to him as his ''Ustadh'' (mentor) throughout his life. After obtaining diploma of ulema in 1897, Rida joined Abduh in Cairo. Modelled after ''al-Urwa al-Wuthqa'', they would start the monthly periodical ''Al-Manar''. Rida would continue as its chief editor and owner until his death in 1935. After Abduh's death, Rida would publish ''Tafsir al-Manar'' as well as issue '' fatwas'' on various issues in the section ''Fataawa al-Manar''. ''Tafsir al-Manar'' would later be published as a separate Qur'anic exegesis, although it remained incomplete. In the words of Albert Hourani; "from the time of its foundation, ''Al-Manar'' was... (Rida's) life."

After the death of Abduh, Rida would be seen as his de facto successor. Abduh's disciples would subsequently divide into opposing camps. One camp were Islamic modernists (such as Saad Saghlul, 'Ali 'Abd al-Raziq) who called for embracing European secular values and legal system. The other camp was the " ''Al-Manar Reform Party'' " which advocated the revival of Islam and sought to base '' sharia'' for organisation of both state as well as society. From this camp, would emerge in the ''Salafiyya'' movement. Rida would engage in fierce campaigns against the modernists, often invoking Abduh's legacy even though Abduh wouldn't have shared his views. Unlike Afghani and Abduh whose movement sought to "modernise Islam", Rida and his ''Salafiyya'' school sought the "Islamization of modernity".

During his stay in Egypt, Rida was able to research the classical treatises of theologian Ibn Taymiyya and his disciples, in depth. This would make a profound impact in his religious thought; and Rida would embrace various ideas such as revulsion against folk Sufism, criticism of ''Taqlid'', calls for revival of hadith studies, etc. which became the foundational themes of the ''Salafiyya'' school.

Differences with Abduh

Initial Dispute

Despite their different backgrounds, a serious-minded and religiously pious, young Rashid Rida developed a close-relationship with the broad-minded Abduh. The first major dispute between them arose over the status of the Baháʼí Faith. Muhammad 'Abduh viewed the Baha'is as a creative minority who were attempting to reform Shi'ite faith and whose efforts were relevant for Islamic reform. Rashid Rida, on the other hand, considered Bahais as a totally separate religion with its own distinctive laws and concluded that they were esotericists pretending to believe in Islam while practising another religion. He perceived them as modern equivalents of Fatimids and as a destructive internal threat to Islam. Rida was disheartened to hear of Abduh's friendship with 'Abdu'l-Baha Abbas, the head of Bahai faith and his praise of his liberal ideas. Abduh's arguments supporting Bahai stances were unacceptable to Rida, who was determined to convince Abduh of its falsehood. In Rida's view, Bahai faith, like all the other non-Muslim religious movements were falsehood and there was no room for "partially true" movements. Not only did Rida consider Bahai's as polytheists, but anyone who refused to condemn them were also excommunicated as apostates.

Stance on Wahhabis

Abduh had disliked the literalism of the Wahhabi movement. In his conversations with Rida, Abduh alleged about the Najdi movement:

Abduh criticized the Wahhabis and their religious ethos for running counter to the intellectual and social objectives of Islamic modernism. Although the Wahhabis were against '' taqleed'', 'Abduh complained that they ended up being more narrow-minded and extreme than the blind imitators. According to him, they were no "friends of science and civilization". Rida on the other hand, was a staunch defender of Wahhabis and advocated their rehabilitation in the Islamic World. Unlike Abduh, Rida identified as a Salafi in creed and relied heavily on transmitted reports (''naql''). But as a balanced reformer, Rida still upheld notions of rationality and progress. Additionally, Abduh was mostly unfamiliar with the works of Hanbali theologian Ibn Taymiyya and was quite critical of his reputed literalism. In contrast, Rashid Rida admired Ibn Taymiyya as a major scholarly figure in the history of Sunni Islam who had a profound impact on Islamic religious thought and directly criticised Abduh for his negative attitudes towards Ibn Taymiyya.

Theological Differences

Abduh's conception of ''Tawhid'' was built almost entirely upon Ash'ari theology. Abduh's definition of ''Tawhid'' was only limited to mean what Salafis understand as ''al-rubūbiyyah'' (the Lordship of God). He also adopted the Ash'ari methodology of metaphorical and interpretive view of what he viewed as potentially anthropomorphic descriptions of Attributes of God. Rashid Rida, who was advocating Salafi theology after the First World War, would correct his teachers views. In response to Abduh's statement in ''Risalah al Tawhid'' that the most important aspect of ''Tawhid'' is belief in "God's oneness in His essence a nd the creation of the universes", Rida remarks that Abduh failed to mention ''tawḥīd al-ʾulūhiyyah'' which he viewed as “the first thing to which every Prophet called upon his people.” He also disputed Abduh's stance on Divine Attributes. In his long editorial footnote to the section where Abduh advocates ''ta'wil'' (allegory) or ''tafwid'' (suspending the meaning) of what he considered as potentially anthropomorphic Attributes, Rida refuted Abduh's views and repeated the standard Salafi arguments against the Ash'ari and Maturidite schools. Abduh's section which favoured the Ash'ari view on Qur'anic letters and its recitation as "created" was also deleted. Instead, Rida advocated the traditionalist doctrine of Qur'anic letters, recitation and voice being uncreated (''ghayr Makhluq'') Word of God; based on the works of Ibn Taymiyya.

Abduh had a liberal, humanist outlook and sought to unite various Islamic sects. In line with his tolerant approach, Abduh had interpreted the Prophetic hadith of "73 sects" to argue that no Muslim can be assured of belonging to the saved sect and that all surviving groups are included in the Saved Sect. Directly criticising Abduh on the issue, Rida stated that the “saved sect” was indisputably '' Ahlul Sunna wal Jama'ah'' (i.e. ''Sunni Islam''). Abduh's conception of Islamic regeneration embraced the era of classical scholarship and its figures such as Ghazali. Meanwhile, Rashīd Rida, influenced by his early exposure to Hanbali school in Syria, envisioned a puritanical renewal based on the revival of the values of the Salaf al-Salih (first three Muslim generations).

Political Differences

Unlike 'Abduh, Rida also believed that problems faced by Muslims required comprehensive political reform. Politically, Rida differed from 'Abduh and his former associates in championing anti-imperialist activism characterised by radical Pan-Islamist stances. This was at odds with the political quietism of 'Abduh or the nationalist activism of the Egyptian leader Saad Zaghlul, another prominent disciple of 'Abduh. Rida's ''Salafiyya'' movement advocated for pan-Islamist solidarity which involved socio-political campaigning to establish '' Sharia'' (Islamic laws). Following World War I, Rida and his disciples became the biggest adversaries of Egyptian nationalists; and vehemently attacked all forms of secular ideas.

Initially, Rida was a supporter of Ottoman Empire as the bastion of Islamic strength. He proposed the creation of an Islamic Empire, wherein the ''ulema'' of various Islamic sects - Sunni, Shi‘a, Ibadi - draft a modern code of law based on '' Sharia'' under the leadership of the Ottoman Caliph. After his proposals of reform were rejected by Sultan Abdul Hamid II, Rida would briefly back the Young Turk Revolution and Hashemite-led Arab revolt during World War I. However, Atatürk's actions of abolition of Caliphate would be a shock to Rida and he would later regret his past decisions. During 1922–1923, Rida would publish a series of articles in ''Al-Manar'' titled “''The Caliphate or the Supreme Imamate''”. In this highly influential treatise, Rida advocates for the restoration of Caliphate and proposes gradualist measures of Education, Reformation and Purification through the efforts of ''Salafiyya'' Reform movements across the globe.

In advocating a restoration of the Caliphate, Rashid Rida would re-iterate the unity of both the spiritual and temporal aspects of Islam, in direct opposition to the emerging tides of secularism across the Arab and Turkish worlds. In ''"The Caliphate or the Supreme Imamate"'' he discusses the conditions necessary for the revival of the ideal Caliphal rule and proposes routes that would avoid a return to the Ottoman imperial system. Acclaiming the early Islamic territorial conquests, Rida stated:

Opposition to Modernists

During his early years, Rida was influenced by 'Abduh and Afghani and he attacked the official clergy throughout his writings. At this stage, Rida considered the traditional Sufi clergy to be the biggest obstacle to revival of Islamic civilisation and reformation of Muslims. Despite this, Rida never shared Muhammad 'Abduh's intellectual accommodation for Western civilization and European ideas. Rather than the Western and Persian philosophers admired by 'Abduh, Rida was inspired by classical Islamic scholars such as Ibn Taymiyya and his hardline Hanbalite treatises. Instead of criticising Sufism based on its perceived role in the Islamic historical scheme; Rida opposed Sufis since he considered their activities to be ''bid'ah'' (innovations) without textual precedents or any sanction in the practices of the earliest generations.

The advancement of secularist trends would later make Rida turn his attention on the Westernised modernisers. Rida would fiercely attack the modernisers, accusing them of sowing corruption, immorality and charging them "with treason". For Rida, Scriptures cannot be ignored and any "reforms" that goes against Scripture is a heresy that should be censured. Rida's fierce campaigns were instrumental in putting modernists like Ali Abd al-Raziq to trial for what he viewed as his "attacks" on '' Sharia''. Rida would extol Ibn Hazm, an early scholar of the Zahiri (literalist) school, whom he regularly cited. In line with his literalist methodology, Rida would gradually distance from the tolerant approach of Abduh and Afghani.

Rida was also a staunch opponent of Hadith-rejectionist trends in Egypt. Prominent amongst them was the Egyptian physician Muhammad Tawfiq Sidqi who grew out of the modernist traditions of Muhammad Abduh. Sidqi cast aspersions on the hadith corpus, suggesting that it has been prone to corruption due to flawed transmissions and hence, Muslims should rely solely on Qur'an. Rashid Rida rebuked Sidqi's views, writing:

Hence, Rida argued, Sidqi's assault on hadith, was a rejection of this prophecy, reducing Muhammad to a minor figure and slandering him. Ridā's public stance against Sidqi forced him to recant his views.

Although Rida's initial views mirrored the modernist approach of Abduh, he later became an admirer of Ibn Taymiyya and Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab and would adopt a more conservative and orthodox outlook. He believed that the modernists had gone too far in their reformist attempts, embracing Westernised lifestyles and thinking; thus leading Muslims to loose their faith. Rida advocated a return the ways of the ''salaf'' and urged Muslims to live entirely by the sharia. Reviving the ideas of Ibn Taymiyya, he employed the term ''Jahiliyya'' to refer to the conditions of contemporary Muslims and believed that governance not adhering to '' sharia'' was apostasy. This idea would become a major rationale behind the armed Jihad of future militant organisations.

After Abduh's Death

As the successor of Abduh's legacy, Rida tried to depict him as an advocate of the Salafist doctrine to the Egyptian audience. Over two decades after his death, Rida claimed that Abduh was a "Salafi in creed" although his explication of divine attributes in his popular works such as ''Risalat al-tawheed'' was similar to Ash'arites and rationalists. Distraught by these ideas, Rida made various re-editions of Abduh's works to make them in conformity with the dogmas of the traditionalist creed. Abduh's appraisal of Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari (d. 936), the eponymous founder of the Ash'arite school, for reconciling the views "of the ''salaf'' and that of the ''khalaf"'' was downplayed; and Rida attached a lengthy annotation to describe al-Ash'ari's renunciation of ''Kalam'' and subsequent espousal of Hanbali theology towards his later years, as mentioned by Ibn Taymiyya. Rida praised Ibn Taymiyya for his medieval polemics that vindicated "the superiority of '' madhhab al-salaf'' over ''kalam"'', a significant historical aspect of theology ignored by Abduh. Even though Rida and his Salafi disciples had viewed Abduh to be a great reformer; they privately held grave reservations about his creedal beliefs.

When popular interest in Muhammad Abduh was revived in Egypt around twenty-five years after his death, two contesting narratives of him were available. One was a short biography published by Mustafa 'Abd al-Raziq, an Azharite student of 'Abduh, which stressed the rationalist legacy of Abduh's thought. Similar portrayals of Abduh would be espoused by Uthman Amin and Egyptian artist Muhammad Naji. The other narrative was elaborated by Rashid Rida, in his 1931 biographic work titled ''Tarikh al-ustadh al-imam al-shaykh Muhammad Abduh'' (“History of Professor the Imam Shaykh Muhammad Abduh”). The views of Muhammad Abduh attributed by Rida were closest to his own. His unorthodox views were either ignored or actively deleted from the editions of his works that Rida published. Rather than an exponent of rationalist theology, Muhammad 'Abduh was portrayed as a restorer of Islamic orthodoxy, an opponent of ''bid'ah''- and an enthusiast of Ibn Taymiyya. Eventually, Rida's view of Muhammad 'Abduh would become the dominant one, enshrined in Egyptian school history lessons and in popular memory.

Through his writings in his last years, Abduh had begun acknowledging "Salafis (''al-salafiyyun'')" as Sunni Muslims "who adhere to the creed of the forefathers" in distinction from Asharis. Despite this, Muhammad Abduh never self-identified as a "Salafi" during his lifetime. Unlike 'Abduh, Rida identified himself as "Salafi" in both theology ('' 'Aqida'') as well as Jurisprudence (''Fiqh''). Other Salafi theologians like Jamal al-Din al Qasimi (d. 1332 A.H/ 1914 C.E) would narrate Abduh's embracal of Salafi theology in private encounters during his last years, although these claims would be scrutinised by others. In response to some of his critics, Qasimi states:

“even though Abduhsometimes followed the rules of the theoreticians and the speculative theologians, and even though he sometimes defended these rules, he did not deviate from his love of the salaf, and his creed 'tiqaduhudid not deviate from their wellspring.”

Proposal of Reform to Abdul Hamid II

World Islamic Congress

In 1897, Rida had decided to expand his knowledge by studying under the active Pan-Islamic scholar, Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, who was at that time in Istanbul but died later that year. After suspecting th
Hamidian administration
of being responsible for his death, Rida left the empire and joined Afghani's student Muhammad 'Abduh (1849- 1905) in Egypt. Beginning from 1898, Rashid Rida published numerous articles in ''Al-Manar'' counselling the Ottoman authorities to adopt a new religious strategy in the framework of the caliphal and Pan-Islamic policy of Sultan Abd al-Hamid II. For training future ''ulama'' as well as ''Qadis'' responsible for issuing fatwas and discussing religious affairs, Rashid Rida recommended the creation of different institutions in a standardised manner.

In an article published in 1898, ''Al-Manar'' would raise the issue of a World Islamic Congress for Muslim reformation, with the standardisation of creed, laws and teachings as its fundamental principle. Directly addressing Sultan Abdul Hamid II as ''Amir al-Mu'min'', Rashid Rida wrote:

The proposed international society would publish a religious journal in the Sacred city, to counter innovations(''bid'ah'') and heretic ideas; as well as translating religious works to different languages. Rida had lamented the attitude of returning pilgrims, who spoke about their journeys, but not at all regarding the contemporary circumstances under which the rest of Muslims lived. The Khalifa himself would preside over the affairs of the society, while remaining its member just like the other members. The scholars of the society would compile legal works, drawn from all '' mad'habs''(legal schools), adapted to contemporary situation and the resulting legislation should be implemented by the ''Khalifa'' in all Muslim lands.

Rida did not call for an immediate establishment of a spiritual caliphate, but a global religious society which would pave the way for it. Islamic unity required the abolition of sectarian differences and reviving the doctrines of the '' Salaf us Salih'', who pre-dated different sects and ''mad'habs''. While respecting the contributions of the scholarly eponyms of the ''mad'habs'', Rida advocated a centralising policy of reunion of Muslim schools and sects through a return to the fundamentals of Faith. The proposal also had the political objective of uniting Muslims against European colonialism. Critiquing despotic systems, Rida believed that ''shura''(consultation) is a basic feature of any Islamic state. He viewed the Caliphate as a necessary temporal power to defend Islam and enforce sharia. Maintaining that Islam fundamentally sought the implementation of '' sharia'' through authority, Rida wrote:

Ottoman Censorship

''Al-Manar'' proposals were met with poor and often, hostile reception from the Ottoman authorities. The choice of Mecca as the centre of the society and the relegation of the Caliph as an ordinary member of the society; alerted the Ottoman authorities for whom the domination of Istanbul and Ottoman dynastic claims to Caliphate were not open to dispute. Some of them proposed a Muslim Congress in Istanbul. However, according to Rida, it was harmful to set up such a Congress in Istanbul. Abdul Hamid II opposed the idea of a Congress both in Mecca as well as Istanbul. The Meccan Congress was opposed by the Sultan, viewing it as a ploy for Arab separatism and Hejazi autonomy. The Istanbul setting was perceived as an indirect way to establish a parliamentary forum in the capital of the empire. The proposals were in direct contradiction to the established Ottoman policy on enforcing the absolute authority of the Sultan.

Meanwhile, Rashid Riḍā's harsh denunciation of Sufism had enraged Abū l-Hudā al-Sayyādī (1850-1909), the sultan's Syrian advisor. Riḍā condemned the Rifāʿiyya and Qādiriyya Sufi orders for ritualising innovated practices. Due to this, the Ottoman authorities harassed Rida's family in Syria. Al-Sayyādī requested Badrī Bāšā, his brother-in- ̣law and the governor of Tripoli, to transfer Riḍā's brothers to military authorities. One of Rida's brothers was beaten and the authorities also tried to confiscate Rida's family mosque. Rida would report that Sayyadi had also planned to assassinate him in Egypt. The Hamidian administration would ban the journal ''Al-Manar'' in Ottoman regions. Later in 1901, Rida published a review on Kawakibi's famous essay, ''Characteristics of Tyranny''(Tabāʾiʿ al-istibdād), which attacked Sufism as well as the Ottoman sultan directly.

Further Proposals

Despite the censorship, ''al-Manar'' resulted in the wide dissemination of reformist proposals across the Islamic World. The theme of a World Muslim Congress was given detailed expression for the first time in Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi's famous literary piece of fiction, ''Umm al-qura'', first published in 1900. Umm al-Qura(one of the names of the Islamic holy city of Mecca), was the setting of Kawakibi's fictional story of a Muslim congress and its proceedings. The article would become the staunchest anti-Ottoman elaboration of the Pan-Islamist movement. In the article, Kawakibi argued for an end to the Ottoman rule, and its replacement by an Arabian Qurayshi caliphate elected through a great Islamic congress. Rashid Rida took the outline of the article presented to him by Al-Kawakibi in Cairo, expanded it with consultation and made it famous, through serialization in ''al-Manar''. Salafi reformist themes such as the stripping away of ritual accretions, Sufism, etc. were advocated by the article.

In spite of the rejection of his proposals as well as vehement Ottoman opposition, Rida supported the preservation of the Sultanate during th
Hamidian era
1876-1909). The dynastic nature of Ottoman state, was reconciled with the classical legal approach of accommodating a “caliphate of conquest,” in which caliphs ruled through force, not ''shura'', consent, and adherence to ''shari‘ah''. While holding the Ottoman rule to be based on '' asabiyya''(tribalism), Rida distanced himself from rebelling against the empire, since it may lead to the demolition of the only Islamic temporal power. With the emerging European colonial encroachment that threatened the Muslim World, the Ottoman Caliphate was seen an indispensable buffer. At this stage, Rida had restricted himself to advocating reforms for consultative governance within the Ottoman state. His writings also focused on condemning partisanship to ''mad'habs'' and all forms of factionalism. He also walked a tight-rope of supporting Arabism and promoting Arab pre-eminence while simultaneously advocating Islamic unity and condemning ethnic prejudice as un-Islamic. In the Arab religious nationalism advocated by ''Salafiyya'', Arabs were better suited for Islamic leadership and hence Arab revival was identical with Islamic unity. Simultaneously, Rida called for Arab-Turkish co-operation, writing:

Ottoman Consultative Society

In 1897, Rashid Rida, Rafiq al-‘Azm, and Saib Bey, a Turkish officer; founded the Ottoman Consultative Society(''Jam‘iyat al-shura al-‘uthmaniyya'') in Cairo. Azm served as the society's treasurer and Rida became the administrative head. Its members consisted of Turks, Armenians, and Circassians residing in Egypt. The Society called for Islamic unity embodied under an Ottomanist platform but condemned the autocratic Hamidian rule as well as European imperialism. Its journals from Cairo were printed in Arabic and Turkish and distributed across the empire through ''Al-Manar''. During this period, the society's goals aligned with that of the Young Turks. However, the society disbanded following the Young Turk revolution in 1908 after which Azm joined the CUP in pursuit of modernist activism. Rashid Rida, on the other hand, became a vocal critique of the centralist Young Turks.

Conflicts with Ottoman authorities: 1905-1914

For the ''Salafiyya'' scholars and activists, opposition to the Hamidian state was part of a wider religious reform project of liberating Muslims from the constrained religious interpretations of the state clergy. They insisted on the right to engage in '' Ijtihad'' in the field of Islamic law. Scholars like ‘ Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi (d. 1902) combined their critique of both religious and political authority; seeing the resistance to Ottoman despotism as a critical element in the revival of religious knowledge and Islamic civilization. Scholars of the salafi reform programme found common ground with other activists in the Ottoman Arab provinces who believed that their future progress depended upon the reclamation and strengthening of Arab cultural tradition. For salafis, the promotion of Arabic as the language of revelation was necessary for the revival of the practice of ijtihad amongst legal scholars. The Salafi opposition to Ottoman despotism emphasised on religious reform as a means of socio-political rejuvenation.

Abdülhamid II's autocratic measures that stifled the civil society along with the acceleration of the modernising Tanzimat Project, limited the space for a public sphere where the affairs of state could be discussed in a critical manner. The ''Salafiyya'' movement popularised an Islamic alternative to the aspirations of the disgruntled conservative religious sections through a revival of values modelled during the era of the '' Salaf al-Salih''. Implicit in the ''salafiyya'' worldview was a glorification of Arab Islam and a devaluation of Ottomanism; which idealised the eras of Muhammad, his companions and the Salaf; and viewed all that succeeded the Abbasids as a sad period of decline. The Islamic doctrines of ''shura'' and ''Ijtihad'' became a rallying base for critique of authoritarian state and popular Sufism. As the state grew more oppressive, the ''Salafiyya'' trend became further radicalised. The emerging fault-lines between authoritarian regimes and Islamic fundamentalist movements, would determine the rest of the political power-struggles of the post-Ottoman Middle East. Thus, as early as 1904, Rashid Rida had publicly applauded Ibn Sa‘ud's victory against the Ottoman allied Rashidis.

Persecution:1905-1908

In June 1905, Ottoman authorities arrested Muhyi al-Din Himadah, former mayor of Beirut and a close associate of Muhammad 'Abduh under charges of Syrian separatism. Following Himada's arrest, Ottoman police conducted widespread raids across Syria on the homes of men suspected of complicity. The police arrested Rida's brother and confiscated books and letters from Rida's home. His father was also suspected of separatism. The articles disseminated through his magazine angered the authorities so much that by 1906, the Ottoman court in Tripoli had issued orders to arrest Rashid Rida, wherever he might be, under charges "of printing traitorous and slanderous items" in ''Al-Manar''. Additionally, Rida became increasingly vocal in activities against the Hamidian regime. Sharp criticism of autocratic rule and calls for representative government through ''shura'' became a common theme in ''Al-Manar''.

Prior to 1908, Conservative ''ulema'' were able to employ active Ottoman governmental support for their anti-salafi actions due to numerous reasons. Sultan Abdul Hamid had made a policy of pursuing an Islamic policy of patronising powerful Sufi orders. In addition, Wahhabi and Zaydi rebellions against Ottomans in 1902 and 1904 were exploited by the Sufi ''ulema'' to posit links between Salafi reformers and opposition to Sultan. Major Salafi scholars including Rida, Jamal al-Din al Qasimi, Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi, Abd al Razzaq al Bitar, Mahmud Shukri Al Alusi, etc. were accused of being "Wahhabi sympathisers" perceived as participating in a plot against the empire to establish an "Arab Caliphate". Between 1896 and 1908, Conservative Ulema persuaded Ottoman authorities to punish Salafis and succeeded in intimidating the reformers. Although they were able to harass Salafis, they couldn't convince any Ottoman governor to imprison or exile a Salafi since the ''ulema'' had lost much influence by then.

Young Turk Revolution

During the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, Rashid Rida states that he was working secretly for securing the Constitution from Sultan Abdul Hamid II hoping to benefit from the greater liberty it would allow for Islamic reform and revivalist activities. However, the subsequent transformation of Turkey by Mustafa Kemal had defeated his expectations and Rida charged the new Turkish leader with "pure unbelief and apostasy from Islam, of which there's no uncertainty". During this period, the conservative Ottoman ''ulema'' would increase their attacks on Rida and his disciples; charging them with "Wahhabism" for opposing popular Sufi practices. These ''ulema'' opposed the Ottoman Constitutionalist movement and accused Rashid Rida and his Syrian Salafi and Arabist supporters of being "Wahhabis".

Initially after the July revolution, Salafis were divided into two camps. Salafis like Tahir al Jaza'iri was suspicious of the CUP, viewing the revolution as a coup from personal to collective autocracy and refused to return to Syria. Others such as Abd al-Razzaq al-Bitar and Jamal al-Din al-Qasimi was initially much more hopeful of the prospects. The orthodox Sufi ''ulema'' and their supporters, on the other hand, began to preach openly against the CUP. Utilizing the new freedoms of assembly and speech,they established their own association, ''The Ulama Club''; assisted by the former officials of the Hamidian administration.

Damascene Mob Incident (1908)

Shortly after the July revolution, Rida would visit Damascus in October 1908, while touring Syria and Lebanon. He had already been attacked during his Syrian journey, when a man struck his head with a club-chain. Since it was the eve of the 1908 Ottoman general elections, the ''Ulema Club'' decided to exploit Rida's visit to display their strength and stir up their supporters against the Salafis. In October 24, Rashid Rida gave a public lecture in the Umayyad Mosquebefore a large audience; addressing themes of Islamic revival and religious education of Muslims. During his lecture, he preached that praying to intercessors other than God is an act of polytheism('' shirk''). At this point, two Sufi shaykhs, interrupting his public lecture in the mosque, railed against Rida, accusing him of being a "Wahhabi" who rejected '' mad'habs''. 'Abd al-Qadir al-Khatib, a leading Damascene figure of the Muhammadan Union, an organization that sought the restoration of Abd al-Hamid's rule, was amongst the chief agitators against Rashid Rida. He urged his supporters to denounce Wahhabis, alluding to Rida. The infuriated crowd besieged him, but his disciples were able to rescue Rida with great difficulty. After leaving the mosque, Rida learned that the riots were planned by powerful men who sought to influence the parliament and upon the advice of his disciples, he left Damascus the next morning. His disciples, Al-Bitar and Al-Qasimi were forced to seclude themselves in their homes and returned to their posts in their mosques only after four months.

Ottomanist Counter Coup (1909)

The Constitutional Restoration of 1908 changed the political context of the Salafi conflict with the ''ulema''. Salafis had backed the Committee of Union and Progress(C.U.P), the strongest Constitutionalist party. However, Salafis like al-Jazā'irī Tahir al-Jazairi were already alarmed by the ascendance of centralist factions in the CUP. It would take several years for the CUP to consolidate its power across the empire. In its first year of power itself, CUP would be challenged by factions of Ottoman army that sought to re-instate Abdul Hamid II, now rendered a nominal head. In Istanbul on April 13, number of Hamidian Ottoman soldiers joined religious students in an uprising to expel the C.U.P from the capital. As news of initial Hamidian victories reached damascus, the Ottomanist Muhammadan Union began celebrations and mobilised rallies. Once again the Sufi ulema put the heat on Salafis and began inciting riots to kill "Wahhabis". However, by April 24 a pro-CUP army entered Istanbul on April 24 and recaptured the city. Sultan Abdulhamid II was deposed by the Ottoman General Assembly on April 27 and the Damascene conservative ''ulama'' lapsed into political quiescence following their defeat in April 1909. The outcome of events in 1908-1909 heartened the salafis and dismayed the conservative ''ulama'', who could no longer count on financial subsidies and the government's ideological antipathy toward religious reform.

For Rida, Abdul Hamid's role in the 1909 counter-coup demonstrated his illegitimacy. He viewed Abdul Hamid's deposal as a sign that God would end all tyranny, and called upon the Muslim community to unite against oppression. Following the revolution, he visited Istanbul in October 1909, with two aims: to reconcile between the Arabs and the Turks in the Ottoman Empire and to establish a school for Islamic missionaries in Istanbul. However, his proposals were turned down in both subjects and Rida became a sworn enemy of the Young Turks and their party CUP. His initial optimism on the newly appointed Sultan Mehmed V, would prove short-lived since effective power had been concentrated under the hands of the Young Turks, whose vision were at odds with the Salafis and Arabists. Rida concluded that Young Turks had abandoned Islamism and Ottomanism and were pursuing a nationalist, Turkification policy.

Clash with the Young Turks(1909-1914)

Rashid Rida had initially set aside concerns about the nationalism of CUP. However, by 1909, he would be its staunch opponent, accusing it of "abandoning Islam and Ottomanism for nationalism, spreading heresy, turning Islamic government into European government, and sowing intrigue." Opposing the Young Turks, Rida sought decentralization of the empire without challenging the legitimacy of the Ottoman Sultan; following a difficult line of holding onto Ottomanism while also working for Arab unity. Until World War I, Rida advocated autonomy for imperial territories while seeking to maintain the caliphate in Istanbul.

Within two years after the revolution; Rida became convinced that the Ottoman Empire had succumbed to a "Zionist-Masonic influence". In November 1910, Rida publicly asserted that the Young Turk revolution had been orchestrated by the Jews through Freemasonry. According to Rida, the revolution was a Jewish response to the Hamidian regime's rejection of Zionist plans to reclaim of their Third temple in Jerusalem and its surrounding territories through which they sought to reestablish their kingdom. In the following months, he became pre-occupied with concerns of Jewish manipulation of the Ottoman state and argued that the Jews wielded immense influence over the Committee of Union and Progres and the Ottoman treasury. Declaring that the Arabs would forcibly resist the Zionist plans to purchase Palestine from the Freemasons in the Ottoman leadership; Rida warned that the ultimate ambition of the Zionists, assisted by the Young Turks; was to convert al-Aqsa mosque into a Jewish temple and cleanse Palestine from all of its Arab inhabitants.

Rida wrote numerous articles in the Turkish press; calling to shun ideas and policies based on nationalism and race. He warned that nationalism was a European concept contrary to Islamic principles, and would lead to the collapse of the multi-ethnic, multi-racial Ottoman Empire. During this phase, Rida's Arabism was limited to advocate Arab autonomy within the broader Ottomanist framework. He was careful to distinguish between his opposition to the CUP and his loyalty to the Ottoman state. On the eve of the 1911 Ottoman-Italian war in Libya, Rida wrote:

"Election of Clubs"(1912)

The CUP and the conservative ''ulema'' had begun to make rapprochement after 1909, and by 1912 the Conservative ''ulema'' had allied with the CUP in the 1912 general elections; forming a common front against Salafis. CUP's persecution of salafis and Arabists had signaled an opportunity for the Sufi ''ulema'' to cooperate with the CUP, the empire's dominant power. CUP pragmatically allied with the conservatives, who controlled vast resources and held influence across the Empire. CUP candidate list consisted major conservative figures backed by the anti-salafi ''ulama''. Meanwhile, Salafis and Arabists supported the decentralist forces led by opposition Freedom and Accord Party(Liberal Entente) that sought to represent the empire's minorities and Turks sympathetic to a decentralised administration. Salafis would back the Entente in 1912 elections. Rida and his allies would again be accused, this time by CUP, of secessionist plots and seeking an "Arab Caliphate". Persecution of Salafis would again begin, this time on a bigger scale. CUP would win elections after massive electoral fraud, earning it the nickname " Election of Clubs".

''Jam'iyyat al-Jami‘a al-Arabiyya''(the Society of Arab Association)

As early as 1910, Rashid Rida had started publicly attacking CUP members as "atheists and freemasons"; alleging them of exploiting Islam for selfish political ends and seeking the destruction of Islamic world. Rida no longer had faith in the Ottoman Empire. The military and political developments had indicated towards an imminent collapse of the Ottoman state. The prospects of an Ottoman collapse seemed more likely, especially after Ottoman defeats in Tripoli and the Balkan wars. Fearing that the Arab lands under Ottoman control may soon fall under the hands of the colonial European empires, Rida would establish a secret society known as "''Jam'iyyat ul-Jami‘a al-Arabiyya''".(the Society of the Arab Association) The society had two objectives: i) unification of the amirs of the Arabian Peninsula to secure a common regional defence, ii) cooperation for the development & protection of Arab countries, and to establish connections among the Arab societies across Syria, Iraq, Istanbul, etc. within the framework of struggle against the CUP. The society sought a union of the Arabian Peninsula and the Arab Provinces of Ottoman Empire. Through the secret activities of the society, Rida sought to strongly pressure the Ottoman state on behalf of the Arabs and also prepare a contingency plan for the defense of Arabs against European ambitions, should the Ottoman Empire disintegrate. In accordance with these objectives, Rida corresponded with Ibn Saud of Najd, Imam Yahya of Yemen and aI-Sayyid al-Idrisi of ‘Asir, and convinced them on the necessity of a pact between all the rulers of the Arabian Peninsula to strengthen the Arabs. Ibn Sa‘ud asked Rida to send a messenger to explain the plan from aa religious and political standpoint in order to persuade his followers. Rida sent him a messenger along with numerous religious treatises. However, due to outbreak of the First World War; the mission failed, and the books were confiscated in Bombay. The war also ruptured his correspondence with Yahya and aI-Idrisi. In 1912 Rida would also meet Mubarak al-Sabah, the shaykh of Kuwait, Shaykh Khaz‘al, the ruler of Muhammara, and the Emir of Mascut and persuaded them on the necessity of establishing an independent Arab state.

Following the Ottoman defeats in the Libyan war (1911) and the Balkan wars (1912-1913), Rida published a pamphlet calling for solidarity and unity of Arabs for the salvation of their land and defending the might of Islam. He announced the creation of a "Superior Committee" whose aim was the establishment of an Islamic Union that would protect the Arabian Peninsula and the Arab nation and defend their rights from the Ottoman administration. The pamphlet was targeted specifically for the amirs and the Arab leaders of Hijaz, Najd, Yemen, and the tribes of the Arabian Peninsula and the Persian Gulf. It warned them of impending European plots to gain control of Syria and the shores of the Arabian Peninsula as a first stage; followed by the occupation of Islamic holy cities and transportation of sacred Islamic relics to the Museums in Europe. Rida urged the Arab leaders to awaken and cease their internal feuds. The Superior Committee made the following demands:
* Proclamation of a union of all the leaders, the amirs and the heads of the Arab tribes
* To make a provisional peace between the amirs and leaders in conflict.
* Muslim unity against any dissident who refuses to accept this entente
* Preparation for war against the enemies of the Union

Rida had concluded that the "Europeanized" Ottoman Empire was impossible to be reformed, since it was solely dependent on Europe. For Rida, Ottoman statesmen were drenched deep in a "European complex" that they neglected the security of both the Arabs and even the Turks in Asia. Ottoman Europe was draining Ottoman resources to such an extent that the state failed to defend both its European and Asiatic territories. He proposed the authorities to transfer Istanbul into a purely military outpost and shift the capital either to Damascus or the Anatolian city of Konya. Arabs and Turks should join then in creating "local Asiatic military formations" capable of defending themselves in case of foreign danger. Priority should be given to defending the Hijaz and the two holy sanctuaries in Mecca and Medina and the lands adjacent to them.

Beginning from 1912, Rida would play an important leadership role in Decentralist political factions. The Egyptian nationalists, especially the Watan party, attacked “the Society of the Arab Union”(''Jam‘iyyat ul-lttihad al-Arabi'') as a conspiracy that sought conflict with the Turks, secession of Arab countries from the Ottoman Empire, and establish an Arab Caliphate. The allegations would be denied by Rida. Simultaneously, Rida began making sharp public attacks against the CUP. Rida believed that the party aimed to "intermix the nations of the Empire with the Turkish race". Initially, the society had limited themselves to achieve unity between the rulers of the Arabian Peninsula and defending the Arab countries from the Committee of Union and Progress. However, Rida would later explicitly advocate for Arab secessionism from the Ottoman Empire.

1913 coup d'état

In 1913, CUP members would launch a coup to establish a one-party state under a ''de facto'' triumvirate of the "Three Pashas"( Enver Pasha, Talaat Pasha and Djemal Pasha). During the years of World War, both Arabists and Salafis were persecuted harshly by Jamal Pasha, the CUP leader who held military and civilian powers in Syria. Many Arabists would be court-martialed and executed, and many Salafi scholars exiled. This would lead to prominent Salafis such as Tahir al-Jaza'iri and Rashid Rida to support the British-backed Arab revolt led by Sharif Hussain. Harshly condemning the 1913 coup, Rida denounced the Young Turks as the “enemy of Arabs and of Islam" who sought the degrading of Arabs. In a radical shift from his early activism focused on educational reforms based on the salafi model, by 1913 Rida had started organizing against the Ottoman government. He espoused the movement to establish a new Islamic pan-Arab empire which would include the Arabian Peninsula, Syria and Iraq.

It was during this period that Rashid Rida would join the ranks of Ibn Saud's boosters in the Arab World. Later on, this shift in stance was further accelerated by his resentment and disenchantment by the betrayal of Sharif Hussein and the scheming of Western colonial powers in the post-war era. Rida saw in Ibn Saud a strong Muslim ruler who had the vision and resolve to prevent British imperial designs in the Arab World. Rida's active promotion of '' Najdi da'wa'' was in direct contradiction to Abduh's denunciation of that movement.

On the eve of World War I, on 27 March 1914, Rashid Rida publicly alleged in ''Al-Manar'' that the CUP was assisting the Zionists in Palestine. He began to vocally participate in the Decentralist opposition to Zionists. Rida accused the Zionists of seeking to establish a Jewish state from "Palestine to the Euphrates" and warned that if the Zionists achieved their objectives; not a single Muslim would remain in " the Promised Land" of the Jewish tradition. To confront the Zionist threat in Palestine, Rida prescribed:"deliberation, determination, communal strength,... acts and deeds, not talk and words" against the Jewish settlers declaring that "the time for action has come". Calls from prominent pan-Arab activists for violence against Jewish colonies accompanied by Rashid Rida's declaration of direct action were readily answered in Palestine. In the months before World War 1, youths across the towns in Palestine began taking organized steps to oppose the Zionists. ''Al-Manar'' would become a chief source for spreading Arab anti-semitic tropes; portraying Jews as those who controlled the finances of the European powers.

World War Era

During World War I, Rashid Rida's activities primarily involved negotiating with the British and Sharif Husayn of Mecca, persuading them on the issue of establishing a united pan-Islamic state, with autonomy for different regions, in the scenario of an eventual collapse of the Ottoman Empire. His attitudes towards the British had been reserved and always suspected them of holding hidden ambitions in Arab countries. These suspicions became stronger after the British ignored his war-time appeals and were verified when he learned about the Sykes-Picot agreement to divide the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire between Britain and France. Since Rida identified the well-being of the Arabs with that of Islam, he considered Britain's actions as dangerous and hostile to not just Arabs, but all Muslims.

Aftermath of the War

The injustice and humiliation imposed upon Muslims by the post-World War Order crafted by the Allied Powers and the betrayal of Sharif Husyan and his sons would lead to a radical phase of Rida's Pan-Islamist enterprise. He became a key figure in the transformation of Islamist politics in both Syria and Egypt, towards militant anti-Westernism. Hasan Al-Banna was a regular attendee of Rida's lectures in the mid-1920s. Rida stubbornly withheld any more attempts at mediation with Western powers and would turn vehemently anti-British. Viewing the Versailles peace treaty and its succeeding World order as worse than the War itself, Rida condemned democracy as a colonial deceit and proposed a Universal Islamic System as a substitute for the failed Wilsonian Peace.

Rida had already become an ardent advocate of Sunni revivalism through the theological framework of Hanbalism. He supported the militant Wahhābī movement in Central Arabia; a movement he considered as tied to his ''Salafīyya'' theology and committed himself to its defence. Rashid Riḍā was opposed to later developments of mystical thoughts and practices in Islam, and hence, was attracted by Wahhābī doctrines that called for "a pristine Islam" with a total rejection of sainthood and superstitions. He regularly attacked what he viewed as ‘spiritual dangers’ of the mystic orders that led to the neglect of the ''Qurʾān'' and '' Sunna''. Riḍā’ believed that the neglect of religious duties by Ṣūfīs and their pacifist teachings led to weakness of the Islamic society and the corruption of the ''Ummah''. Politically, Riḍā aligned himself with the Sultanate of Najd and publicly supported Ibn Saʿūd's military campaigns (1902-1934), seeing him as the only ruler capable of expelling the treacherous Sharif Ḥusayn from '' Ḥijāz'' and challenging the British.

Life as a Scholar

''Dar al-Da'wa Wal Irshad'' (1912 - 1918)

Rashid Rida managed a short-lived, yet influential, Islamic seminary known as ''Dar al-Da'wa wal Irshad'' (“The House of Invitation and Guidance”) during 1912–1918. It was an international institution which accommodated students from all parts of the Islamic World. Although it was forced to close-down due to financial difficulties and political turbulence of World War 1, the seminary would produce many prominent Islamic scholars and inspire future Islamic educational institutions.

Trip to India (1912)

Shibli Nomani

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