Mandaeism (

Classical Mandaic Mandaic is a southeastern Aramaic variety in use by the Mandaean community, traditionally based in southern parts of Iraq and southwest Iran, for their religious books. Classical Mandaic is still employed by Mandaean priests in liturgical rites. ...

: ࡌࡀࡍࡃࡀࡉࡉࡀ ;

Arabic Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic languages, Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C ...

: المندائيّة ), sometimes also known as Nasoraeanism or Sabianism, is a

Gnostic Gnosticism (from grc, γνωστικός, gnōstikós, , 'having knowledge') is a collection of religious ideas and systems which coalesced in the late 1st century AD among Jewish and early Christian sects. These various groups emphasized pe ...

monotheistic Monotheism is the belief that there is only one deity, an all-supreme being that is universally referred to as God. Cross, F.L.; Livingstone, E.A., eds. (1974). "Monotheism". The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 ed.). Oxford: Oxford ...

and

ethnic religion In religious studies, an ethnic religion is a religion or belief associated with a particular ethnic group. Ethnic religions are often distinguished from universal religions, such as Christianity or Islam, in which gaining converts is a pri ...

. Its adherents, the

Mandaeans Mandaeans ( ar, المندائيون ), also known as Mandaean Sabians ( ) or simply as Sabians ( ), are an ethnoreligious group who are followers of Mandaeism. They believe that John the Baptist was the final and most important prophet. They ...

, revere

Adam Adam; el, Ἀδάμ, Adám; la, Adam is the name given in Genesis 1-5 to the first human. Beyond its use as the name of the first man, ''adam'' is also used in the Bible as a pronoun, individually as "a human" and in a collective sense as " ...

Abel Abel ''Hábel''; ar, هابيل, Hābīl is a Biblical figure in the Book of Genesis within Abrahamic religions. He was the younger brother of Cain, and the younger son of Adam and Eve, the first couple in Biblical history. He was a shepher ...

Seth Seth,; el, Σήθ ''Sḗth''; ; "placed", "appointed") in Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Mandaeism, and Sethianism, was the third son of Adam and Eve and brother of Cain and Abel, their only other child mentioned by name in the Hebrew Bible. A ...

Enos Enos or Enosh (Hebrew: , Standard ''Enosh'', Tiberian ''ʼĔnôš''; "mortal man”) may refer to: People in religious scripture * Enos (biblical figure), a genealogical figure in the Bible. * The Book of Enos, one of the books that make up the B ...

Noah Noah ''Nukh''; am, ኖህ, ''Noḥ''; ar, نُوح '; grc, Νῶε ''Nôe'' () is the tenth and last of the pre-Flood patriarchs in the traditions of Abrahamic religions. His story appears in the Hebrew Bible (Book of Genesis, chapters 5– ...

Shem Shem (; he, שֵׁם ''Šēm''; ar, سَام, Sām) ''Sḗm''; Ge'ez: ሴም, ''Sēm'' was one of the sons of Noah in the book of Genesis and in the book of Chronicles, and the Quran. The children of Shem were Elam, Ashur, Arphaxad, L ...

Aram Aram may refer to: Arts and entertainment * ''Aram'' (film), 2002 French action drama * Aram, a fictional character in Japanese manga series '' MeruPuri'' * Aram Quartet, an Italian music group * ''Aram'' (Kural book), the first of the three ...

Jesus Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label=Hebrew/Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth (among other names and titles), was a first-century Jewish preacher and religious ...

and especially

John the Baptist John the Baptist or , , or , ;Wetterau, Bruce. ''World history''. New York: Henry Holt and Company. 1994. syc, ܝܘܿܚܲܢܵܢ ܡܲܥܡܕ݂ܵܢܵܐ, Yoḥanān Maʿmḏānā; he, יוחנן המטביל, Yohanān HaMatbil; la, Ioannes Bapti ...

. Mandaeans consider Adam, Seth, Noah, Shem and John the Baptist prophets with Adam being the founder of the religion and John being the greatest and final prophet. The Mandaeans speak an

Eastern Aramaic The Eastern Aramaic languages have developed from the varieties of Aramaic that developed in and around Mesopotamia (Iraq, southeast Turkey, northeast Syria and northwest and southwest Iran), as opposed to western varieties of the Levant (modern ...

language known as

Mandaic Mandaic may refer to: * Mandaic language * Mandaic alphabet ** Mandaic (Unicode block) Mandaic is a Unicode block containing characters of the Mandaic script used for writing the historic Eastern Aramaic, also called Classical Mandaic, and the m ...

. The name 'Mandaean' comes from the

Aramaic The Aramaic languages, short Aramaic ( syc, ܐܪܡܝܐ, Arāmāyā; oar, 𐤀𐤓𐤌𐤉𐤀; arc, 𐡀𐡓𐡌𐡉𐡀; tmr, אֲרָמִית), are a language family containing many varieties (languages and dialects) that originated in ...

manda Manda may refer to: Places * Kafr Manda, Arab town in the Lower Galilee * Manda Upazila, an upazila in the Division of Rajshahi, Bangladesh * Manda, Kale, a village in Burma * Manda, Guinea, a town in the Labé Region * Manda, Jammu, India, a vil ...

'', meaning knowledge. Within the Middle East, but outside their community, the Mandaeans are more commonly known as the (singular: ), or as Sabians (, ). The term is derived from an Aramaic root related to

baptism Baptism (from grc-x-koine, βάπτισμα, váptisma) is a form of ritual purification—a characteristic of many religions throughout time and geography. In Christianity, it is a Christian sacrament of initiation and adoption, almost inv ...

. The term

Sabians The Sabians, sometimes also spelled Sabaeans or Sabeans, are a mysterious religious group mentioned three times in the Quran (as , in later sources ), where it is implied that they belonged to the 'People of the Book' (). Their original ident ...

derives from the mysterious religious group mentioned three times in the

Quran The Quran (, ; Standard Arabic: , Classical Arabic, Quranic Arabic: , , 'the recitation'), also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation in Islam, revelation from God in Islam, ...

alongside the

Jews Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The ...

, the

Christians Christians () are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words ''Christ'' and ''Christian'' derive from the Koine Greek title ''Christós'' (Χρι ...

and the Zoroastrians as a '

People of the Book People of the Book or Ahl al-kitāb ( ar, أهل الكتاب) is an Islamic term referring to those religions which Muslims regard as having been guided by previous revelations, generally in the form of a scripture. In the Quran they are ident ...

', and whose name was historically claimed by the Mandaeans as well as by several other religious groups in order to gain legal protection () as offered by

Islamic law Sharia (; ar, شريعة, sharīʿa ) is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition. It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam and is based on the sacred scriptures of Islam, particularly the Quran and the ...

. Occasionally, Mandaeans are called "Christians of Saint John". According to

Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley (born Jorunn Jacobsen in 1944 in Norway) is an American religious studies scholar and historian of religion known for her work on Mandaeism and Gnosticism. She was a former Professor of Religion at Bowdoin College. She is kn ...

and other scholars who specialize in Mandaeism, Mandaeans originated about two thousand years ago in the Palestine region and subsequently moved east due to persecution. Others claim a southwestern Mesopotamia origin. However, some scholars take the view that Mandaeism is older and dates back to pre-Christian times. Mandaeans assert that their religion predates Judaism, Christianity, and Islam as a monotheistic faith. Mandaeans believe that they are the direct descendants of Shem, Noah's son, in Mesopotamia and they also believe that they are the direct descendants of John the Baptist's original Nasoraean Mandaean disciples in Jerusalem. The core doctrine of the faith is known as (also spelled and meaning Nasoraean gnosis or divine wisdom) (Nasoraeanism or Nazorenism) with the adherents called (

Nasoraeans The Nazarenes (or Nazoreans; Greek: Ναζωραῖοι, ''Nazōraioi''). were an early Jewish Christian sect in first-century Judaism. The first use of the term is found in the Acts of the Apostles () of the New Testament, where Paul the Apostle ...

or Nazorenes). These Nasoraeans are divided into (priesthood) and (laity), the latter derived from their term for knowledge ''

''. Knowledge (''manda'') is also the source for the term Mandaeism which encompasses their entire culture, rituals, beliefs and faith associated with the doctrine of . Followers of Mandaeism are called Mandaeans, but can also be called Nasoraeans (Nazorenes), Gnostics (utilizing the Greek word ''

gnosis Gnosis is the common Greek noun for knowledge ( γνῶσις, ''gnōsis'', f.). The term was used among various Hellenistic religions and philosophies in the Greco-Roman world. It is best known for its implication within Gnosticism, where it ...

'' for knowledge) or Sabians. The religion has primarily been practiced around the lower

Karun The Karun ( fa, کارون, ) is the Iranian river with the highest water flow, and its only navigable river. It is long. It rises in the Zard Kuh mountains of the Bakhtiari people, Bakhtiari district in the Zagros Range, receiving many tribut ...

Euphrates The Euphrates () is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of Western Asia. Tigris–Euphrates river system, Together with the Tigris, it is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia ( ''the land between the rivers'') ...

and

Tigris The Tigris () is the easternmost of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia, the other being the Euphrates. The river flows south from the mountains of the Armenian Highlands through the Syrian and Arabian Deserts, and empties into the ...

, and the rivers that surround the

Shatt al-Arab The Shatt al-Arab ( ar, شط العرب, lit=River of the Arabs; fa, اروندرود, Arvand Rud, lit=Swift River) is a river of some in length that is formed at the confluence of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers in the town of al-Qurnah in ...

waterway, part of southern Iraq and

Khuzestan province Khuzestan Province (also spelled Xuzestan; fa, استان خوزستان ''Ostān-e Xūzestān'') is one of the 31 provinces of Iran. It is in the southwest of the country, bordering Iraq and the Persian Gulf. Its capital is Ahvaz and it covers ...

in Iran. Worldwide, there are believed to be between 60,000 and 70,000 Mandaeans. Until the

Iraq War {{Infobox military conflict , conflict = Iraq War {{Nobold, {{lang, ar, حرب العراق (Arabic) {{Nobold, {{lang, ku, شەڕی عێراق (Kurdish languages, Kurdish) , partof = the Iraq conflict (2003–present), I ...

, almost all of them lived in Iraq. Many Mandaean Iraqis have since fled their country because of the turmoil created by the

2003 invasion of Iraq The 2003 invasion of Iraq was a United States-led invasion of the Republic of Iraq and the first stage of the Iraq War. The invasion phase began on 19 March 2003 (air) and 20 March 2003 (ground) and lasted just over one month, including 26 ...

and subsequent occupation by U.S. armed forces, and the related rise in sectarian violence by extremists. By 2007, the population of Mandaeans in Iraq had fallen to approximately 5,000. The Mandaeans have remained separate and intensely private. Reports of them and of their religion have come primarily from outsiders: particularly from

Julius Heinrich Petermann Julius Heinrich Petermann (born August 12, 1801 in Glauchau; died June 10, 1876 in Bad Nauheim) was a German Orientalist.Orientalist; as well as from

Nicolas Siouffi Nicolas Siouffi (1829 (Damascus) – 1901 (unknown)) was a Syriac Christianity, Syrian Christian, and later French citizen and vice-consul at Mosul, remembered for his study of Mandaeism. Mandaeans were known locally in Arabic as ''Ṣubba'', ...

, a Syrian Christian who was the French vice-consul in Mosul in 1887, and British cultural anthropologist Lady E. S. Drower. There is an early if highly prejudiced account by the French traveller

Jean-Baptiste Tavernier Jean-Baptiste Tavernier (1605–1689) was a 17th-century French gem merchant and traveler. Tavernier, a private individual and merchant traveling at his own expense, covered, by his own account, 60,000 leagues in making six voyages to Persia ...

from the 1650s.

Etymology

The term Mandaic or ''Mandaeism'' comes from

and appears in

Neo-Mandaic Neo-Mandaic, sometimes called the "''ratna''" ( ar, رطنة ''raṭna'' "jargon"), is the modern reflex of the Mandaic language, the liturgical language of the Mandaean religious community of Iraq and Iran. Although severely endangered, it sur ...

as . On the basis of cognates in other Aramaic dialects,

semiticist Semitic studies, or Semitology, is the academic field dedicated to the studies of Semitic languages and literatures and the history of the Semitic-speaking peoples. A person may be called a ''Semiticist'' or a ''Semitist'', both terms being equi ...

s such as

Mark Lidzbarski Mark Lidzbarski (born Abraham Mordechai Lidzbarski, Płock, Russian Empire, 7 January 1868 – Göttingen, 13 November 1928) was a Polish philologist, Semitist and translator of Mandaean texts. Early life and education Lidzbarski was born in Rus ...

and Rudolf Macuch have translated the term , from which derives, as "knowledge" (cf. arc, מַנְדַּע in Daniel 2:21, 4:31, 33, 5:12; cf. he, מַדַּע , with characteristic assimilation of /n/ to the following consonant, medial -nd- hence becoming -dd-). This etymology suggests that the Mandaeans may well be the only sect surviving from

Late Antiquity Late antiquity is the time of transition from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages, generally spanning the 3rd–7th century in Europe and adjacent areas bordering the Mediterranean Basin. The popularization of this periodization in English ha ...

to identify themselves explicitly as

Gnostics Gnosticism (from grc, γνωστικός, gnōstikós, , 'having knowledge') is a collection of religious ideas and systems which coalesced in the late 1st century AD among Jewish and early Christian sects. These various groups emphasized pe ...

History

According to the Mandaean text the

Haran Gawaita The ''Haran Gawaita'' (Mandaic ࡄࡀࡓࡀࡍ ࡂࡀࡅࡀࡉࡕࡀ "Inner Harran" or "Inner Hauran") also known as the ''Scroll of Great Revelation'', is a Mandaean text which recounts the history of the Mandaeans and their arrival in Media as ...

, the Nasoraean Mandaeans, who were disciples of John the Baptist, left Judea/Palestine and migrated to

Media Media may refer to: Communication * Media (communication), tools used to deliver information or data ** Advertising media, various media, content, buying and placement for advertising ** Broadcast media, communications delivered over mass el ...

in the 1st century CE. The reason given for this was their persecution in Jerusalem. The emigrants went first to

Haran Haran or Aran ( he, הָרָן ''Hārān'') is a man in the Book of Genesis in the Hebrew Bible. He died in Ur of the Chaldees, was a son of Terah, and brother of Abraham. Through his son Lot, Haran was the ancestor of the Moabites and Ammonite ...

(possibly

Harran Harran (), historically known as Carrhae ( el, Kάρραι, Kárrhai), is a rural town and district of the Şanlıurfa Province in southeastern Turkey, approximately 40 kilometres (25 miles) southeast of Urfa and 20 kilometers from the border cr ...

in modern-day Turkey), or

Hauran The Hauran ( ar, حَوْرَان, ''Ḥawrān''; also spelled ''Hawran'' or ''Houran'') is a region that spans parts of southern Syria and northern Jordan. It is bound in the north by the Ghouta oasis, eastwards by the al-Safa (Syria), al-Safa ...

and then the Median hills in

Iran Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...

, before finally settling in the southern provinces of Mesopotamia (modern day

Iraq Iraq,; ku, عێراق, translit=Êraq officially the Republic of Iraq, '; ku, کۆماری عێراق, translit=Komarî Êraq is a country in Western Asia. It is bordered by Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq ...

). During

Parthian Parthian may be: Historical * A demonym "of Parthia", a region of north-eastern of Greater Iran * Parthian Empire (247 BC – 224 AD) * Parthian language, a now-extinct Middle Iranian language * Parthian shot, an archery skill famously employed by ...

rule, Mandaeans flourished under royal protection. This protection, however, did not last with the

Sassanid The Sasanian () or Sassanid Empire, officially known as the Empire of Iranians (, ) and also referred to by historians as the Neo-Persian Empire, was the last Iranian empire before the early Muslim conquests of the 7th-8th centuries AD. Named ...

Bahram I Bahram I (also spelled Wahram I or Warahran I; pal, 𐭥𐭫𐭧𐭫𐭠𐭭) was the fourth Sasanian King of Kings of Iran from 271 to 274. He was the eldest son of Shapur I () and succeeded his brother Hormizd I (), who had reigned for a year ...

ascending to the throne and his high priest

Kartir Kartir (also spelled Karder, Karter and Kerdir; Middle Persian: 𐭪𐭫𐭲𐭩𐭫 ''Kardīr'') was a powerful and influential Zoroastrian priest during the reigns of four Sasanian kings in the 3rd-century. His name is cited in the inscriptions ...

persecuting all non-Zoroastrian religions. At the beginning of the

Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia The Muslim conquest of Persia, also known as the Arab conquest of Iran, was carried out by the Rashidun Caliphate from 633 to 654 AD and led to the fall of the Sasanian Empire as well as the eventual decline of the Zoroastrian religion. The r ...

in , the leader of the Mandaeans, Anush Bar-Danqa, is said to have appeared before the

Muslim Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abrah ...

authorities, showing them a copy of the ''

Ginza Rabba The Ginza Rabba ( myz, ࡂࡉࡍࡆࡀ ࡓࡁࡀ, translit=Ginzā Rbā, lit=Great Treasury), Ginza Rba, or Sidra Rabba ( myz, ࡎࡉࡃࡓࡀ ࡓࡁࡀ, translit=Sidrā Rbā, lit=Great Book), and formerly the Codex Nasaraeus, is the longest ...

'', the Mandaean holy book, and proclaiming the chief Mandaean prophet to be

, who is also mentioned in the

as Yahya Bin Zakariya. This identified Mandaeans as among the (

). Hence, Mandaeism was recognized as a legal minority religion within the Muslim Empire. However, this account is likely apocryphal: since it mentions that Anush Bar Danqa traveled to

Baghdad Baghdad (; ar, بَغْدَاد , ) is the capital of Iraq and the second-largest city in the Arab world after Cairo. It is located on the Tigris near the ruins of the ancient city of Babylon and the Sassanid Persian capital of Ctesiphon ...

, it must have occurred after the founding of Baghdad in 762, if it took place at all. Nevertheless, at some point the Mandaeans were identified as the

mentioned along with the

, the

and the Zoroastrians in the

as People of the Book. The earliest source to unambiguously do so was al-Hasan ibn Bahlul () citing the Abbasid vizier

Abu Ali Muhammad ibn Muqla Abu Ali Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Muqla ( ar, أبو علي محمد بن علي ابن مقلة, Abū ʿAlī Muḥammad ibn ʿAlī ibn Muqla; 885/6 – 20 July 940/1), commonly known as Ibn Muqla, was an official of the Abbasid Caliphate of Pers ...

(–940), though it is not clear whether the Mandaeans of this period already identified themselves as Sabians or whether the claim originated with Ibn Muqla. Mandaeans continue to be called Sabians to this day. Around 1290, a Dominican Catholic from Tuscany, Ricoldo da Montecroce, or Ricoldo Pennini, was in Mesopotamia where he met the Mandaeans. He described them as believing in a secret law of God recorded in alluring texts, despising circumcision, venerating John the Baptist above all and washing repeatedly to avoid condemnation by God. Mandaeans were called "Christians of Saint John" by members of the

Discalced Carmelite The Discalced Carmelites, known officially as the Order of the Discalced Carmelites of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Mount Carmel ( la, Ordo Fratrum Carmelitarum Discalceatorum Beatae Mariae Virginis de Monte Carmelo) or the Order of Discalced Carme ...

mission in

Basra Basra ( ar, ٱلْبَصْرَة, al-Baṣrah) is an Iraqi city located on the Shatt al-Arab. It had an estimated population of 1.4 million in 2018. Basra is also Iraq's main port, although it does not have deep water access, which is hand ...

during the 16th and 17th centuries, based on reports from missionaries such as

Ignatius of Jesus Ignatius of Jesus ( it, Ignàzio di Gesù, born Carlo Leonelli; 1596, Sorbolongo, Pesaro – 21 February 1667, Rome) was an Italian Roman Catholic friar of the Order of the Discalced Carmelites who served as a missionary in Persia, Basra, and Leba ...

. Some Portuguese Jesuits had also met some "Saint John Christians" around the

Strait of Hormuz The Strait of Hormuz ( fa, تنگه هرمز ''Tangeh-ye Hormoz'' ar, مَضيق هُرمُز ''Maḍīq Hurmuz'') is a strait between the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman. It provides the only sea passage from the Persian Gulf to the ...

in 1559, when the Portuguese fleet fought with the Ottoman Turkish army in

Bahrain Bahrain ( ; ; ar, البحرين, al-Bahrayn, locally ), officially the Kingdom of Bahrain, ' is an island country in Western Asia. It is situated on the Persian Gulf, and comprises a small archipelago made up of 50 natural islands and an ...

Beliefs

Mandaeism, as the religion of the Mandaean people, is based on a set of religious creeds and doctrines. The corpus of Mandaean literature is quite large, and covers topics such as

eschatology Eschatology (; ) concerns expectations of the end of the present age, human history, or of the world itself. The end of the world or end times is predicted by several world religions (both Abrahamic and non-Abrahamic), which teach that negati ...

, the knowledge of God, and the afterlife. According to

Brikha Nasoraia Rabbi Prof. Brikha H. S. Nasoraia (full name: Brikha Hathem Saed Naṣoraia; born 1964 in Iraq) is a Mandaean priest and scholar based in Sydney, Australia. He is affiliated with the University of Sydney and Mardin Artuklu University. He is curre ...

Principal beliefs

# Recognition of one God known as

Hayyi Rabbi In Mandaeism, Hayyi Rabbi ( myz, ࡄࡉࡉࡀ ࡓࡁࡉࡀ, translit=Hiia Rbia, lit=The Great Life), 'The Great Living God', is the supreme God from which all things emanate. He is also known as 'The First Life', since during the creation of th ...

, meaning The Great Life or The Great Living (God), whose symbol is ''Living Water'' (''

Yardena Yardena ( he, יַרְדֵּנָה) is a moshav in northern Israel. Located on route 90, 13 kilometers north of Beit She'an, it falls under the jurisdiction of Valley of Springs Regional Council. In it had a population of . History Yardena was ...

''). It is therefore necessary for Mandaeans to live near rivers. God personifies the sustaining and creative force of the universe. # Power of Light, which is vivifying and personified by ''Malka d-Nhura'' ('King of Light'), another name for ''Hayyi Rabbi'', and the

uthra An uthra or ʿutra ( myz, ࡏࡅࡕࡓࡀ; plural: ʿutri) is a "divine messenger of the light" in Mandaeism. Charles G. Häberl and James F. McGrath translate it as "excellency". Jorunn J. Buckley defines them as "Lightworld beings, called 'utr ...

s (angels or guardians) that provide health, strength, virtue and justice. The

Drabsha The drabshaDrower, Ethel Stefana (1937). ''The Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran''. Oxford at the Clarendon Press. ( myz, ࡃࡓࡀࡁࡔࡀ) or darfash ( ar, درفش) is the symbol of the Mandaean faith. It is typically translated as 'banner'. Etymo ...

is viewed as the symbol of Light. # Immortality of the soul; the fate of the soul is the main concern with the belief in the next life, where there is reward and punishment. There is no eternal punishment since God is merciful.

Fundamental tenets

According to E. S. Drower, the Mandaean

Gnosis Gnosis is the common Greek noun for knowledge ( γνῶσις, ''gnōsis'', f.). The term was used among various Hellenistic religions and philosophies in the Greco-Roman world. It is best known for its implication within Gnosticism, where it ...

is characterized by nine features, which appear in various forms in other gnostic sects: # A supreme formless

Entity An entity is something that exists as itself, as a subject or as an object, actually or potentially, concretely or abstractly, physically or not. It need not be of material existence. In particular, abstractions and legal fictions are usually ...

, the expression of which in time and space is a creation of spiritual, etheric, and material worlds and beings. Production of these is delegated by It to a creator or creators who originated It. The cosmos is created by Archetypal Man, who produces it in similitude to his own shape. # Dualism: a cosmic Mother and Father, Light and Darkness, Left and Right, syzygy in cosmic and microcosmic form. # As a feature of this dualism, counter-types (

dmuta In Mandaeism, a dmuta ( myz, ࡃࡌࡅࡕࡀ, lit=image) or dmut is a spiritual counterpart or "mirror image" in the World of Light. People, spirits, and places are often considered to have both earthly and heavenly counterparts (''dmuta'') that c ...

) that exist in a world of ideas (

Mshunia Kushta In Mandaean cosmology, Mshunia Kushta ( myz, ࡌࡔࡅࡍࡉࡀ ࡊࡅࡔࡈࡀ, translit=Mšunia Kušṭa, lit=realm of truth) is a part of the World of Light considered to be the dwelling place of heavenly or ideal counterparts (''dmuta''). It ...

). # The soul is portrayed as an exile, a captive; his home and origin being the supreme Entity to which he eventually returns. # Planets and stars influence fate and human beings, and are also the places of detention after death. # A savior spirit or savior spirits which assist the soul on his journey through life and after it to 'worlds of light'. # A cult-language of symbol and metaphor. Ideas and qualities are personified. # 'Mysteries', i.e. sacraments to aid and purify the soul, to ensure its rebirth into a spiritual body, and its ascent from the world of matter. These are often adaptations of existing seasonal and traditional rites to which an esoteric interpretation is attached. In the case of the Naṣoraeans, this interpretation is based on the Creation story (see 1 and 2), especially on the Divine Man, Adam, as crowned and anointed King-priest. # Great secrecy is enjoined upon initiates; full explanation of 1, 2, and 8 being reserved for those considered able to understand and preserve the gnosis.

Cosmology

The religion extolls an intricate, multifaceted, esoteric, mythological, ritualistic, and exegetical tradition with the emanation model of creation being the predominant interpretation. The most common name for God in Mandaeism is

('The Great Life' or 'The Great Living God'). Other

names A name is a term used for identification by an external observer. They can identify a class or category of things, or a single thing, either uniquely, or within a given context. The entity identified by a name is called its referent. A persona ...

used are ('Lord of Greatness'), ('The Great Mind'), ('King of Light') and ('The First Life'). Mandaeans recognize God to be the eternal, creator of all, the one and only in domination who has no partner.Hanish, Shak (2019). The Mandaeans In Iraq. In There are numerous

uthras An uthra or ʿutra ( myz, ࡏࡅࡕࡓࡀ; plural: ʿutri) is a "divine messenger of the light" in Mandaeism. Charles G. Häberl and James F. McGrath translate it as "excellency". Jorunn J. Buckley defines them as "Lightworld beings, called 'utr ...

(angels or guardians), manifested from the light, that surround and perform acts of worship to praise and honor God. Prominent amongst them include

Manda d-Hayyi In Mandaeism, Manda d-Hayyi or Manda ḏ-Hiia ( myz, ࡌࡀࡍࡃࡀ ࡖࡄࡉࡉࡀ, lit=the 'Gnosis of Life', 'Knowledge of Life', or 'Knower of the Life') is an uthra (angel or guardian) sent by the Great Life (''Hayyi Rabbi'', or the Transcend ...

, who brings

(knowledge or

) to Earth, and

Hibil Ziwa In Mandaeism, Hibil ( myz, ࡄࡉࡁࡉࡋ) or Hibil Ziwa ( myz, ࡄࡉࡁࡉࡋ ࡆࡉࡅࡀ) is an uthra (angel or guardian) from the World of Light. Hibil is considered to be the Mandaean equivalent of Abel. Prayers in the Qolasta frequently c ...

, who conquers the

World of Darkness ''World of Darkness'' is a series of tabletop role-playing games, originally created by Mark Rein-Hagen for White Wolf Publishing. It began as an annual line of five games in 1991–1995, with '' Vampire: The Masquerade'', '' Werewolf: The Apoca ...

. Some uthras are commonly referred to as emanations and are subservient beings to 'The First Life'; their names include Second, Third, and Fourth Life (i.e.

Yushamin In Mandaeism, Yushamin ( myz, ࡉࡅࡔࡀࡌࡉࡍ) and also known as the 'Second Life', is the primal uthra (angel or guardian) and a subservient emanation who was created by the Mandaean God 'The Great Life' (''Hayyi Rabbi'' or 'The First Lif ...

Abatur Abatur ( myz, ࡀࡁࡀࡕࡅࡓ, sometimes called Abathur; Yawar, myz, ࡉࡀࡅࡀࡓ; and the Ancient of Days) is an Uthra and the second of three subservient emanations created by the Mandaean God ''Hayyi Rabbi'' ( myz, ࡄࡉࡉࡀ ࡓࡁ� ...

, and

Ptahil In Mandaeism, Ptahil ( myz, ࡐࡕࡀࡄࡉࡋ) also known as Ptahil-Uthra (uthra = angel or guardian), is the Fourth Life, the third of three emanations from the First Life, Hayyi Rabbi, after Yushamin and Abatur. Ptahil-Uthra alone does not con ...

( myz, ࡐࡕࡀࡄࡉࡋ), the 'Fourth Life', alone does not constitute the

demiurge In the Platonic, Neopythagorean, Middle Platonic, and Neoplatonic schools of philosophy, the demiurge () is an artisan-like figure responsible for fashioning and maintaining the physical universe. The Gnostics adopted the term ''demiurge''. Al ...

, but only fills that role insofar as he is seen as the creator of the material world with the help of the evil spirit

Ruha In Mandaeism, Rūha ( myz, ࡓࡅࡄࡀ, lit=spirit/breath; also known as Namrūs or Hiwat (Ewath; myz, ࡏࡅࡀࡕ)) is the queen of the World of Darkness (''alma ḏ-hšuka'') or underworld. She rules the underworld together with her son Ur ...

. Ruha is viewed negatively as the personification of the lower, emotional, and feminine elements of the human psyche. Therefore, the material world is a mixture of 'light' and 'dark'. Ptahil is the lowest of a group of three emanations, the other two being

( myz, ࡉࡅࡔࡀࡌࡉࡍ, the 'Second Life' (also spelled Joshamin) and

( myz, ࡀࡁࡀࡕࡅࡓ), the 'Third Life'. Abatur's demiurgic role consists of weighing the souls of the dead to determine their fate. The role of Yushamin, the first emanation, is more obscure; wanting to create a world of his own, he was punished for opposing the King of Light ('The First Life'), but was ultimately forgiven. Similar to the

Essenes The Essenes (; Hebrew: , ''Isiyim''; Greek: Ἐσσηνοί, Ἐσσαῖοι, or Ὀσσαῖοι, ''Essenoi, Essaioi, Ossaioi'') were a mystic Jewish sect during the Second Temple period that flourished from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st c ...

, it is forbidden for a Mandaean to reveal the names of the angels to a gentile.

Chief prophets

Mandaeans recognize several prophets. Yahia-Yohanna also known as ''Yuhana Maṣbana'' ( myz, ࡉࡅࡄࡀࡍࡀ ࡌࡀࡑࡁࡀࡍࡀ, lit=John the Baptizer ) and ''Yuhana bar Zakria'' (John, son of Zechariah) known in Christianity as

, is accorded a special status, higher than his role in either Christianity or Islam. Mandaeans do not consider John to be the founder of their religion but they revere him as their greatest teacher who renews and reforms their ancient faith, tracing their beliefs back to

. John is believed to be a messenger of Light (''nhura'') and Truth (''

kushta In Mandaeism, kushta or kušṭa ( myz, ࡊࡅࡔࡈࡀ, lit=truth) can have several meanings. Its original literal meaning is "truth" in the Mandaic language, and is thus typically used to refer to the Mandaean religious concept of truth. The sa ...

'') who possessed the power of healing and full

(''

''). Mandaeism does not consider

Abraham Abraham, ; ar, , , name=, group= (originally Abram) is the common Hebrew patriarch of the Abrahamic religions, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. In Judaism, he is the founding father of the special relationship between the Jew ...

Moses Moses hbo, מֹשֶׁה, Mōše; also known as Moshe or Moshe Rabbeinu (Mishnaic Hebrew: מֹשֶׁה רַבֵּינוּ, ); syr, ܡܘܫܐ, Mūše; ar, موسى, Mūsā; grc, Mωϋσῆς, Mōÿsēs () is considered the most important pro ...

Mandaean prophets, however, it teaches the belief that Abraham and Jesus were originally Mandaean priests.Buckley, Jorunn Jacobsen (2010). Turning the Tables on Jesus: The Mandaean View. In (pp94-111). Minneapolis: Fortress Press They recognize other prophetic figures from the

Abrahamic religions The Abrahamic religions are a group of religions centered around worship of the God of Abraham. Abraham, a Hebrew patriarch, is extensively mentioned throughout Abrahamic religious scriptures such as the Bible and the Quran. Jewish tradition ...

, such as

, his sons

Hibil In Mandaeism, Hibil ( myz, ࡄࡉࡁࡉࡋ) or Hibil Ziwa ( myz, ࡄࡉࡁࡉࡋ ࡆࡉࡅࡀ) is an uthra (angel or guardian) from the World of Light. Hibil is considered to be the Mandaean equivalent of Abel. Prayers in the Qolasta frequently c ...

(

) and

Sheetil In Mandaeism, Shitil or Sheetil (Šītil; myz, ࡔࡉࡕࡉࡋ) is an uthra (angel or guardian) from the World of Light. Shitil is considered to be the Mandaean equivalent of Seth. Prayers in the Qolasta frequently contain the recurring formula ...

(

), and his grandson Anush ( Enosh), as well as Nuh (

), Sam (

), and Ram (

), whom they consider to be their direct ancestors. Mandaeans consider Adam, Seth, Noah, Shem and John the Baptist to be prophets with Adam the founder and John the greatest and final prophet.

Scriptures

The Mandaeans have a large corpus of religious scriptures, the most important of which is the ''

'' or ''Ginza'', a collection of history, theology, and prayers. The ''Ginza Rabba'' is divided into two halves—the ''Genzā Smālā'' or ''

Left Ginza The Left Ginza is one of the two parts of the Ginza Rabba, the longest and the most important holy scripture of Mandaeism. The other part of the Ginza Rabba is the Right Ginza. Summaries of each book (or tractate), based mostly on Häberl (200 ...

'', and the ''Genzā Yeminā'' or ''

Right Ginza The Right Ginza is one of the two parts of the Ginza Rabba, the longest and the most important holy scripture of Mandaeism. The other part of the Ginza Rabba is the Left Ginza. Summaries of each book (or tractate), based mostly on Häberl (2007 ...

''. By consulting the colophons in the ''Left Ginza'',

Jorunn J. Buckley Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley (born Jorunn Jacobsen in 1944 in Norway) is an American religious studies scholar and historian of religion known for her work on Mandaeism and Gnosticism. She was a former Professor of Religion at Bowdoin College. She is k ...

has identified an uninterrupted chain of copyists to the late second or early third century. The colophons attest to the existence of the Mandaeans during the late

Parthian Empire The Parthian Empire (), also known as the Arsacid Empire (), was a major Iranian political and cultural power in ancient Iran from 247 BC to 224 AD. Its latter name comes from its founder, Arsaces I, who led the Parni tribe in conque ...

. The oldest texts are lead amulets from about the third century CE, followed by

incantation bowls An incantation bowl, also known as a demon bowl, devil-trap bowl, or magic bowl, is a form of early protective magic found in what is now Iraq and Iran. Produced in the Middle East during late antiquity from the sixth to eighth centuries, particu ...

from about 600 CE. The important religious texts survived in manuscripts that are not older than the sixteenth century, with most coming from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Mandaean religious texts may have been originally orally transmitted before being written down by scribes, making dating and authorship difficult. Another important text is the ''

,'' which tells the history of the Mandaeans. According to this text, a group of Nasoraeans (Mandean priests) left

Judea Judea or Judaea ( or ; from he, יהודה, Hebrew language#Modern Hebrew, Standard ''Yəhūda'', Tiberian vocalization, Tiberian ''Yehūḏā''; el, Ἰουδαία, ; la, Iūdaea) is an ancient, historic, Biblical Hebrew, contemporaneous L ...

before the destruction of Jerusalem in the first century CE, and settled within the

. Other important books include the ''

Qolusta The Qolastā, Qulasta, or Qolusta ( myz, ࡒࡅࡋࡀࡎࡕࡀ; mid, Qōlutā, script=Latn) is the canonical prayer book of the Mandaeans, a Gnostic ethnoreligious group from Iraq and Iran. The Mandaic word ''qolastā'' means "collection". The p ...

'', the canonical prayerbook of the Mandaeans, which was translated by E. S. Drower. One of the chief works of Mandaean scripture, accessible to laymen and initiates alike, is the ''

Mandaean Book of John The Mandaean Book of John (Mandaic language ࡃࡓࡀࡔࡀ ࡖࡉࡀࡄࡉࡀ ') is a Mandaean holy book in Mandaic Aramaic which is believed by Mandeans to have been written by their prophet John the Baptist. The book contains accounts of Jo ...

'', which includes a dialogue between John and Jesus. In addition to the ''Ginza'', ''Qolusta'', and '' Draša d-Yahya'', there is the ''

Diwan Abatur The ''Diwan Abatur'' ( myz, ࡃࡉࡅࡀࡍ ࡀࡁࡀࡕࡅࡓ; "Scroll of Abatur") is a Mandaean religious text. It is a large illustrated scroll that is over 20 ft. long. A similar illustrated Mandaean scroll is the '' Diwan Nahrawata'' ( ...

'', which contains a description of the 'regions' the soul ascends through, and the ''

Book of the Zodiac The ''Book of the Zodiac'' ( myz, ࡎࡐࡀࡓ ࡌࡀࡋࡅࡀࡔࡉࡀ, translit=Sfar Malwašia) is a Mandaean text. It covers Mandaean astrology in great detail. The book is used to obtain a Mandaean's baptismal name (''malwasha''). Manuscrip ...

'' (''Asfar Malwāshē''). Finally, there are some pre-Muslim artifacts that contain Mandaean writings and inscriptions, such as some Aramaic incantation bowls. Mandaean ritual commentaries (esoteric exegetical literature), which are typically written in scrolls rather than

codices The codex (plural codices ) was the historical ancestor of the modern book. Instead of being composed of sheets of paper, it used sheets of vellum, papyrus, or other materials. The term ''codex'' is often used for ancient manuscript books, with ...

, include:. Mandaean priest initiation 22

*''

The Thousand and Twelve Questions ''The Thousand and Twelve Questions'' ( myz, ࡀࡋࡐ ࡕࡓࡉࡎࡀࡓ ࡔࡅࡉࡀࡋࡉࡀ ) is a Mandaean religious text. The ''1012 Questions'' is one of the most detailed texts on Mandaean priestly rituals. The text contains detailed com ...

'' (''Alf Trisar Šuialia'') *''

The Coronation of the Great Šišlam ''The Coronation of the Great Šišlam'' (or ''The Coronation of Shishlam Rabba''; myz, ࡔࡀࡓࡇ ࡖࡕࡓࡀࡑࡀ ࡖࡕࡀࡂࡀ ࡖࡔࡉࡔࡋࡀࡌ ࡓࡁࡀ, translit=Šarḥ ḏ-Traṣa ḏ- Taga ḏ-Šišlam Rba) is a Mandaean reli ...

'' *'' The Great "First World"'' *'' The Lesser "First World"'' *''The

Scroll of Exalted Kingship The ''Scroll of Exalted Kingship'' ( myz, ࡃࡉࡅࡀࡍ ࡌࡀࡋࡊࡅࡕࡀ ࡏࡋࡀࡉࡕࡀ ) is a Mandaean religious text. Written as a large illustrated scroll, the text consists of 1,363 lines. The scroll is a commentary on ''tarmida'' ...

'' *''

The Baptism of Hibil Ziwa ''The Baptism of Hibil Ziwa'' or ''Diwan Maṣbuta ḏ-Hibil Ziwa'' ( myz, ࡃࡉࡅࡀࡍ ࡌࡀࡑࡁࡅࡕࡀ ࡖࡄࡉࡁࡉࡋ ࡆࡉࡅࡀ, "Scroll of the Baptism of Hibil Ziwa") is a Mandaean illustrated scroll. It describes the soteriolog ...

'' The language in which the Mandaean religious literature was originally composed is known as

, a member of the

group of dialects. It is written in the

Mandaic script The Mandaic alphabet is thought to have evolved between the 2nd and 7th century CE from either a cursive form of Aramaic (as did Syriac) or from the Parthian chancery script. The exact roots of the script are difficult to determine. It was deve ...

, a cursive variant of the Parthian chancellery script. Many Mandaean laypeople do not speak this language, although some members of the Mandaean community resident in Iran and Iraq continue to speak Neo-Mandaic, a modern version of this language.

Worship and rituals

The two most important ceremonies in Mandaean worship are

(''

Masbuta Maṣbuta ( myz, ࡌࡀࡑࡁࡅࡕࡀ) is the ritual of immersion in water in the Mandaeism, Mandaean religion. Overview Mandaeans revere John the Baptist and practice frequent baptism (''masbuta'') as a Ritual purification, ritual of purificati ...

''), and 'the ascent' (''

Masiqta The masiqta ( myz, ࡌࡀࡎࡉࡒࡕࡀ) is a mass or ritual practiced in the Mandaean religion in order to help guide the soul (''nišimta'') towards the World of Light in Mandaean cosmology. They are typically performed as funerary rites for ...

'' – a mass for the dead or ascent of the soul ceremony). Unlike in Christianity, baptism is not a one-off event but is performed every Sunday, the Mandaean holy day, as a ritual of purification. Baptism usually involves full immersion in flowing water, and all rivers considered fit for baptism are called Yardena (after the

River Jordan The Jordan River or River Jordan ( ar, نَهْر الْأُرْدُنّ, ''Nahr al-ʾUrdunn'', he, נְהַר הַיַּרְדֵּן, ''Nəhar hayYardēn''; syc, ܢܗܪܐ ܕܝܘܪܕܢܢ ''Nahrāʾ Yurdnan''), also known as ''Nahr Al-Shariea ...

). After emerging from the water, the worshipper is anointed with holy

sesame oil Sesame oil is an edible vegetable oil derived from sesame seeds. The oil is one of the earliest-known crop-based oils. Worldwide mass modern production is limited due to the inefficient manual harvesting process required to extract the oil. O ...

and partakes in a communion of

sacramental bread Sacramental bread, also called Communion bread, Eucharistic bread, the Lamb or simply the host ( la, hostia, lit=sacrificial victim), is the bread used in the Christian ritual of the Eucharist. Along with sacramental wine, it is one of two elemen ...

and water. The ascent of the soul ceremony, called the ''

masiqta The masiqta ( myz, ࡌࡀࡎࡉࡒࡕࡀ) is a mass or ritual practiced in the Mandaean religion in order to help guide the soul (''nišimta'') towards the World of Light in Mandaean cosmology. They are typically performed as funerary rites for ...

'', can take various forms, but usually involves a ritual meal in memory of the dead. The ceremony is believed to help the souls of the departed on their journey through purgatory to the

World of Light In Mandaeism, the World of Light or Lightworld ( myz, ࡀࡋࡌࡀ ࡖࡍࡄࡅࡓࡀ, translit=alma ḏ-nhūra) is the primeval, transcendental world from which Tibil and the World of Darkness emerged. Description *The Great Life (''Hayyi Rabbi ...

. Other rituals for purification include the ''

Rishama A rishama (rišama; riš-ama) or rishema ( myz, ࡓࡉࡔࡀࡌࡀ, lit='head/leader of the people'; ar, ريشما; fa, ریشا اد اما) is a religious patriarch in Mandaeism. It is the highest rank out of all the Mandaean clergical ranks ...

'' and the ''

Tamasha Tamasha ( mr, तमाशा) is a traditional form of Marathi theatre, often with singing and dancing, widely performed by local or travelling theatre groups within the state of Maharashtra, India."Tamasha", in James R. Brandon and Martin Banham ...

'' which, unlike ''Masbuta'', can be performed without a priest. The ''Rishama'' (signing) is performed before prayers and involves washing the face and limbs while reciting specific prayers. It is performed daily, before sunrise, with hair covered and after evacuation of bowels or before religious ceremonies (see

wudu Wuḍūʾ ( ar, الوضوء ' ) is the Islamic procedure for cleansing parts of the body, a type of ritual purification, or ablution. The 4 Fardh (Mandatory) acts of ''Wudu'' consists of washing the face, arms, then wiping the head and the feet ...

). The ''Tamasha'' is a triple immersion in the river without a requirement for a priest. It is performed by women after menstruation or childbirth, men and women after sexual activity or nocturnal emission, touching a dead corpse or any other type of defilement (see

tevilah In Judaism, ritual washing, or ablution, takes two main forms. ''Tevilah'' (טְבִילָה) is a full body immersion in a mikveh, and ''netilat yadayim'' is the washing of the hands with a cup (see Handwashing in Judaism). References to rit ...

). Ritual purification also applies to fruits, vegetables, pots, pans, utensils, animals for consumption and ceremonial garments ( rasta). Purification for a dying person is also performed. It includes bathing involving a threefold sprinkling of river water over the person from head to feet. Mandaean-Mandi-Nasiriya-Iraq

A Mandaean's grave must be in the north-south direction so that if the dead Mandaean were stood upright, they would face north. Similarly,

Essene The Essenes (; Hebrew: , ''Isiyim''; Greek: Ἐσσηνοί, Ἐσσαῖοι, or Ὀσσαῖοι, ''Essenoi, Essaioi, Ossaioi'') were a mystic Jewish sect during the Second Temple period that flourished from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st c ...

graves are also oriented north-south. Mandaeans must face north during prayers, which are performed three times a day. Daily prayer in Mandaeism is called ''

brakha Daily prayer in Mandaeism, called ''brakha'' in Mandaic (cognate with Hebrew ''berakhah'' and Arabic ''barakah'') or occasionally ''birukta'' (''birukhta''), consists of set prayers that are recited three times per day. Mandaeans stand facing n ...

''.

Zidqa In Mandaeism, zidqa ( myz, ࡆࡉࡃࡒࡀ) refers to alms or almsgiving.Drower, Ethel Stefana. 1937. ''The Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran''. Oxford At The Clarendon Press. Mandaean priests receive regular financial contributions from laypeople, since ...

(almsgiving) is also practiced in Mandaeism with Mandaean laypeople regularly offering alms to priests. A '' mandī'' ( ar, مندى, links=no) (''beth manda'') or ''mashkhanna'' is a place of worship for followers of Mandaeism. A ' must be built beside a river in order to perform

maṣbuta Maṣbuta ( myz, ࡌࡀࡑࡁࡅࡕࡀ) is the ritual of immersion in water in the Mandaean religion. Overview Mandaeans revere John the Baptist and practice frequent baptism (''masbuta'') as a ritual of purification, not of initiation. They ar ...

(baptism) because water is an essential element in the Mandaean faith. Modern 's sometimes have a bath inside a building instead. Each mandi is adorned with a ''

drabsha The drabshaDrower, Ethel Stefana (1937). ''The Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran''. Oxford at the Clarendon Press. ( myz, ࡃࡓࡀࡁࡔࡀ) or darfash ( ar, درفش) is the symbol of the Mandaean faith. It is typically translated as 'banner'. Etymo ...

'', which is a banner in the shape of a cross, made of olive wood half covered with a piece of white pure silk cloth and seven branches of myrtle. The ''drabsha'' is not identified with the Christian cross. Instead, the four arms of the ''drabsha'' symbolize the four corners of the universe, while the pure silk cloth represents the Light of God. The seven branches of myrtle represent the seven days of creation. Mandaeans believe in marriage (''

qabin The qabin ( myz, ࡒࡀࡁࡉࡍ) is the Mandaean wedding ritual. Mandaean weddings are typically held for several days. Traditionally, weddings must be officiated by a Mandaean priest and can only be performed for ethnic Mandaeans, although this ...

'') and procreation, placing a high priority upon family life and in the importance of leading an ethical and moral lifestyle. They are

pacifist Pacifism is the opposition or resistance to war, militarism (including conscription and mandatory military service) or violence. Pacifists generally reject theories of Just War. The word ''pacifism'' was coined by the French peace campaign ...

and

egalitarian Egalitarianism (), or equalitarianism, is a school of thought within political philosophy that builds from the concept of social equality, prioritizing it for all people. Egalitarian doctrines are generally characterized by the idea that all hum ...

, with the earliest attested Mandaean scribe being a woman, Shlama Beth Qidra, who copied the ''Left Ginza'' sometime in the 2nd century CE. There is evidence for women priests, especially in the pre-Islamic era. God created the human body complete, so no part of it should be removed or cut off, hence

circumcision Circumcision is a surgical procedure, procedure that removes the foreskin from the human penis. In the most common form of the operation, the foreskin is extended with forceps, then a circumcision device may be placed, after which the foreskin ...

is considered bodily mutilation for Mandaeans and therefore forbidden. Mandaeans abstain from strong drink and most

red meat In gastronomy, red meat is commonly red when raw and a dark color after it is cooked, in contrast to white meat, which is pale in color before and after cooking. In culinary terms, only flesh from mammals or fowl (not fish) is classified as ...

, however meat consumed by Mandaeans must be slaughtered according to the proper rituals. The approach to the slaughter of animals for consumption is always apologetic. On some days, they refrain from eating meat. Fasting in Mandaeism is called ''

sauma In Mandaeism, ṣauma ( myz, ࡑࡀࡅࡌࡀ) is a term that means fasting. Although ''ṣauma'' can refer to physical fasting, it is more often used in Mandaeism to refer to spiritual piety and abstaining from sin. On some days of the Mandaean ...

''. Mandaeans have an oral tradition that some were originally vegetarian.

Priests

There is a strict division between Mandaean laity and the priests. According to E. S. Drower (''The Secret Adam'', p. ix): There are three grades of priesthood in Mandaeism: the '' tarmidia'' ( myz, ࡕࡀࡓࡌࡉࡃࡉࡀ) "disciples" (Neo-Mandaic ''tarmidānā''), the ''

ganzibria A ganzibra (singular form in myz, ࡂࡀࡍࡆࡉࡁࡓࡀ, plural form in myz, ࡂࡀࡍࡆࡉࡁࡓࡉࡀ , literally 'treasurer' in Mandaic Mandaic may refer to: * Mandaic language * Mandaic alphabet ** Mandaic (Unicode block) Mandaic is a ...

'' ( myz, ࡂࡀࡍࡆࡉࡁࡓࡉࡀ) "treasurers" (from Old Persian ''ganza-bara'' "id.", Neo-Mandaic ''ganzeḇrānā'') and the '' rišama'' ( myz, ࡓࡉࡔࡀࡌࡀ) "leader of the people". ''Ganzeḇrā'', a title which appears first in a religious context in the Aramaic ritual texts from

Persepolis , native_name_lang = , alternate_name = , image = Gate of All Nations, Persepolis.jpg , image_size = , alt = , caption = Ruins of the Gate of All Nations, Persepolis. , map = , map_type ...

(c. 3rd century BCE), and which may be related to the ''kamnaskires'' (Elamite ''kapnuskir'' "treasurer"), title of the rulers of

Elymais Elymais or Elamais (Ἐλυμαΐς, Hellenic form of the more ancient name, Elam) was an autonomous state of the 2nd century BC to the early 3rd century AD, frequently a vassal under Parthian control. It was located at the head of the Persian Gu ...

(modern

Khuzestan Khuzestan Province (also spelled Xuzestan; fa, استان خوزستان ''Ostān-e Xūzestān'') is one of the 31 provinces of Iran. It is in the southwest of the country, bordering Iraq and the Persian Gulf. Its capital is Ahvaz and it covers ...

) during the Hellenistic age. Traditionally, any ''ganzeḇrā'' who baptizes seven or more ''ganzeḇrānā'' may qualify for the office of ''rišama''. The current ''rišama'' of the Mandaean community in Iraq is

Sattar Jabbar Hilo Sheikh (''Rabbi'') Rishama Sattar Jabbar Hilo al-Zahrony ( ar, الريش امه ستار جبار حلو الزهروني; also known as His Holiness Ganzevra Sattar Jabbar Hilo al-Zahrony) is the patriarch and international head of the Mandae ...

al-Zahrony. In Australia, the Mandaean ''rišama'' is Salah Chohaili.Patriarch and Worldwide Head of The Sabian Mandeans
His Holiness Ganzevra Sattar Jabbar Hilo al-Zahrony, the worldwide head of The Sabian Mandeans, is a member of the Interfaith Network of the Global Imams Council. The contemporary priesthood can trace its immediate origins to the first half of the 19th century. In 1831, an outbreak of

cholera Cholera is an infection of the small intestine by some strains of the bacterium ''Vibrio cholerae''. Symptoms may range from none, to mild, to severe. The classic symptom is large amounts of watery diarrhea that lasts a few days. Vomiting and ...

Shushtar Shushtar ( fa, شوشتر; also Romanized as Shūshtar and Shūstar and Shooshtar) is a city and capital of Shushtar County, Khuzestan Province, Iran. Shushtar is an ancient fortress city, approximately from Ahvaz, the centre of the province. ...

devastated the region and eliminated most, if not all, of the Mandaean religious authorities there. Two of the surviving acolytes (''šgandia''), Yahia Bihram and Ram Zihrun, reestablished the priesthood in Suq al-Shuyukh on the basis of their own training and the texts that were available to them. In 2009, there were two dozen Mandaean priests in the world. However, according to the Mandaean Society in America, the number of priests has been growing in recent years.

Scholarship

Leonardo Da Vinci - Vergine delle Rocce (Louvre)

According to

Edmondo Lupieri Edmondo F. Lupieri (born 10 November 1950 in Turin) is an Italian New Testament The New Testament grc, Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη, transl. ; la, Novum Testamentum. (NT) is the second division of the Christian biblical canon. It disc ...

, as stated in his article in ''

Encyclopædia Iranica ''Encyclopædia Iranica'' is a project whose goal is to create a comprehensive and authoritative English language encyclopedia about the history, culture, and civilization of Iranian peoples from prehistory to modern times. Scope The ''Encycl ...

'', "The possible historical connection with

, as seen in the newly translated Mandaean texts, convinced many (notably R. Bultmann) that it was possible, through the Mandaean traditions, to shed some new light on the history of John and on the

origins of Christianity The history of Christianity concerns the Christian religion, Christian countries, and the Christians with their various denominations, from the 1st century to the present. Christianity originated with the ministry of Jesus, a Jewish teach ...

. This brought around a revival of the otherwise almost fully abandoned idea of their Palestinian origins. As the archeological discovery of Mandaean

and lead amulets proved a pre-Islamic Mandaean presence in the southern Mesopotamia, scholars were obliged to hypothesize otherwise unknown persecutions by Jews or by Christians to explain the reason for Mandaeans' departure from Palestine." Lupieri believes Mandaeism is a post-Christian southern Mesopotamian Gnostic off-shoot and claims that Zazai d-Gawazta to be the founder of Mandaeism in the 2nd Century. Jorunn J. Buckley refutes this by confirming scribes that predate Zazai who copied the

. In addition to Edmondo Lupieri, Christa Müller-Kessler argues against the Palestinian origin theory of the Mandaeans claiming that the Mandaeans are Mesopotamian.

Edwin Yamauchi Edwin Masao Yamauchi (born 1937 in Hilo, Hawaii) is a Japanese-American historian, (Protestant) Christian apologist, editor and academic. He is Professor Emeritus of History at Miami University, where he taught from 1969 until 2005. He is marr ...

believes Mandaeism's origin lies in the

Transjordan Transjordan may refer to: * Transjordan (region), an area to the east of the Jordan River * Oultrejordain, a Crusader lordship (1118–1187), also called Transjordan * Emirate of Transjordan, British protectorate (1921–1946) * Hashemite Kingdom of ...

, where a group of 'non-Jews' migrated to Mesopotamia and combined their Gnostic beliefs with indigenous Mesopotamian beliefs at the end of the 2nd century CE. Kevin van Bladel claims that Mandaeism originated no earlier than 5th century Sassanid Mesopotamia, a thesis which has been criticized by

James F. McGrath James Frank McGrath is the Clarence L. Goodwin Chair in New Testament Language and Literature at Butler University and is known for his work on Early Christianity, Mandaeism, criticism of the Christ myth theory, and the analysis of religion in ...

, a Mandaean priest and scholar, accepts a two-origin theory in which he considers the contemporary Mandaeans to have descended from both a line of Mandaeans who had originated from the Jordan valley of Palestine, as well as another group of Mandaeans (or Gnostics) who were indigenous to southern Mesopotamia. Thus, the historical merging of the two groups gave rise to the Mandaeans of today. Scholars specializing in Mandaeism such as

Kurt Rudolph Kurt Rudolph (3 April 1929
University of Leipzig – 13 May 2020) was a German researcher of < ...

Rudolf Macúch Rudolf Macuch (16 October 1919, in Bzince pod Javorinou – 23 July 1993, in Berlin) was a Slovak linguist, naturalized as German after 1974. He was noted in the field of Semitic studies for his research work in three main areas: (1) Mandaic stu ...

, Ethel S. Drower, Eric Segelberg, James F. McGrath,

Charles G. Häberl Charles G. Häberl (born 1976 in New Jersey, United States) is an American religious studies scholar, linguist, and professor. He is currently Professor of African, Middle Eastern, and South Asian Languages and Literatures ( AMESALL) and Religion ...

, and Şinasi Gündüz argue for a Palestinian origin. The majority of these scholars believe that the Mandaeans likely have a historical connection with John the Baptist's inner circle of disciples..Macuch, Rudolf A Mandaic Dictionary (with E. S. Drower). Oxford: Clarendon Press 1963. Charles Häberl, who is also a linguist specializing in

, finds

Jewish Palestinian Aramaic Jewish Palestinian Aramaic or Jewish Western Aramaic was a Western Aramaic language spoken by the Jews during the Classic Era in Judea and the Levant, specifically in Hasmonean, Herodian and Roman Judea and adjacent lands in the late first mil ...

Samaritan Aramaic Samaritan Aramaic, or Samaritan, was the dialect of Aramaic used by the Samaritans in their sacred and scholarly literature. This should not be confused with the Samaritan Hebrew language of the Scriptures. Samaritan Aramaic ceased to be a ...

Hebrew Hebrew (; ; ) is a Northwest Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Historically, it is one of the spoken languages of the Israelites and their longest-surviving descendants, the Jews and Samaritans. It was largely preserved ...

Greek Greek may refer to: Greece Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group. *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family. **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...

and

Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...

influence on Mandaic and accepts Mandaeans having a "shared Palestinian history with Jews". In addition, scholars such as

Richard August Reitzenstein Richard August Reitzenstein (2 April 1861, Breslau – 23 March 1931, Göttingen) was a German classical philologist and scholar of Ancient Greek religion Religious practices in ancient Greece encompassed a collection of beliefs, rituals, an ...

Rudolf Bultmann Rudolf Karl Bultmann (; 20 August 1884 – 30 July 1976) was a German Lutheran theologian and professor of the New Testament at the University of Marburg. He was one of the major figures of early-20th-century biblical studies. A prominent critic ...

G. R. S. Mead George Robert Stow Mead (22 March 1863 in Peckham, Surrey – 28 September 1933 in London) was an English historian, writer, editor, translator, and an influential member of the Theosophical Society, as well as the founder of the Quest Society. ...

, Samuel Zinner, Richard Thomas, J. C. Reeves, G. Quispel and K. Beyer also argue for a Judea/Palestine or

Jordan Valley The Jordan Valley ( ar, غور الأردن, ''Ghor al-Urdun''; he, עֵמֶק הַיַרְדֵּן, ''Emek HaYarden'') forms part of the larger Jordan Rift Valley. Unlike most other river valleys, the term "Jordan Valley" often applies just to ...

origin for the Mandaeans.Thomas, Richard. "The Israelite Origins of the Mandaean People." Studia Antiqua 5, no. 2 (2007). https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/studiaantiqua/vol5/iss2/4 James McGrath and Richard Thomas believe there is a direct connection between Mandaeism and pre-exilic traditional Israelite religion. Lady Ethel S. Drower "sees early Christianity as a Mandaean heresy" and adds "heterodox Judaism in Galilee and Samaria appears to have taken shape in the form we now call gnostic, and it may well have existed some time before the Christian era."

Barbara Thiering Barbara Elizabeth Thiering (15 November 193016 November 2015) was an Australian historian, theologian, and biblical exegete specialising in the origins of the early Christian Church. In books and journal articles, she challenged Christian orthod ...

questions the dating of the

Dead Sea Scrolls The Dead Sea Scrolls (also the Qumran Caves Scrolls) are ancient Jewish and Hebrew religious manuscripts discovered between 1946 and 1956 at the Qumran Caves in what was then Mandatory Palestine, near Ein Feshkha in the West Bank, on the nor ...

and suggests that the

Teacher of Righteousness The Teacher of Righteousness (in Hebrew: מורה הצדק ''Moreh ha-Tzedek'') is a figure found in some of the Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran, most prominently in the Damascus Document. This document speaks briefly of the origins of the sect, proba ...

(leader of the

) was John the Baptist. Jorunn J. Buckley accepts Mandaeism's Israelite or Judean origins and adds:

Other names

Sabians

During the 9th and 10th centuries several religious groups came to be identified with the mysterious Sabians (sometimes also spelled 'Sabaeans' or 'Sabeans', but not to be confused with the

Sabaeans The Sabaeans or Sabeans (Sabaean language, Sabaean:, ; ar, ٱلسَّبَئِيُّوْن, ''as-Sabaʾiyyūn''; he, סְבָאִים, Səḇāʾīm) were an ancient group of South Arabians. They spoke the Sabaean language, one of the Old Sout ...

South Arabia South Arabia () is a historical region that consists of the southern region of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia, mainly centered in what is now the Republic of Yemen, yet it has also historically included Najran, Jizan, Al-Bahah, and 'Asi ...

) mentioned in the

alongside the Jews, the Christians, and the Zoroastrians as a '

people of the book People of the Book or Ahl al-kitāb ( ar, أهل الكتاب) is an Islamic term referring to those religions which Muslims regard as having been guided by previous revelations, generally in the form of a scripture. In the Quran they are ident ...

' (). These religious groups, which included the Mandaeans but also various pagan groups in

(Upper Mesopotamia) and the marshlands of southern Iraq, claimed the name in order to be recognized by the Muslim authorities as a people of the book deserving of legal protection ().. The earliest source to unambiguously apply the term 'Sabian' to the Mandaeans was al-Hasan ibn Bahlul () citing the Abbasid vizier

(–940). However, it is not clear whether the Mandaeans of this period identified themselves as Sabians or whether the claim originated with Ibn Muqla. Some modern scholars have identified the Sabians mentioned in the Quran as Mandaeans, although many other possible identifications have been proposed. Some scholars believe it is impossible to establish their original identity with any degree of certainty. Mandaeans continue to be called Sabians to this day.

Nasoraeans

The

uses the name

for the Mandaeans arriving from Jerusalem meaning guardians or possessors of secret rites and knowledge. Scholars such as

Kurt Rudolph Kurt Rudolph (3 April 1929
University of Leipzig – 13 May 2020) was a German researcher of < ...

and Ethel S. Drower and

connect the Mandaeans with the Nasaraeans described by Epiphanius, a group within the

according to

Joseph Lightfoot Joseph Barber Lightfoot (13 April 1828 – 21 December 1889), known as J. B. Lightfoot, was an English theologian and Bishop of Durham. Life Lightfoot was born in Liverpool, where his father John Jackson Lightfoot was an accountant. His mo ...

. Epiphanius says (29:6) that they existed before Christ. That is questioned by some, but others accept the pre-Christian origin of the Nasaraeans.

Relations with other groups

Elkesaites

The Elkesaites were a Judeo-Christian baptismal sect that originated in the Transjordan and were active between 100 to 400 CE. The members of this sect, like the Mandaeans, performed frequent baptisms for purification and had a Gnostic disposition. The sect is named after its leader ''Elkesai''. The Church Father Epiphanius (writing in the 4th century CE) seems to make a distinction between two main groups within the Essenes: "Of those that came before his lxai (Elkesai), an Ossaean prophettime and during it, the Ossaeans and the Nasaraeans."

Epiphanius of Salamis Epiphanius of Salamis ( grc-gre, Ἐπιφάνιος; c. 310–320 – 403) was the bishop of Salamis, Cyprus, at the end of the 4th century. He is considered a saint and a Church Father by both the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic Churches. He gai ...

(). ''

Panarion In early Christian heresiology, the ''Panarion'' ( grc-koi, Πανάριον, derived from Latin ''panarium'', meaning "bread basket"), to which 16th-century Latin translations gave the name ''Adversus Haereses'' (Latin: "Against Heresies"), is t ...

''
1:19
Epiphanius describes the Ossaeans as following:

Essenes

The

were a mystic

Jewish Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The ...

sect A sect is a subgroup of a religious, political, or philosophical belief system, usually an offshoot of a larger group. Although the term was originally a classification for religious separated groups, it can now refer to any organization that b ...

during the

Second Temple period The Second Temple period in Jewish history lasted approximately 600 years (516 BCE - 70 CE), during which the Second Temple existed. It started with the return to Zion and the construction of the Second Temple, while it ended with the First Jewis ...

that flourished from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century CE. Early Mandaean religious concepts and terminologies recur in the

, and ''

'' (Jordan) has been the name of every baptismal water in Mandaeism. One of the names for the Mandaean God ''

'', ''Mara d-Rabuta'' (Lord of Greatness) is found in the

Genesis Apocryphon The Genesis Apocryphon (1Q20), also called the Tales of the Patriarchs or the Apocalypse of Lamech and labeled 1QapGen, is one of the original seven Dead Sea Scrolls discovered in 1946 by Bedouin shepherds in Dead Sea scrolls#Cave 1, Cave 1 near Q ...

II, 4. An early Mandaean self-appellation is ''bhiri zidqa'' meaning 'elect of righteousness' or 'the chosen righteous', a term found in the Book of Enoch and

II, 4. As Nasoraeans, Mandaeans believe that they constitute the true congregation of ''bnai nhura'' meaning 'Sons of Light', a term used by the Essenes. Mandaean scripture affirms that the Mandaeans descend directly from

's original Nasoraean Mandaean disciples in Jerusalem and there are numerous similarities between John's movement and the Essenes. Similar to the Essenes, it is forbidden for a Mandaean to reveal the names of the angels to a gentile. Essene graves are oriented north-south and a Mandaean's grave must also be in the north-south direction so that if the dead Mandaean were stood upright, they would face north. Mandaeans have an oral tradition that some were originally vegetarian and also similar to the Essenes, they are

s. The ''beit manda'' (

beth manda A mandi, mashkhanna ( ), or beth manda (''beit manda'', , 'house of knowledge'; also ''bimanda'') is a Mandaean building that serves as a community center and place of worship. A mandi is traditionally built on the banks of a yardna, or flowing ...

) is described as ''biniana rab ḏ-srara'' ("the Great building of Truth") and ''bit tuslima'' ("house of Perfection") in

Mandaean texts This article contains a list of Mandaean texts (Mandaean religious texts written in Classical Mandaic). Well-known texts include the ''Ginza Rabba'' (also known as the ''Sidra Rabbā'') and the '' Qolastā''. Texts for Mandaean priests include ...

such as the ''

Qolasta The Qolastā, Qulasta, or Qolusta ( myz, ࡒࡅࡋࡀࡎࡕࡀ; mid, Qōlutā, script=Latn) is the canonical prayer book of the Mandaeans, a Gnostic ethnoreligious group from Iraq and Iran. The Mandaic word ''qolastā'' means "collection". The p ...

'', ''

'', and the ''

''. The only known literary parallels are in Essene texts from

Qumran Qumran ( he, קומראן; ar, خربة قمران ') is an archaeological site in the West Bank managed by Israel's Qumran National Park. It is located on a dry marl plateau about from the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, near the Israeli ...

such as the ''

Community Rule The Community Rule ( he, סרך היחד, ''Serekh haYahad''), which is designated 1QS and was previously referred to as the Manual of Discipline, is one of the first scrolls to be discovered near ''khirbet'' (ruin of) Qumran, the scrolls found in ...

'', which has similar phrases such as the "house of Perfection and Truth in Israel" (''Community Rule'' 1QS VIII 9) and "house of Truth in Israel."

Bana'im

Bana'im Bana'im were a minor Jewish sect and an offshoot of the Essenes during the second century in Palestine. Other minor sects of Judaism include Hypsistarians Hypsistarians, i.e. worshippers of the ''Hypsistos'' ( el, Ὕψιστος, the "Most Hig ...

were a minor Jewish sect and an offshoot of the

during the second century in

Palestine __NOTOC__ Palestine may refer to: * State of Palestine, a state in Western Asia * Palestine (region), a geographic region in Western Asia * Palestinian territories, territories occupied by Israel since 1967, namely the West Bank (including East ...

. The Bana'im put heavy emphasis on the cleanliness of clothing since they believed that garments cannot even have a small mudstain before dipping in purifying water. There exists considerable debate around their activities in Palestine and the meaning of the name, some believe that they would put heavy emphasis on the study of the creation of the world, while some believe that the Bana'im were an Essene order employed with the ax and shovel. Other scholars instead have suggested that the name of the Bana'im is derived from the Greek word for "bath". In this case the sect would be similar to the

Hemerobaptists Hemerobaptists ( Heb. ''Tovelei Shaḥarit''; "Morning Bathers") were a minor Jewish sect and a subsect of the Essenes. The most important feature of the Hemerobaptists is the common use of baptism. Hemerobaptists would baptize every day, rather t ...

or ''Tovelei Shaḥarit''.

Hemerobaptists

(Heb. ''Tovelei Shaḥarit''; 'Morning Bathers') were an ancient religious sect that practiced daily baptism. They were likely a division of the Essenes. In the ''Clementine Homilies'' (ii. 23), John the Baptist and his disciples are mentioned as Hemerobaptists. The Mandaeans have been associated with the Hemerobaptists on account of both practicing frequent baptism and Mandaeans believing they are disciples of John.

Maghāriya

Maghāriya Maghāriya were a minor Jewish sect that appeared in the first century BC, their special practice was the keeping of all their literature in caves in the surrounding hills in Palestine. The Maghāriya believed that God is too sublime to mingle wit ...

were a minor Jewish sect that appeared in the first century BCE, their special practice was the keeping of all their literature in caves in the surrounding hills of Palestine. They made their own commentaries on the Bible and the law. The Maghāriya believed that God is too sublime to mingle with matter, thus they did not believe that God directly created the world, but that an angel, which represents God created the earth which is similar to the Mandaean demiurgic

. Some scholars have identified the Maghāriya with the Essenes or the

Therapeutae The Therapeutae were a religious sect which existed in Alexandria and other parts of the ancient Greek world. The primary source concerning the Therapeutae is the ''De vita contemplativa'' ("The Contemplative Life"), traditionally ascribed to the ...

Nasaraeans

see

Ossaeans

see

Elkesaites The Elcesaites, Elkasaites, Elkesaites or Elchasaites were an ancient Jewish Christian sect in Lower Mesopotamia, then the province of Asoristan in the Sasanian Empire that was active between 100 and 400 CE. The members of this sect, which origi ...

Kabbalah

Nathaniel Deutsch Nathaniel Deutsch is a professor at the University of California, Santa Cruz, where he holds the Baumgarten Endowed Chair in Jewish Studies. He is also the Director of the Center for Jewish Studies and the Director of the Humanities Institute. Car ...

writes:

R.J. Zwi Werblowsky Raphael Judah (R.J.) Zwi Werblowsky ( he, רפאל יהודה צבי ורבלובסקי; 1924, Frankfurt — July 9, 2015, Jerusalem) was an Israeli scholar of religion specializing in comparative religion and interfaith dialogue. Werblowsky served ...

suggests Mandaeism has more commonality with Kabbalah than with

Merkabah mysticism Merkabah ( he, מֶרְכָּבָה ''merkāvā'', "chariot") or Merkavah mysticism (lit. Chariot mysticism) is a school of early Jewish mysticism, c. 100 BCE – 1000 CE, centered on visions such as those found in the Book of Ezekiel chapter ...

such as cosmogony and sexual imagery.

, and

Alma Rišaia Rba The '' Alma Rišaia Rba'' or ''Diwan Alma Rišaia Rabbā'' ( myz, ࡀࡋࡌࡀ ࡓࡉࡔࡀࡉࡀ ࡓࡁࡀ, "The Great Supreme World" or "The Great First World") is a Mandaean religious text. The text is used for Mandaean priestly initiation cer ...

link the alphabet with the creation of the world, a concept found in

Sefer Yetzirah ''Sefer Yetzirah'' ( ''Sēp̄er Yəṣīrā'', ''Book of Formation'', or ''Book of Creation'') is the title of a book on Jewish mysticism, although some early commentators treated it as a treatise on mathematical and linguistic theory as opposed ...

and the

Bahir ''Bahir'' or ''Sefer HaBahir'' ( he, סֵפֶר הַבָּהִיר, ; "Book of Clarity" or "Book of Illumination") is an anonymous mystical work, attributed to a 1st-century rabbinic sage Nehunya ben HaKanah (a contemporary of Yochanan ben Zakai ...

. Mandaean names for

s have been found in Jewish magical texts.

appears to be inscribed inside a Jewish magic bowl in a corrupted form as "Abiṭur".

is found in

Sefer HaRazim ''Sefer HaRazim'' ( he, ספר הרזים; "Book of Secrets") is a Jewish magical text supposedly given to Noah by the angel Raziel, and passed down throughout Biblical history until it ended up in the possession of Solomon, for whom it was a grea ...

listed among other angels who stand on the ninth step of the second firmament.

Manichaeans

According to the ''

Fihrist The ''Kitāb al-Fihrist'' ( ar, كتاب الفهرست) (''The Book Catalogue'') is a compendium of the knowledge and literature of tenth-century Islam compiled by Ibn Al-Nadim (c.998). It references approx. 10,000 books and 2,000 authors.''The ...

'' of

ibn al-Nadim Abū al-Faraj Muḥammad ibn Isḥāq al-Nadīm ( ar, ابو الفرج محمد بن إسحاق النديم), also ibn Abī Ya'qūb Isḥāq ibn Muḥammad ibn Isḥāq al-Warrāq, and commonly known by the ''nasab'' (patronymic) Ibn al-Nadīm ...

, the Mesopotamian prophet

Mani Mani may refer to: Geography * Maní, Casanare, a town and municipality in Casanare Department, Colombia * Mani, Chad, a town and sub-prefecture in Chad * Mani, Evros, a village in northeastern Greece * Mani, Karnataka, a village in Dakshi ...

, the founder of

Manichaeism Manichaeism (; in New Persian ; ) is a former major religionR. van den Broek, Wouter J. Hanegraaff ''Gnosis and Hermeticism from Antiquity to Modern Times''SUNY Press, 1998 p. 37 founded in the 3rd century AD by the Parthian Empire, Parthian ...

, was brought up within the Elkesaite (''Elcesaite'' or ''Elchasaite'') sect, this being confirmed more recently by the

Cologne Mani Codex The Cologne Mani-Codex (Codex Manichaicus Coloniensis) is a minute parchment codex, dated on paleographical evidence to the fifth century CE, found near Asyut (the ancient Lycopolis), Egypt; it contains a Greek text describing the life of Ma ...

. None of the Manichaean scriptures has survived in its entirety, and it seems that the remaining fragments have not been compared to the ''Ginza Rabba''. Mani later left the Elkasaites to found his own religion. In a comparative analysis, the Swedish Egyptologist

Torgny Säve-Söderbergh Torgny Säve-Söderbergh (born 29 June 1914 in Lund; died 21 May 1998 in Uppsala) was a Swedish writer, translator, and professor of Egyptology at Uppsala University from 1950 to 1980. He was the younger brother of paleontologist Gunnar Säve-Söd ...

indicated that Mani's ''

Psalms of Thomas The ''Psalms of Thomas'' (more correctly ''Psalms of Thom'') are a set of 3rd-century Judeo-Christian psalms found appended to the end of a Coptic Manichaean psalm book, which was in turn part of the Medinet Madi Coptic Texts uncovered in 1928. ...

'' was closely related to Mandaean texts. According to E. S. Drower, "some of the most ancient Manichaean psalms, the Coptic Psalms of Thomas, were paraphrases and even word-for-word translations of Mandaic originals; prosody and phrase offering proof that the Manichaean was the borrower and not vice-versa." An extensive discussion of the relationships between Mandaeism and Manichaeism can be found in Băncilă (2018).

Samaritan Baptist sects

According to Magris, Samaritan Baptist sects were an offshoot of

. One offshoot was in turn headed by Dositheus,

Simon Magus Simon Magus (Greek Σίμων ὁ μάγος, Latin: Simon Magus), also known as Simon the Sorcerer or Simon the Magician, was a religious figure whose confrontation with Peter is recorded in Acts . The act of simony, or paying for position, is ...

, and

Menander Menander (; grc-gre, Μένανδρος ''Menandros''; c. 342/41 – c. 290 BC) was a Greek dramatist and the best-known representative of Athenian New Comedy. He wrote 108 comedies and took the prize at the Lenaia festival eight times. His rec ...

. It was in this milieu that the idea emerged that the world was created by ignorant angels. Their baptismal ritual removed the consequences of sin, and led to a regeneration by which natural death, which was caused by these angels, was overcome. The Samaritan leaders were viewed as "the embodiment of God's power, spirit, or wisdom, and as the redeemer and revealer of 'true knowledge. The

Simonians The Simonians were a Gnostic sect of the 2nd century which regarded Simon Magus as its founder and traced its doctrines, known as Simonianism, back to him. The sect flourished in Syria, in various districts of Asia Minor and at Rome. In the 3rd ce ...

were centered on Simon Magus, the magician baptised by Philip and rebuked by Peter in Acts 8, who became in early Christianity the archetypal false teacher. The ascription by Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and others of a connection between schools in their time and the individual in Acts 8 may be as legendary as the stories attached to him in various apocryphal books. Justin Martyr identifies Menander of Antioch as Simon Magus' pupil. According to Hippolytus, Simonianism is an earlier form of

Valentinianism Valentinianism was one of the major Gnostic Christian movements. Founded by Valentinus in the 2nd century AD, its influence spread widely, not just within Rome but also from Northwest Africa to Egypt through to Asia Minor and Syria in the East. ...

Sethians

Kurt Rudolph Kurt Rudolph (3 April 1929
University of Leipzig – 13 May 2020) was a German researcher of < ...

has observed many parallels between Mandaean texts and Sethian Gnostic texts from the

Nag Hammadi library The Nag Hammadi library (also known as the " Chenoboskion Manuscripts" and the "Gnostic Gospels") is a collection of early Christian and Gnostic texts discovered near the Upper Egyptian town of Nag Hammadi in 1945. Thirteen leather-bound papyr ...

. Birger A. Pearson also compares the "

Five Seals In Sethian Gnostic texts, the Five Seals are typically described as a baptismal rite involving a series of five full immersions in holy running or "living water," symbolizing spiritual ascension to the divine realm. The Five Seals are frequently m ...

" of Sethianism, which he believes is a reference to quintuple ritual immersion in water, to Mandaean

masbuta Maṣbuta ( myz, ࡌࡀࡑࡁࡅࡕࡀ) is the ritual of immersion in water in the Mandaeism, Mandaean religion. Overview Mandaeans revere John the Baptist and practice frequent baptism (''masbuta'') as a Ritual purification, ritual of purificati ...

. According to

Buckley Buckley may refer to: Businesses and organizations * Buckley's, a Canadian pharmaceutical corporation * Buckley Aircraft, an American aircraft manufacturer * Buckley Broadcasting, an American broadcasting company * Buckley School (California), ...

(2010), "Sethian Gnostic literature ... is related, perhaps as a younger sibling, to Mandaean baptism ideology."

Valentinians

A Mandaean baptismal formula was adopted by Valentinian Gnostics in Rome and Alexandria in the 2nd century CE.

Demographics

It is estimated that there are 60,000–100,000

worldwide. Their proportion in their native lands has collapsed because of the Iraq War, with most of the community relocating to nearby Iran, Syria, and Jordan. There are approximately 2,500 Mandaeans in

Jordan Jordan ( ar, الأردن; tr. ' ), officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan,; tr. ' is a country in Western Asia. It is situated at the crossroads of Asia, Africa, and Europe, within the Levant region, on the East Bank of the Jordan Rive ...

. In 2011,

Al Arabiya Arabiya ( ar, العربية, transliterated: '; meaning "The Arabic One" or "The Arab One") is an international Arabic news television channel, currently based in Dubai, that is operated by the media conglomerate MBC. The channel is a flag ...

put the number of hidden and unaccounted for Iranian Mandaeans in Iran as high as 60,000. According to a 2009 article in ''

The Holland Sentinel ''The Holland Sentinel'' is a newspaper published seven days a week in Holland, Michigan, United States, founded in 1896. It is published by Gannett. The newspaper covers most of Ottawa County, including Holland, Beechwood and Zeeland, as wel ...

'', the Mandaean community in Iran has also been dwindling, numbering between 5,000 and at most 10,000 people. Many Mandaeans have formed diaspora communities outside the Middle East in

Sweden Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden,The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names states that the country's formal name is the Kingdom of SwedenUNGEGN World Geographical Names, Sweden./ref> is a Nordic country located on ...

Netherlands ) , anthem = ( en, "William of Nassau") , image_map = , map_caption = , subdivision_type = Sovereign state , subdivision_name = Kingdom of the Netherlands , established_title = Before independence , established_date = Spanish Netherl ...

Germany Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...

USA The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country Continental United States, primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 U.S. state, states, a Washington, D.C., ...

Canada Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tot ...

New Zealand New Zealand ( mi, Aotearoa ) is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and over 700 smaller islands. It is the sixth-largest island count ...

, UK and especially

Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...

, where around 10,000 now reside, mainly around

Sydney Sydney ( ) is the capital city of the state of New South Wales, and the most populous city in both Australia and Oceania. Located on Australia's east coast, the metropolis surrounds Sydney Harbour and extends about towards the Blue Mountain ...

, representing 15% of the total world Mandaean population. Approximately 1,000 Iranian Mandaeans have emigrated to the United States, since the US State Department in 2002 granted them protective refugee status, which was also later accorded to Iraqi Mandaeans in 2007. A community estimated at 2,500 members live in

Worcester, Massachusetts Worcester ( , ) is a city and county seat of Worcester County, Massachusetts, United States. Named after Worcester, England, the city's population was 206,518 at the 2020 United States census, 2020 census, making it the second-List of cities i ...

, where they began settling in 2008. Most emigrated from Iraq. Mandaeism does not allow conversion, and the religious status of Mandaeans who marry outside the faith and their children is disputed.

Notes

References

Bibliography

Primary sources

* * * * * * * * * (

open access Open access (OA) is a set of principles and a range of practices through which research outputs are distributed online, free of access charges or other barriers. With open access strictly defined (according to the 2001 definition), or libre op ...

version of text and translation, taken from )

Secondary sources

* * * * * (reprint: Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2002) * * * * * * (reprint of ''Thesaurus s. Liber Magni'') * * * * * * * * * * * **Review: * * *

Tertiary sources

* * * * *

External links

Mandaean Association Union
nbsp;– The Mandaean Association Union is an international federation which strives for unification of Mandaeans around the globe. Information in English and Arabic.
BBC: Iraq chaos threatens ancient faith

BBC: Mandaeans – a threatened religion
* Shahāb Mirzā'i
''Ablution of Mandaeans''
(''Ghosl-e Sābe'in'' – غسل صابئين), in Persian, ''Jadid Online'', 18 December 2008

(showing Iranian Mandaeans performing ablution on the banks of the

river in

Ahvaz Ahvaz ( fa, اهواز, Ahvâz ) is a city in the southwest of Iran and the capital of Khuzestan province. Ahvaz's population is about 1,300,000 and its built-up area with the nearby town of Sheybani is home to 1,136,989 inhabitants. It is hom ...

): (4 min 25 sec)
The Worlds of Mandaean Priests

University of Exeter The University of Exeter is a public university , public research university in Exeter, Devon, England, United Kingdom. Its predecessor institutions, St Luke's College, Exeter School of Science, Exeter School of Art, and the Camborne School of Min ...

Mandaean scriptures

Mandaean Book of John
A complete open-access translation, published in 2020, edited by Charles G. Häberl and James F. McGrath

''Qolastā'' and ''Haran Gawaitha'' texts and fragments (note that the book titled ''Ginza Rabba'' is not the ''Ginza Rabba'' but is instead ''Qolastā'', "The Canonical Prayerbook of the Mandaeans" as translated by E.S Drower).

This is the complete 1924 edition of

G.R.S. Mead George Robert Stow Mead (22 March 1863 in Peckham, Surrey – 28 September 1933 in London) was an English historian, writer, editor, translator, and an influential member of the Theosophical Society, as well as the founder of the Quest Society ...

's classic study of the Mandæan John-Book, containing excerpts from the scripture itself (in The Gnosis Archive collection – www.gnosis.org).
The Ginza Rabba
(1925 German translation by Mark Lidzbarski) at the

Internet Archive The Internet Archive is an American digital library with the stated mission of "universal access to all knowledge". It provides free public access to collections of digitized materials, including websites, software applications/games, music, ...

*The John-Book (

Draša D-Iahia The Mandaean Book of John (Mandaic language ࡃࡓࡀࡔࡀ ࡖࡉࡀࡄࡉࡀ ') is a Mandaean holy book in Mandaic Aramaic which is believed by Mandeans to have been written by their prophet John the Baptist. The book contains accounts of Jo ...

) – complete text i
Mandaic
an
German translation
(1905) by Mark Lidzbarski at the

Mandaic liturgies
– Mandaic text (in Hebrew transliteration) and German translation (1925) by Mark Lidzbarski at the

Mandaean scriptures
at the Mandaean Network's site

Books about Mandaeism available online

a complete version (with old and new errors), contains information on Mani, Manichaeism, Elkasaites,

, Sabians and other "gnostic" groups. Published in 1901.
Extracts from E. S. Drower, ''Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran,''
Leiden, 1962
''The Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran''
by Lady Drower, 1937 – the entire book {{Authority control Esotericism Gnosticism Monotheistic religions Religion in Iran Religion in Iraq Ethnic religion Mandaeans Ancient Semitic religions Religion in the Sasanian Empire

Etymology

History

Beliefs

Principal beliefs

Fundamental tenets

Cosmology

Chief prophets

Scriptures

Worship and rituals

Priests

Scholarship

Other names

Sabians

Nasoraeans

Relations with other groups

Elkesaites

Essenes

Bana'im

Hemerobaptists

Maghāriya

Nasaraeans

Ossaeans

Kabbalah

Manichaeans

Samaritan Baptist sects

Sethians

Valentinians

Demographics

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography

Primary sources

Secondary sources

Tertiary sources

External links

Mandaean scriptures

Books about Mandaeism available online