The ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' ( ta, திருக்குறள், lit=sacred verses), or shortly the ''Kural'' ( ta, குறள்), is a classic Tamil language text consisting of 1,330 short couplets, or
kural
The ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' ( ta, திருக்குறள், lit=sacred verses), or shortly the ''Kural'' ( ta, குறள்), is a classic Tamil language text consisting of 1,330 short couplets, or kurals, of seven words each. The tex ...
s, of seven words each. The text is divided into three books with aphoristic teachings on virtue (''aram''), wealth (''porul'') and love (''inbam''), respectively. Considered one of the greatest works ever written on
ethics
Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that "involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior".''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' The field of ethics, along with aesthetics, concerns m ...
and
morality
Morality () is the differentiation of intentions, decisions and actions between those that are distinguished as proper (right) and those that are improper (wrong). Morality can be a body of standards or principles derived from a code of cond ...
, it is known for its universality and
secular
Secularity, also the secular or secularness (from Latin ''saeculum'', "worldly" or "of a generation"), is the state of being unrelated or neutral in regards to religion. Anything that does not have an explicit reference to religion, either negativ ...
nature. Its authorship is traditionally attributed to
Valluvar
Thiruvalluvar (Tamil language, Tamil: திருவள்ளுவர்), commonly known as Valluvar, was a celebrated Tamil people, Tamil poet and philosopher. He is best known as the author of the ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'', a collection of coup ...
, also known in full as Thiruvalluvar. The text has been dated variously from 300 BCE to 5th century CE. The traditional accounts describe it as the last work of the third
Sangam, but linguistic analysis suggests a later date of 450 to 500 CE and that it was composed after the Sangam period.
The Kural text is among the earliest systems of Indian epistemology and metaphysics. The Kural is traditionally praised with epithets and alternative titles, including "the Tamil Veda" and "the Divine Book." Written on the foundations of ''
ahimsa
Ahimsa (, IAST: ''ahiṃsā'', ) is the ancient Indian principle of nonviolence which applies to all living beings. It is a key virtue in most Indian religions: Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism.Bajpai, Shiva (2011). The History of India ...
'', it emphasizes
non-violence and
moral vegetarianism
Veganism is the practice of abstaining from the use of animal product—particularly in diet—and an associated philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals. An individual who follows the diet or philosophy is known as a vegan. D ...
as virtues for an individual. In addition, it highlights truthfulness, self-restraint, gratitude, hospitality, kindness, goodness of wife, duty, giving, and so forth, besides covering a wide range of social and political topics such as king, ministers, taxes, justice, forts, war, greatness of army and soldier's honor, death sentence for the wicked, agriculture, education, abstinence from alcohol and intoxicants. It also includes chapters on friendship, love, sexual unions, and domestic life. The text effectively denounced previously held misbeliefs that were common during the
Sangam era
The Sangam period or age (, ), particularly referring to the third Sangam period, is the period of the history of ancient Tamil Nadu, Kerala and parts of Sri Lanka (then known as Tamilakam) spanning from c. 6th century BCE to c. 3rd century CE. ...
and permanently redefined the cultural values of the
Tamil land.
The Kural has been widely admired by scholars and influential leaders across the ethical, social, political, economic, religious, philosophical, and spiritual spheres over its history. These include
Ilango Adigal
Ilango Adigal ()() was a Jain monk and a poet, sometimes identified as a Chera prince. He is traditionally credited as the author of '' Cilappatikaram'', one of the Five Great Epics of Ancient Tamil literature. He is one of the greatest poets ...
,
Kambar,
Leo Tolstoy
Count Lev Nikolayevich TolstoyTolstoy pronounced his first name as , which corresponds to the romanization ''Lyov''. () (; russian: link=no, Лев Николаевич Толстой,In Tolstoy's day, his name was written as in pre-refor ...
,
Mahatma Gandhi
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (; ; 2 October 1869 – 30 January 1948), popularly known as Mahatma Gandhi, was an Indian lawyer, anti-colonial nationalist Quote: "... marks Gandhi as a hybrid cosmopolitan figure who transformed ... anti- ...
,
Albert Schweitzer
Ludwig Philipp Albert Schweitzer (; 14 January 1875 – 4 September 1965) was an Alsatian-German/French polymath. He was a theologian, organist, musicologist, writer, humanitarian, philosopher, and physician. A Lutheran minister, Schweit ...
,
Ramalinga Swamigal
Thiruvarutprakasa Vallalār Chidambaram Ramalingam (5 October 1823 – 30 January 1874), commonly known in India and across the world as Vallalār, Ramalinga Swamigal and Ramalinga Adigal, was one of the most famous Tamil Saints and also one of t ...
,
V. O. Chidambaram Pillai
''V.'' is the debut novel of Thomas Pynchon, published in 1963. It describes the exploits of a discharged U.S. Navy sailor named Benny Profane, his reconnection in New York with a group of pseudo-bohemian artists and hangers-on known as the Who ...
,
Karl Graul
Karl Graul (6 February 1814 – 10 November 1864) was a leader of Leipzig Lutheran mission and a Tamil scholar. He was born in a poor weaver family in Germany. He moved to India as the director of the Lutheran Leipzig Mission in 1849 and ther ...
,
George Uglow Pope
George Uglow Pope (24 April 1820 – 11 February 1908), or G. U. Pope, was an Anglican Christian missionary and Tamil scholar who spent 40 years in Tamil Nadu and translated many Tamil texts into English. His popular translations included those ...
,
Alexander Piatigorsky
Alexander Moiseyevich Piatigorsky (russian: Алекса́ндр Моисе́евич Пятиго́рский; 30 January 192925 October 2009) was a Soviet dissident, Russian philosopher, scholar of Indian philosophy and culture, historian, phi ...
, and
Yu Hsi
Yu Hsi (born Hung Ching Yu) (born March 16, 1951) is a Taiwanese Tamil poet and scholar, who has translated the Tirukkural and the poems of Subramaniya Bharathi and poet Bharathidasan in Mandarin. He is the founder president of the Tamil Sangam ...
. The work remains the most translated, the most cited, and the most citable of Tamil literary works. The text has been translated into at least 40 Indian and non-Indian languages, making it one of the
most translated ancient works. Ever since it came to print for the first time in 1812, the Kural text has never been out of print. The Kural is considered a masterpiece and one of the most important texts of the Tamil Literature. Its author is praised for his innate nature of selecting the best virtues found in the known literature and presenting them in a manner that is common and acceptable to all. The Tamil people and the government of
Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu (; , TN) is a States and union territories of India, state in southern India. It is the List of states and union territories of India by area, tenth largest Indian state by area and the List of states and union territories of India ...
have long celebrated and upheld the text with reverence.
Etymology and nomenclature
The term is a compound word made of two individual terms, and . is an honorific Tamil term that corresponds to the universally Indian, Sanskrit term meaning "holy, sacred, excellent, honorable, and beautiful." The term has as many as 19 different meanings in Tamil. means something that is "short, concise, and abridged." Etymologically, is the shortened form of , which is derived from , one of the two Tamil poetic forms explained by the
Tolkappiyam, the other one being . According to
Miron Winslow
Miron Winslow (11 December 1789 – 22 October 1864) was an American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions missionary to the ''American Ceylon Mission'', Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), where he established a mission at Oodooville and founded a semi ...
, is used as a literary term to indicate "a metrical line of 2 feet, or a distich or couplet of short lines, the first of 4 and the second of 3 feet." Thus, ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' literally comes to mean "sacred couplets."
The work is highly cherished in the Tamil culture, as reflected by its twelve traditional titles: ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' (the sacred kural), ''Uttaravedam'' (the ultimate
Veda
FIle:Atharva-Veda samhita page 471 illustration.png, upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the ''Atharvaveda''.
The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Co ...
), ''Tiruvalluvar'' (eponymous with the author), ''Poyyamoli'' (the falseless word), ''Vayurai valttu'' (truthful praise), ''Teyvanul'' (the divine book), ''Potumarai'' (the common Veda), ''Valluva Maalai'' (garland made by the author), ''Tamil Manunool'' (Tamil ethical treatise), ''Tiruvalluva Payan'' (fruit of the author), ''Muppal'' (the three-fold path), and ''Tamilmarai'' (the Tamil Veda). The work is traditionally grouped under the
Eighteen Lesser Texts
The Eighteen Lesser Texts, known as the Patiṉeṇkīḻkaṇakku ( ta, பதினெண்கீழ்கணக்கு) in the literature, is a collection of eighteen poetic works mostly created during the 'post Sangam period' (between 100 ...
series of the
late Sangam works, known in Tamil as ''Patiṉeṇkīḻkaṇakku''.
Date
The Kural has been dated variously from 300 BCE to 5th century CE. According to traditional accounts, it was the last work of the third
Sangam, and was subjected to a divine test (which it passed). The scholars who believe this tradition, such as
Somasundara Bharathiar
Somasundara Bharathiar (27 July 1879 – 14 December 1959) was a Tamil researcher, writer, professor and lawyer. He participated in the Anti-Hindi agitations of Tamil Nadu. He also headed the movement for the abolition of untouchability
Unt ...
and M. Rajamanickam, date the text to as early as 300 BCE. Historian
K. K. Pillay
Kolappa Kanakasabhapathy Pillay (3 April 1905 – 26 September 1981) was an Indian historian who headed the Department of Indian history at the University of Madras from 1954 to 1966. He also served as a President of the Indian History Congress a ...
assigned it to the early 1st century CE. According to
Kamil Zvelebil
Kamil Václav Zvelebil (November 17, 1927 – January 17, 2009) was a Czech scholar in Indian literature and linguistics, notably Tamil, Sanskrit, Dravidian linguistics and literature and philology.
Life and career
Zvelebil studied at the Cha ...
, a
Czech
Czech may refer to:
* Anything from or related to the Czech Republic, a country in Europe
** Czech language
** Czechs, the people of the area
** Czech culture
** Czech cuisine
* One of three mythical brothers, Lech, Czech, and Rus'
Places
* Czech, ...
scholar of Tamil literature, these early dates such as 300 BCE to 1 BCE are unacceptable and not supported by evidence within the text. The diction and grammar of the Kural, and Valluvar's indebtedness to some earlier Sanskrit sources, suggest that he lived after the "early Tamil bardic poets," but before Tamil bhakti poets era.
In 1959,
S. Vaiyapuri Pillai
Rao Sahib Saravanapperumal Vaiyapuri Pillai (12 October 1891 – 17 February 1956) was a renowned lawyer and Tamil language, Tamil scholar. An advocate by profession, he edited and published several Tamil classics from original manuscripts. He is ...
assigned the work to around or after the 6th century CE. His proposal is based on the evidence that the Kural text contains a large proportion of Sanskrit loan words, shows awareness and indebtedness to some Sanskrit texts best dated to the first half of the 1st millennium CE, and the grammatical innovations in the language of the Kural literature. Pillai published a list of 137 Sanskrit loan words in the Kural text. Later scholars
Thomas Burrow
Thomas Burrow (; 29 June 1909 – 8 June 1986) was an Indologist and the Boden Professor of Sanskrit at the University of Oxford from 1944 to 1976; he was also a fellow of Balliol College, Oxford during this time. His work includes ''A Dravidi ...
and
Murray Barnson Emeneau
Murray Barnson Emeneau (February 28, 1904 – August 29, 2005) was the founder of the Department of Linguistics at the University of California, Berkeley.
Early life and education
Emeneau was born in Lunenburg, a fishing town on the east coast ...
show that 35 of these are of
Dravidian origin and not Sanskrit loan words. Zvelebil states that an additional few have uncertain etymology and that future studies may prove those to be Dravidian. The 102 remaining loan words from Sanskrit are "not negligible", and some of the teachings in the Kural text, according to Zvelebil, are "undoubtedly" based on the then extant Sanskrit works such as the ''
Arthashastra
The ''Arthashastra'' ( sa, अर्थशास्त्रम्, ) is an Ancient Indian Sanskrit treatise on statecraft, political science, economic policy and military strategy. Kautilya, also identified as Vishnugupta and Chanakya, is ...
'' and ''
Manusmriti
The ''Manusmṛiti'' ( sa, मनुस्मृति), also known as the ''Mānava-Dharmaśāstra'' or Laws of Manu, is one of the many legal texts and constitution among the many ' of Hinduism. In ancient India, the sages often wrote their ...
'' (also called the ''Manavadharmasastra'').
In his treatise of Tamil literary history published in 1974, Zvelebil states that the Kural text does not belong to the
Sangam period and dates it to somewhere between 450 and 500 CE. His estimate is based on the language of the text, its allusions to the earlier works, and its borrowing from some Sanskrit treatises. Zvelebil notes that the text features several grammatical innovations that are absent in the older Sangam literature. The text also features a higher number of
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
loan word
A loanword (also loan word or loan-word) is a word at least partly assimilated from one language (the donor language) into another language. This is in contrast to cognates, which are words in two or more languages that are similar because the ...
s compared with these older texts. According to Zvelebil, besides being part of the ancient Tamil literary tradition, the author was also a part of the "one great Indian ethical, didactic tradition" as a few of the verses in the Kural text are "undoubtedly" translations of the verses of earlier Indian texts.
In the 19th century and the early 20th century, European writers and missionaries variously dated the text and its author to between 400 and 1000 CE. According to Blackburn, the "current scholarly consensus" dates the text and the author to approximately 500 CE.
In 1921, in the face of incessant debate on the precise date, the
Tamil Nadu government
Government of Tamil Nadu is the subnational government for the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is seated at Fort St George, Chennai. The legislature of Tamil Nadu was bicameral until 1986, when it was replaced by a unicameral legislature, lik ...
officially declared 31 BCE as the year of Valluvar at a conference presided over by
Maraimalai Adigal
Maraimalai Adigal (15 July 1876 – 15 September 1950) was a Tamil orator and writer and father of Pure Tamil movement. He was a fervent Tamizh Saivite. He wrote more than 100 books, including works on original poems and dramas, but most famous ...
. On 18 January 1935, the
Valluvar Year
Valluvar year, also known as the Thiruvalluvar year, is an officially recognized Tamil calendar system for use in Tamil Nadu. It is calculated on the basis of the supposed year of birth of the Tamil poet-philosopher Valluvar. When comparing it ...
was added to the calendar.
Author
The Kural text was authored by Thiruvalluvar (''lit.'' Saint Valluvar). He is known by various other names including Poyyil Pulavar, Mudharpavalar, Deivappulavar, Nayanar, Devar, Nanmukanar, Mathanubangi, Sennabbodhakar, and Perunavalar. There is negligible authentic information available about Valluvar's life. In fact, neither his actual name nor the original title of his work can be determined with certainty. The Kural text itself does not name its author. The name ''Thiruvalluvar'' was first mentioned in the later era text ''
Tiruvalluva Maalai
Tiruvalluva Maalai (Tamil: திருவள்ளுவ மாலை), literally 'Garland of Valluvar', is an anthology of ancient Tamil paeans containing fifty-five verses each attributed to different poets praising the ancient work of the ...
'', a
Shaivite
Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangin ...
Hindu
Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism.Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...
text, also of unclear date. However, the Tiruvalluva Maalai does not mention anything about Valluvar's birth, family, caste or background. No other authentic pre-colonial texts have been found to support any legends about the life of Valluvar. Starting around early 19th century, numerous inconsistent legends on Valluvar in various Indian languages and English were published.
![Thiruvalluvar Statue at Kanyakumari 02](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Thiruvalluvar_Statue_at_Kanyakumari_02.jpg)
Various claims have been made regarding Valluvar's family background and occupation in the colonial era literature, all inferred from selective sections of his text or hagiographies published since the colonial era started in Tamil Nadu. One traditional version claims that he was a
Paraiyar
Paraiyar, or Parayar or Maraiyar (formerly anglicised as Pariah and Paree), is a caste group found in the Indian states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, and Sri Lanka.
Etymology
Robert Caldwell, a nineteenth-century missionary and grammarian who ...
weaver. Another theory is that he must have been from the agricultural caste of
Vellalar
Vellalar is a generic Tamil term used primarily to refer to various castes who traditionally pursued agriculture as a profession in the Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and northeastern parts of Sri Lanka. The Vellalar are members of sev ...
s because he extols agriculture in his work. Another states he was an outcaste, born to a Pariah woman and a
Brahmin
Brahmin (; sa, ब्राह्मण, brāhmaṇa) is a varna as well as a caste within Hindu society. The Brahmins are designated as the priestly class as they serve as priests (purohit, pandit, or pujari) and religious teachers (guru ...
father.
Mu Raghava Iyengar speculated that "valluva" in his name is a variation of "vallabha", the designation of a royal officer.
S. Vaiyapuri Pillai
Rao Sahib Saravanapperumal Vaiyapuri Pillai (12 October 1891 – 17 February 1956) was a renowned lawyer and Tamil language, Tamil scholar. An advocate by profession, he edited and published several Tamil classics from original manuscripts. He is ...
derived his name from "valluvan" (a Paraiyar caste of royal drummers) and theorized that he was "the chief of the proclaiming boys analogous to a trumpet-major of an army". The traditional biographies not only are inconsistent, but also contain incredulous claims about the author of the Kural text. Along with various versions of his birth circumstances, many state he went to a mountain and met the legendary
Agastya
Agastya ( kn, ಅಗಸ್ತ್ಯ, ta, அகத்தியர், sa, अगस्त्य, te, అగస్త్యుడు, ml, അഗസ്ത്യൻ, hi, अगस्त्य) was a revered Indian sage of Hinduism. In the I ...
and other sages. There are also accounts claiming that, during his return journey, Valluvar sat under a tree whose shadow sat still over him and did not move the entire day, he killed a demon, and many more. Scholars consider these and all associated aspects of these hagiographic stories to be fiction and ahistorical, a feature common to "international and Indian folklore". The alleged low birth, high birth and being a pariah in the traditional accounts are also doubtful. Traditionally, Valluvar is believed to have married to
Vasuki
Vasuki (IAST: ) is the second king of the nagas in Hinduism. He is described as having a gem called ''Nagamani'' (serpent's ornament) on his head. Adishesha, the first king of the serpents and the mount of Narayana, is his elder brother, and ...
and had a friend and a disciple named
Elelasingan
Elelasingan ( ta, ஏலேலசிங்கன்) ( 2nd or 1st century BCE), also known as Elelasingan Chettiyar, Elela and Alara, was a Tamil merchant who lived in Mylapore, by the shores of the Pallava Kingdom, trading between India and Ceyl ...
.
The Kural text is aphoristic and non-denominational in nature and can be selectively interpreted in many ways. This has led almost every major religious group in India, including
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...
, to claim the work and its author as one of their own. In a manner similar to speculations of the author's biography, there has been much speculation about his religion with no historical evidence. The 19th-century Christian missionary
George Uglow Pope
George Uglow Pope (24 April 1820 – 11 February 1908), or G. U. Pope, was an Anglican Christian missionary and Tamil scholar who spent 40 years in Tamil Nadu and translated many Tamil texts into English. His popular translations included those ...
, for example, claimed that Valluvar must have lived in the 9th century CE, come in contact with Christian teachers such as
Pantaenus
Saint Pantaenus the Philosopher ( el, Πάνταινος; died c. 200) was a Greeks, Greek theologian and a significant figure in the Catechetical School of Alexandria from around AD 180. This school was the earliest catechism, catechetical school ...
of
Alexandria
Alexandria ( or ; ar, ٱلْإِسْكَنْدَرِيَّةُ ; grc-gre, Αλεξάνδρεια, Alexándria) is the second largest city in Egypt, and the largest city on the Mediterranean coast. Founded in by Alexander the Great, Alexandria ...
, imbibed Christian ideas and peculiarities of Alexandrian teachers and then wrote the "wonderful Kurral" with an "echo of the 'Sermon of the Mount'." This theory is ahistorical and discredited. According to Zvelebil, the ethics and ideas in Valluvar's work are not
Christian ethics. Albert Schweitzer hints that "the dating of the Kural has suffered, along with so many other literary and historical dates, philosophies and mythologies of India, a severe mauling at the hands of the Christian Missionaries, anxious to post-date all irrefutable examples of religious maturity to the Christian era."
Valluvar is thought to have belonged to either
Jainism
Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religions, Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current ...
or
Hinduism
Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
. This can be observed in his treatment of the concept of
ahimsa
Ahimsa (, IAST: ''ahiṃsā'', ) is the ancient Indian principle of nonviolence which applies to all living beings. It is a key virtue in most Indian religions: Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism.Bajpai, Shiva (2011). The History of India ...
or
non-violence, which is the principal concept of both the religions. In the 1819 translation,
Francis Whyte Ellis
Francis Whyte Ellis (1777–1819) was a British civil servant in the Madras Presidency and a scholar of Tamil and Sanskrit.
Biography
Ellis became a writer in the East India Company's service at Madras in 1796. He was promoted to the offices o ...
mentions that the Tamil community debates whether Valluvar was a Jain or Hindu. According to Zvelebil, Valluvar's treatment of the chapters on
moral vegetarianism
Veganism is the practice of abstaining from the use of animal product—particularly in diet—and an associated philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals. An individual who follows the diet or philosophy is known as a vegan. D ...
and
non-killing reflects the Jain precepts. Certain epithets for God and ascetic values found in the text are found in Jainism, states Zvelebil. He theorizes that Valluvar was probably "a learned Jain with eclectic leanings", who was well acquainted with the earlier Tamil literature and also had knowledge of the Sanskrit texts. According to A. Chakravarthy Nainar, the Jaina tradition associates the work with
Kunda Kunda Acharya, also known as Elachariyar in the Tamil region, the chief of the Southern Pataliputra Dravidian Sanghaat, who lived around the latter half of the first century BCE and the former half of the first century CE. Nevertheless, early
Digambara
''Digambara'' (; "sky-clad") is one of the two major schools of Jainism, the other being '' Śvētāmbara'' (white-clad). The Sanskrit word ''Digambara'' means "sky-clad", referring to their traditional monastic practice of neither possessing ...
or
Svetambara Jaina texts do not mention Valluvar or the Kural text. The first claim of Valluvar as an authority appears in a 16th-century Jain text.
According to other scholars, Valluvar's writings suggest that he belonged to
Hinduism
Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
. Hindu teachers have mapped his teachings in the Kural literature to the teachings found in Hindu texts. The three parts that the Kural is divided into, namely, ''aṟam'' (virtue), ''poruḷ'' (wealth) and ''inbam'' (love), aiming at attaining ''veedu'' (ultimate salvation), follow, respectively, the four foundations of Hinduism, namely,
dharma
Dharma (; sa, धर्म, dharma, ; pi, dhamma, italic=yes) is a key concept with multiple meanings in Indian religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and others. Although there is no direct single-word translation for '' ...
,
artha
''Artha'' (; sa, अर्थ; Tamil: ''poruḷ'' / ''பொருள்'') is one of the four aims of human life in Indian philosophy.James Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Rosen Publishing, New York, , pp 55–56 ...
,
kama
''Kama'' (Sanskrit ) means "desire, wish, longing" in Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, and Sikh literature.Monier Williamsकाम, kāmaMonier-Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary, pp 271, see 3rd column Kama often connotes sensual pleasure, sexual ...
and
moksha
''Moksha'' (; sa, मोक्ष, '), also called ''vimoksha'', ''vimukti'' and ''mukti'', is a term in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, enlightenment, liberation, and release. In its soteriology, ...
. While the text extols the virtue of non-violence, it also dedicates many of 700 ''poruḷ'' couplets to various aspects of statecraft and warfare in a manner similar to the Hindu text ''Arthasastra''. An army has a duty to kill in battle, and a king must execute criminals for justice. His mentioning of God
Vishnu
Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism.
Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" within t ...
in couplets 610 and 1103 and
Goddess Lakshmi
Lakshmi (; , sometimes spelled Laxmi, ), also known as Shri (, ), is one of the principal goddesses in Hinduism. She is the goddess of wealth, fortune, power, beauty, fertility and prosperity, and associated with '' Maya'' ("Illusion"). A ...
in couplets 167, 408, 519, 565, 568, 616, and 617 suggests the
Vaishnavite
Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...
beliefs of Valluvar. P. R. Natarajan lists at least 24 different usage of Hindu origin in 29 different couplets across the Kural text. According to Purnalingam Pillai, who is known for his critique of
Brahminism, a rational analysis of the Kural text suggests that Valluvar was a Hindu, and not a Jain.
Matthieu Ricard
Matthieu Ricard (; ne, माथ्यु रिका, born 15 February 1946) is a French writer, photographer, translator and Buddhist monk who resides at Shechen Tennyi Dargyeling Monastery in Nepal.
Matthieu Ricard grew up among the perso ...
believes Valluvar belonged to the Shaivite tradition of South India. According to Thomas Manninezhath – a theology scholar who grew up in South India, the ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' is believed by the natives to reflect
Advaita Vedanta
''Advaita Vedanta'' (; sa, अद्वैत वेदान्त, ) is a Hinduism, Hindu sādhanā, a path of spiritual discipline and experience, and the oldest extant tradition of the Āstika and nāstika, orthodox Hindu school Ved ...
philosophy and teaches an "Advaitic way of life".
Valluvar is praised by scholars for his innate nature to select the best virtues found in all the known works and present them in a manner that is common and acceptable to everyone. The author is remembered and cherished for his universal secular values, and his treatise has been called ''Ulaga Podhu Marai'' (the universal scripture).
Contents
The Kural is structured into 133 chapters, each containing 10 couplets (or kurals), for a total of 1,330 couplets. All the couplets are in ''
kural venba
The Kural is one of the most important forms of classical Tamil language poetry. It is a very short poetic form being an independent couplet complete in 2 lines, the first line consisting of 4 words and the second line consisting of 3. As one o ...
''
metre
The metre (British spelling) or meter (American spelling; see spelling differences) (from the French unit , from the Greek noun , "measure"), symbol m, is the primary unit of length in the International System of Units (SI), though its pref ...
, and all the 133 chapters have an ethical theme and are grouped into three parts, or "books":
* Book I – ''Aṟam'' ():
Book of Virtue (
Dharma
Dharma (; sa, धर्म, dharma, ; pi, dhamma, italic=yes) is a key concept with multiple meanings in Indian religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and others. Although there is no direct single-word translation for '' ...
), dealing with moral values of an individual and essentials of yoga philosophy (Chapters 1–38)
* Book II – ''Poruḷ'' ():
Book of Polity (
Artha
''Artha'' (; sa, अर्थ; Tamil: ''poruḷ'' / ''பொருள்'') is one of the four aims of human life in Indian philosophy.James Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Rosen Publishing, New York, , pp 55–56 ...
), dealing with socio-economic values, polity, society and administration (Chapters 39–108)
* Book III – ''Inbam'' ():
Book of Love (
Kama
''Kama'' (Sanskrit ) means "desire, wish, longing" in Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, and Sikh literature.Monier Williamsकाम, kāmaMonier-Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary, pp 271, see 3rd column Kama often connotes sensual pleasure, sexual ...
), dealing with psychological values and love (Chapters 109–133)
The book on ''aṟam'' (virtue) contains 380 verses, that of ''poruḷ'' (wealth) has 700 and that of ''inbam'' or ''kāmam'' (love) has 250. Each ''kural'' or couplet contains exactly seven words, known as ''cir''s, with four ''cir''s on the first line and three on the second, following the
kural
The ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' ( ta, திருக்குறள், lit=sacred verses), or shortly the ''Kural'' ( ta, குறள்), is a classic Tamil language text consisting of 1,330 short couplets, or kurals, of seven words each. The tex ...
metre
The metre (British spelling) or meter (American spelling; see spelling differences) (from the French unit , from the Greek noun , "measure"), symbol m, is the primary unit of length in the International System of Units (SI), though its pref ...
. A ''cir'' is a single or a combination of more than one Tamil word. For example, the term ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' is a ''cir'' formed by combining the two words ''tiru'' and ''kuṟaḷ''. The Kural text has a total of 9310 ''cir''s made of 14,000 Tamil words.
Of the 1,330 couplets in the text, 40 couplets relate to god, rain, ascetics, and virtue; 340 on fundamental everyday virtues of an individual; 250 on royalty; 100 on ministers of state; 220 on essential requirements of administration; 130 on social morality, both positive and negative; and 250 on human love and passion.
Along with the
Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita (; sa, श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता, lit=The Song by God, translit=śrīmadbhagavadgītā;), often referred to as the Gita (), is a 700- verse Hindu scripture that is part of the epic ''Mahabharata'' (c ...
, the Kural is one of the earliest systems of Indian
epistemology
Epistemology (; ), or the theory of knowledge, is the branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge. Epistemology is considered a major subfield of philosophy, along with other major subfields such as ethics, logic, and metaphysics.
Episte ...
and
metaphysics
Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that studies the fundamental nature of reality, the first principles of being, identity and change, space and time, causality, necessity, and possibility. It includes questions about the nature of conscio ...
. The work largely reflects the first three of the four ancient Indian aims in life, known as ''
purushaarthas'', viz., virtue (''dharma''), wealth (''artha'') and love (''kama''). The fourth aim, namely, salvation (''moksha'') has been omitted from being dealt with as the fourth book since it does not lend itself to didactic treatment, but is implicit in the last five chapters of Book I. The components of ''aṟam'', ''poruḷ'' and ''inbam'' encompasses both the ''agam'' and ''puram'' genres of the Tamil literary tradition as explained in the Tolkappiyam. According to Sharma, ''dharma'' (''aṟam'') refers to ethical values for the holistic pursuit of life, ''artha'' (''poruḷ'') refers to wealth obtained in ethical manner guided by ''dharma'', and ''kāma'' (''Inbam'') refers to pleasure and fulfilment of one's desires, also guided by ''dharma''. The corresponding goals of ''poruḷ'' and ''inbam'' are desirable, yet both need to be regulated by ''aṟam'', according to J. Arunadevi. According to Indian philosophical tradition, one must remain unattached to wealth and possessions, which can either be transcended or sought with detachment and awareness, and pleasure needs to be fulfilled consciously and without harming anyone. The Indian tradition also holds that there exists an inherent tension between ''artha'' and ''kama''. Thus, wealth and pleasure must be pursued with an "action with renunciation" (
Nishkama Karma
''Nishkama Karma'' (Sanskrit IAST : ''Niṣkāmakarma''), self-less or desireless action, is an action performed without any expectation of fruits or results, and the central tenet of Karma Yoga path to liberation. Its modern advocates press upon ...
), that is, one must act without craving in order to resolve this tension.
The content of ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'', according to Zvelebil:
;Book I—Book of Virtue (38 chapters)
* Chapter 1. In Praise of God ( ''kaṭavuḷ vāḻttu''): Couplets 1–10
* Chapter 2. The Excellence of Rain ( ''vāṉ ciṟappu''): 11–20
* Chapter 3. The Greatness of Those Who Have Renounced ( ''nīttār perumai''): 21–30
* Chapter 4. Assertion of the strength of Virtue ( ''aṟaṉ valiyuṟuttal''): 31–40
* Chapter 5. Domestic Life ( ''ilvāḻkkai''): 41–50
* Chapter 6. The Goodness of Spouse ( ''vāḻkkaittuṇai nalam''): 51–60
* Chapter 7. The Obtaining of Sons ( ''putalvaraip peṟutal''): 61–70
* Chapter 8. The Possession of Affection ( ''aṉpuṭaimai''): 71–80
* Chapter 9. Hospitality ( ''viruntōmpal''): 81–90
* Chapter 10. Kindly Speech ( ''iṉiyavai kūṟal''): 91–100
* Chapter 11. Gratitude ( ''ceynnaṉṟi aṟital''): 101–110
* Chapter 12. Impartiality ( ''naṭuvu nilaimai''): 111–120
* Chapter 13. Self-control ( ''aṭakkamuṭaimai''): 121–130
* Chapter 14. Decorous Conduct ( ''oḻukkamuṭaimai''): 131–140
* Chapter 15. Not Coveting Another's Wife ( ''piṟaṉil viḻaiyāmai''): 141–150
* Chapter 16. Forbearance ( ''poṟaiyuṭaimai''): 151–160
* Chapter 17. Absence of Envy ( ''aḻukkāṟāmai''): 161–170
* Chapter 18. Not Coveting ( ''veḵkāmai''): 171–180
* Chapter 19. Not Speaking Evil of the Absent ( ''puṟaṅkūṟāmai''): 181–190
* Chapter 20. Not Speaking Senseless Words ( ''payaṉila collāmai''): 191–200
* Chapter 21. Dread of Evil Deeds ( ''tīviṉaiyaccam''): 201–210
* Chapter 22. Recognition of Duty ( ''oppuravaṟital''): 211–220
* Chapter 23. Giving ( ''īkai''): 221–230
* Chapter 24. Fame ( ''pukaḻ''): 231–240
* Chapter 25. Possession of Benevolence ( ''aruḷuṭaimai''): 241–250
* Chapter 26. Abstinence from Flesh (Vegetarianism) ( ''pulāṉmaṟuttal''): 251–260
* Chapter 27. Penance ( ''tavam''): 261–270
* Chapter 28. Inconsistent Conduct ( ''kūṭāvoḻukkam''): 271–280
* Chapter 29. Absence of Fraud ( ''kaḷḷāmai''): 281–290
* Chapter 30. Truthfulness ( ''vāymai''): 291–300
* Chapter 31. Refraining from Anger ( ''vekuḷāmai''): 301–310
* Chapter 32. Inflicting No Pain ( ''iṉṉāceyyāmai''): 311–320
* Chapter 33. Not Killing ( ''kollāmai''): 321–330
* Chapter 34. Instability of Earthly Things ( ''nilaiyāmai''): 331–340
* Chapter 35. Renunciation ( ''tuṟavu''): 341–350
* Chapter 36. Perception of the Truth ( ''meyyuṇartal''): 351–360
* Chapter 37. Rooting Out Desire ( ''avāvaṟuttal''): 361–370
* Chapter 38. Past Deeds ( ''ūḻ'' = ''karma''): 371–380
;Book II—Book of Polity (70 chapters)
* Chapter 39. The Greatness of a King ( ''iṟaimāṭci''): 381–390
* Chapter 40. Learning ( ''kalvi''): 391–400
* Chapter 41. Ignorance ( ''kallāmai''): 401–410
* Chapter 42. Learning through Listening ( ''kēḷvi''): 411–420
* Chapter 43. Possession of Knowledge ( ''aṟivuṭaimai''): 421–430
* Chapter 44. The Correction of Faults ( ''kuṟṟaṅkaṭital''): 431–440
* Chapter 45. Seeking the Help of the Great ( ''periyārait tuṇaikkōṭal''): 441–450
* Chapter 46. Avoiding Mean Associations ( ''ciṟṟiṉañcērāmai''): 451–460
* Chapter 47. Acting after Right Consideration ( ''terintuceyalvakai''): 461–470
* Chapter 48. Recognition of Power ( ''valiyaṟital''): 471–480
* Chapter 49. Recognition of Opportunity ( ''kālamaṟital''): 481–490
* Chapter 50. Recognition of Place ( ''iṭaṉaṟital''): 491–500
* Chapter 51. Selection and Confidence ( ''terintuteḷital''): 501–510
* Chapter 52. Selection and Employment ( ''terintuviṉaiyāṭal''): 511–520
* Chapter 53. Cherishing One's Kin ( ''cuṟṟantaḻāl''): 521–530
* Chapter 54. Unforgetfulness ( ''poccāvāmai''): 531–540
* Chapter 55. The Right Sceptre ( ''ceṅkōṉmai''): 541–550
* Chapter 56. The Cruel Sceptre ( ''koṭuṅkōṉmai''): 551–560
* Chapter 57. Absence of Tyranny ( ''veruvantaceyyāmai''): 561–570
* Chapter 58. Benignity ( ''kaṇṇōṭṭam''): 571–580
* Chapter 59. Spies ( ''oṟṟāṭal''): 581–590
* Chapter 60. Energy ( ''ūkkamuṭaimai''): 591–600
* Chapter 61. Unsluggishness ( ''maṭiyiṉmai''): 601–610
* Chapter 62. Manly Effort ( ''āḷviṉaiyuṭaimai''): 611–620
* Chapter 63. Not Despairing in Trouble ( ''iṭukkaṇ aḻiyāmai''): 621–630
* Chapter 64. Ministry ( ''amaiccu''): 631–640
* Chapter 65. Power in Speech ( ''colvaṉmai''): 641–650
* Chapter 66. Purity in Action ( ''viṉaittūymai''): 651–660
* Chapter 67. Firmness in Deeds ( ''viṉaittiṭpam''): 661–670
* Chapter 68. Method of Action ( ''viṉaiceyalvakai''): 671–680
* Chapter 69. The Envoy ( ''tūtu''): 681–690
* Chapter 70. Conduct in the Presence of King ( ''maṉṉaraic cērntoḻutal''): 691–700
* Chapter 71. Knowledge of Signs ( ''kuṟippaṟital''): 701–710
* Chapter 72. Knowledge in the Council Chamber ( ''avaiyaṟital''): 711–720
* Chapter 73. Not to Fear the Council ( ''avaiyañcāmai''): 721–730
* Chapter 74. The Land ( ''nāṭu''): 731–740
* Chapter 75. The Fort ( ''araṇ''): 741–750
* Chapter 76. Ways of Accumulating Wealth ( ''poruḷceyalvakai''): 751–760
* Chapter 77. Greatness of the Army ( ''paṭaimāṭci''): 761–770
* Chapter 78. Military Spirit ( ''paṭaiccerukku''): 771–780
* Chapter 79. Friendship ( ''naṭpu''): 781–790
* Chapter 80. Scrutiny of Friendships ( ''naṭpārāytal''): 791–800
* Chapter 81. Familiarity ( ''paḻaimai''): 801–810
* Chapter 82. Evil Friendship ( ''tī naṭpu''): 811–820
* Chapter 83. Faithless Friendship ( ''kūṭānaṭpu''): 821–830
* Chapter 84. Folly ( ''pētaimai''): 831–840
* Chapter 85. Ignorance ( ''pullaṟivāṇmai''): 841–850
* Chapter 86. Hostility ( ''ikal''): 851–860
* Chapter 87. The Excellence of Hate ( ''pakaimāṭci''): 861–870
* Chapter 88. Skill in the Conduct of Quarrels ( ''pakaittiṟanterital''): 871–880
* Chapter 89. Secret Enmity ( ''uṭpakai''): 881–890
* Chapter 90. Not Offending the Great ( ''periyāraip piḻaiyāmai''): 891–900
* Chapter 91. Being Led by Women ( ''peṇvaḻiccēṟal''): 901–910
* Chapter 92. Wanton Women ( ''varaiviṉmakaḷir''): 911–920
* Chapter 93. Abstinence from Liquor ( ''kaḷḷuṇṇāmai''): 921–930
* Chapter 94. Gambling ( ''cūtu''): 931–940
* Chapter 95. Medicine ( ''maruntu''): 941–950
* Chapter 96. Nobility ( ''kuṭimai''): 951–960
* Chapter 97. Honour ( ''māṉam''): 961–970
* Chapter 98. Greatness (''perumai''): 971–980
* Chapter 99. Perfect Excellence ( ''cāṉṟāṇmai''): 981–990
* Chapter 100. Courtesy ( ''paṇpuṭaimai''): 991–1000
* Chapter 101. Useless Wealth ( ''naṉṟiyilcelvam''): 1001–1010
* Chapter 102. Shame ( ''nāṇuṭaimai''): 1011–1020
* Chapter 103. On Raising the Family ( ''kuṭiceyalvakai''): 1021–1030
* Chapter 104. Agriculture ( ''uḻavu''): 1031–1040
* Chapter 105. Poverty ( ''nalkuravu''): 1041–1050
* Chapter 106. Mendicancy (''iravu''): 1051–1060
* Chapter 107. The Dread of Mendicancy ( ''iravaccam''): 1061–1070
* Chapter 108. Vileness ( ''kayamai''): 1071–1080
;Book III—Book of Love (25 chapters)
* Chapter 109. Mental Disturbance Caused by the Lady's Beauty ( ''takaiyaṇaṅkuṟuttal''): 1081–1090
* Chapter 110. Recognizing the Signs (''kuṟippaṟital''): 1091–1100
* Chapter 111. Rejoicing in the Sexual Union ( ''puṇarccimakiḻtal''): 1101–1110
* Chapter 112. Praising Her Beauty ( ''nalampuṉainturaittal''): 1111–1120
* Chapter 113. Declaration of Love's Excellence ( ''kātaṟciṟappuraittal''): 1121–1130
* Chapter 114. The Abandonment of Reserve ( ''nāṇuttuṟavuraittal''): 1131–1140
* Chapter 115. Rumour ( ''alaraṟivuṟuttal''): 1141–1150
* Chapter 116. Separation is Unendurable ( ''pirivāṟṟāmai''): 1151–1160
* Chapter 117. Complaining of Absence (''paṭarmelintiraṅkal''): 1161–1170
* Chapter 118. Eyes Concerned with Grief ( ''kaṇvituppaḻital''): 1171–1180
* Chapter 119. Grief's Pallor ( ''pacappaṟuparuvaral''): 1181–1190
* Chapter 120. The Solitary Anguish ( ''taṉippaṭarmikuti''): 1191–1200
* Chapter 121. Sad Memories ( ''niṉaintavarpulampal''): 1201–1210
* Chapter 122. Visions of Night ( ''kaṉavunilaiyuraittal''): 1211–1220
* Chapter 123. Lamentations at Evening ( ''poḻutukaṇṭiraṅkal''): 1221–1230
* Chapter 124. Wasting Away ( ''uṟuppunalaṉaḻital''): 1231–1240
* Chapter 125. Soliloquies ( ''neñcoṭukiḷattal''): 1241–1250
* Chapter 126. Reserve Destroyed ( ''niṟaiyaḻital''): 1251–1260
* Chapter 127. Longing for the Return ( ''avarvayiṉvitumpal''): 1261–1270
* Chapter 128. Reading of the Signs ( ''kuṟippaṟivuṟuttal''): 1271–1280
* Chapter 129. Desire for Reunion ( ''puṇarccivitumpal''): 1281–1290
* Chapter 130. Arguing with One's Heart ( ''neñcoṭupulattal''): 1291–1300
* Chapter 131. Lover's Quarrel ( ''pulavi''): 1301–1310
* Chapter 132. Petty Jealousies ( ''pulavi nuṇukkam''): 1311–1320
* Chapter 133. Pleasures of Temporary Variance ( ''ūṭaluvakai''): 1321–1330
Structure
The Kural text is the work of a single author because it has a consistent "language, formal structure and content-structure", states Zvelebil. Neither is the Kural an anthology nor is there any later additions to the text. The division into three parts (''muppāl'') is probably the author's work. However, the subdivisions beyond these three, known as ''iyal''s, as found in some surviving manuscripts and commentaries, are likely later additions because there are variations between these subtitles found in manuscripts and those in historical commentaries.
![ValluvarStatue_SanctuaryAtTiruvallur](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/ValluvarStatue_SanctuaryAtTiruvallur.jpg)
Starting from the medieval era, commentators have multifariously divided the Kural text into different ''iyal'' sub-divisions, grouping the Kural chapters diversely under them. The idea of subdividing the Tirukkural into ''iyal'' sub-divisions was first put forth by a
Tiruvalluva Maalai
Tiruvalluva Maalai (Tamil: திருவள்ளுவ மாலை), literally 'Garland of Valluvar', is an anthology of ancient Tamil paeans containing fifty-five verses each attributed to different poets praising the ancient work of the ...
verse attributed to
Nanpalur Sirumedhaviyar. The medieval commentators have variously grouped the chapters of Book I into three and four ''iyal''s, grouping the original chapters diversely under these divisions and thus changing the order of the chapters widely; while Parimelalhagar divided it into three ''iyal''s, others divided it into four, with some 20th-century commentators going up to six. Book II has been variously subdivided between three and six ''iyal''s. The chapters of Book III have been variously grouped between two and five ''iyal''s. For example, the following subdivisions or ''iyal''s are found in
Parimelalhagar
Parimelalhagar ( ta, பரிமேலழகர்) (), sometimes spelled Parimelazhagar, born Vanduvarai Perumal, was a Tamil poet and scholar known for his commentary on the '' Thirukkural''. He was the last among the canon of ten medieval ...
's version, which greatly varies from that of
Manakkudavar
Manakkudavar (c. 10th century CE) was a Tamil language, Tamil scholar and commentator known for his Literary criticism, commentary on the Tirukkural. His is the earliest of the available commentaries on the Kural text, and hence considered to bea ...
's:
* Chapters 1–4: Introduction
* Chapters 5–24: Domestic virtue
* Chapters 25–38: Ascetic virtue
* Chapters 39–63: Royalty, the qualities of the leader of men
* Chapters 64–73: The subject and the ruler
* Chapters 74–96: Essential parts of state, shrewdness in public life
* Chapters 97–108: Reaching perfection in social life
* Chapters 109–115: Concealed love
* Chapters 116–133: Wedded love
Modern scholars and publishers chiefly follow Parimelalhagar's model for couplet numbering, chapter ordering, and grouping the chapters into ''iyal''s.
Such subdivisions are likely later additions, but the couplets themselves have been preserved in the original form and there is no evidence of later revisions or insertions into the couplets. Thus, in spite of these later subdivisions by the medieval commentators, both the domestic and ascetic virtues in Book I are addressed to the householder or commoner. As
Yu Hsi
Yu Hsi (born Hung Ching Yu) (born March 16, 1951) is a Taiwanese Tamil poet and scholar, who has translated the Tirukkural and the poems of Subramaniya Bharathi and poet Bharathidasan in Mandarin. He is the founder president of the Tamil Sangam ...
puts it, "Valluvar speaks to the duties of the commoner acting in different capacities as son, father, husband, friend, citizen, and so forth." According to A. Gopalakrishnan, ascetic virtues in the Kural does not mean renunciation of household life or pursuing of the conventional ascetic life, but only refers to giving up immoderate desires and having self-control that is expected of every individual. According to Joanne Punzo Waghorne, professor of religion and South Asian studies at the
Syracuse University
Syracuse University (informally 'Cuse or SU) is a Private university, private research university in Syracuse, New York. Established in 1870 with roots in the Methodist Episcopal Church, the university has been nonsectarian since 1920. Locate ...
, the Kural is "a homily on righteous living for the householder."
Like the three-part division, and unlike the ''iyal'' subdivisions, the grouping of the couplets into chapters is the author's. Every topic that Valluvar handles in his work are presented in ten couplets forming a chapter, and the chapter is usually named using a keyword found in the couplets in it. Exceptions to this convention are found in all the three books of the Kural text as in Chapter 1 in the Book of Aram, Chapter 78 in the Book of Porul, and Chapter 117 in the Book of Inbam, where the words used in title of the chapters are not found anywhere in the chapter's couplets. Here again, the titles of all the chapters of the Kural text are given by Valluvar himself. According to S. N. Kandasamy, the naming of the first chapter of the Kural text is in accord with the convention used in the ''Tolkappiyam''.
According to Zvelebil, the content of the Kural text is "undoubtedly patterned" and "very carefully structured." There are no structural gaps in the text, with every couplet indispensable for the structured whole. There are two distinct meanings for every couplet, namely, a structural one and a proverbial one. In their isolated form, that is, when removed from the context of the 10-couplet chapter, the couplets lose their structural meaning but retain the "wise saying, moral maxim" sense. In isolation, a couplet is "a perfect form, possessing, in varying degree, the prosodic and rhetoric qualities of gnomic poetry." Within the chapter-structure, the couplets acquire their structural meaning and reveal the more complete teaching of the author. This, Zvelebil states, is the higher pattern in the Kural text, and finally, in relation to the entire work, they acquire perfection in the totality of their structure. In terms of structural flow, the text journeys the reader from "the imperfect, incomplete" state of man implicit in the early chapters to the "physically, morally, intellectually and emotionally perfect" state of man living as a husband and citizen, states Zvelebil. In poetic terms, it fuses verse and aphoristic form in diction in a "pithy, vigorous, forceful and terse" manner. It is an ethics text that expounds a universal, moral and practical approach to life. Throughout the work, Valluvar is more considerate about the substance than the linguistic appeal of his writing.
Substance
The Kural text is marked by
pragmatic idealism
Neopragmatism, sometimes called post-Deweyan pragmatism, linguistic pragmatism, or analytic pragmatism, is the philosophical tradition that infers that the meaning of words is a result of how they are used, rather than the objects they represent.
...
, focused on "man in the totality of his relationships". Despite being a classic, the work has little scope for any poetic excellence. According to Zvelebil, the text does not feature "true and great poetry" throughout the work, except, notably, in the
third book, which deals with love and pleasure. This emphasis on substance rather than poetry suggests that Valluvar's main aim was not to produce a work of art, but rather an instructive text focused on wisdom, justice, and ethics.
The Kural text begins with an invocation of God and then praises the rain for being the vitalizer of all life forms on earth. It proceeds to describe the qualities of a righteous person, before concluding the introduction by emphasizing the value of ''aṟam'' or virtue. It continues to treat ''aṟam'' in all walks of life, supplementing it with a chapter on predestination. Valluvar extols rain next only to God for it provides food and serves as the basis of a stable economic life by aiding in agriculture, which Valluvar asserts as the most important economic activity later in Book II of the Kural text.
The three books of the Kural base ''aṟam'' or
dharma
Dharma (; sa, धर्म, dharma, ; pi, dhamma, italic=yes) is a key concept with multiple meanings in Indian religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and others. Although there is no direct single-word translation for '' ...
(virtue) as its cornerstone, which resulted in the Kural being referred to simply as ''Aṟam''. Contrary to what other contemporary works say, Valluvar holds that ''aṟam'' is common for all, irrespective of whether the person is a bearer of
palanquin
The litter is a class of wheelless vehicles, a type of human-powered transport, for the transport of people. Smaller litters may take the form of open chairs or beds carried by two or more carriers, some being enclosed for protection from the el ...
or the rider in it. According to
Albert Schweitzer
Ludwig Philipp Albert Schweitzer (; 14 January 1875 – 4 September 1965) was an Alsatian-German/French polymath. He was a theologian, organist, musicologist, writer, humanitarian, philosopher, and physician. A Lutheran minister, Schweit ...
, the idea that good must be done for its own sake comes from various couplets across the Kural text. The text is a comprehensive pragmatic work that presents philosophy in the first part, political science in the second and poetics in the third. Of the three books of the Kural literature, the second one on politics and kingdom (''poruḷ'') is about twice the size of the first, and three times that of the third. In the 700 couplets on ''poruḷ'' (53 percent of the text), Valluvar mostly discusses statecraft and warfare. While other Sangam texts approved of, and even glorified, the four immoral deeds of
meat-eating,
alcohol consumption
An alcoholic beverage (also called an alcoholic drink, adult beverage, or a drink) is a drink that contains ethanol, a type of alcohol that acts as a drug and is produced by fermentation of grains, fruits, or other sources of sugar. The cons ...
,
polygamy
Crimes
Polygamy (from Late Greek (') "state of marriage to many spouses") is the practice of marrying multiple spouses. When a man is married to more than one wife at the same time, sociologists call this polygyny. When a woman is married ...
, and
prostitution
Prostitution is the business or practice of engaging in Sex work, sexual activity in exchange for payment. The definition of "sexual activity" varies, and is often defined as an activity requiring physical contact (e.g., sexual intercourse, n ...
, the Kural literature strongly condemns these as crimes. In fact, it was the Kural text that condemned these as crimes for the first time in the history of the
Tamil land.
The Kural is based on the doctrine of ''ahimsa''. According to Schweitzer, the Kural "stands for the commandment not to kill and not to damage." Accordingly, Valluvar dictates the householder to renounce the eating of meat "in order that he may become a man of grace." While the
Bible
The Bible (from Koine Greek , , 'the books') is a collection of religious texts or scriptures that are held to be sacred in Christianity, Judaism, Samaritanism, and many other religions. The Bible is an anthologya compilation of texts of a ...
and other
Abrahamic
The Abrahamic religions are a group of religions centered around worship of the God of Abraham. Abraham, a Hebrew patriarch, is extensively mentioned throughout Abrahamic religious scriptures such as the Bible and the Quran.
Jewish tradition ...
texts condemns only the taking away of human life, the Kural unequivocally and exclusively condemns the "literal taking away of life," regardless of whether it is human or animal. The greatest of personal virtues according to the Kural text is
non-killing, followed by
veracity
Veracity may refer to:
* ''Veracity'' (album), a 2008 album by Evacuate Chicago
* Veracity (ethics), an ethical principle
* ''Veracity'' (novel), a 2010 novel by Laura Bynum
* Veracity, an automobile from the early 1900s built by the Smith Autom ...
, and the two greatest sins that Valluvar feels very strongly are ingratitude and
meat-eating. The Kural differs from every other work on morality in that it follows ethics, surprisingly a divine one, even in its Book of Love. In the words of
Gopalkrishna Gandhi
Gopalkrishna Devadas Gandhi (born 22 April 1945) is a former administrator and diplomat who served as the 22nd Governor of West Bengal serving from 2004 to 2009. He is the grandson of Mahatma Gandhi and C. Rajagopalachari (Rajaji). As a former ...
, Valluvar maintains his views on personal morality even in the Book of Love, where one can normally expect greater poetic leniency, by describing the hero as "a one-woman man" without concubines. In a social and political context, the Kural text glorifies valour and victory during war and recommends a death sentence for the wicked only as a means of justice.
According to Kaushik Roy, the Kural text in substance is a classic on realism and pragmatism, and it is not a mystic, purely philosophical document. Valluvar presents his theory of state using six elements: army (''patai''), subjects (''kuti''), treasure (''kul''), ministers (''amaiccu''), allies (''natpu''), and forts (''aran''). Valluvar also recommends forts and other infrastructure, supplies and food storage in preparation for siege. A king and his army must always be ready for war, and should launch a violent offensive, at the right place and right time, when the situation so demands and particularly against morally weak and corrupt kingdoms. A good and strong kingdom must be protected with forts made of thick, high and impenetrable walls. The text recommends a hierarchical military organization staffed with fearless soldiers who are willing to die in war, drawing from the Hindu concepts of non-mystic realism and readiness for war.
The Kural text does not recommend democracy; rather it accepts a royalty with ministers bound to a code of ethics and a system of justice. The king in the text, states K. V. Nagarajan, is assigned the "role of producing, acquiring, conserving, and dispensing wealth". The king's duty is to provide a just rule, be impartial and have courage in protecting his subjects and in meting out justice and punishment. The text supports death penalty for the wicked in the book of ''poruḷ'', but does so only after emphasizing non-killing as every individual's personal virtue in the book of ''aṟam''. The Kural cautions against tyranny, appeasement and oppression, with the suggestion that such royal behavior causes natural disasters, depletes the state's wealth and ultimately results in the loss of power and prosperity.
Valluvar remained a generalist rather than a specialist in any particular field. He never indulged in specifics but always stressed on the basic principles of morality. This can be seen across the Kural text: while Valluvar talks about worshiping God, he refrains from mentioning the way of worshiping; he refers to God as an "ultimate reality" without calling him by any name; he talks about land, village, country, kingdom, and king but never refers them by any name; though he mentions about the value of reading and reciting scriptures, he never names them; he talks about the values of charity without laying down the rules for it; though he repeatedly emphasizes about the importance of learning, he never says what is to be learnt; he recommends taxation in governance but does not suggesting any proportion of collection.
Similes and pseudo-contradictions
![Tamil Wisdom, by Edward Jewitt Robinson, 1873](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Tamil_Wisdom%2C_by_Edward_Jewitt_Robinson%2C_1873.jpg)
The author seldom shows any concern as to what
similes
A simile () is a figure of speech that directly ''compares'' two things. Similes differ from other metaphors by highlighting the similarities between two things using comparison words such as "like", "as", "so", or "than", while other metaphors cr ...
and
superlatives
Comparison is a feature in the morphology or syntax of some languages whereby adjectives and adverbs are inflected to indicate the relative degree of the property they define exhibited by the word or phrase they modify or describe. In languages ...
he used earlier while writing later chapters, purposely allowing for some repetitions and apparent contradictions in ideas one can find in the Kural text. Despite knowing its seemingly contradictory nature from a purist point of view, Valluvar employs this method to emphasise the importance of the given code of ethic. Following are some of the instances where Valluvar employs pseudo-contradictions to expound the virtues.
* While in Chapter 93 Valluvar writes on the evils of intoxication, in Chapter 109 he uses the same to show the sweetness of love by saying love is sweeter than wine.
* To the question "What is wealth of all wealth?" Valluvar points to two different things, namely, grace (kural 241) and hearing (kural 411).
* In regard to the virtues one should follow dearly even at the expense of other virtues, Valluvar points to veracity (kural 297), not coveting another's wife (kural 150), and not being called a slanderer (kural 181). In essence, however, in Chapter 33 he crowns non-killing as the foremost of all virtues, pushing even the virtue of veracity to the second place (kural 323).
* Whereas he says that one can eject what is natural or inborn in him (kural 376), he indicates that one can overcome the inherent natural flaws by getting rid of laziness (kural 609).
* While in Chapter 7 he asserts that the greatest gain men can obtain is by their learned children (kural 61), in Chapter 13 he says that it is that which is obtained by self-control (kural 122).
The ethical connections between these verses are widely elucidated ever since the medieval commentaries. For example, Parimelalhagar elucidates the ethical connections between couplets 380 and 620, 481 and 1028, 373 and 396, and 383 and 672 in his commentary.
Commentaries and translations
Commentaries
![Tirukkural manuscript](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Tirukkural_manuscript.jpg)
The Kural is one of the most reviewed of all works in
Tamil literature
Tamil literature has a rich and long literary tradition spanning more than two thousand years. The oldest extant works show signs of maturity indicating an even longer period of evolution. Contributors to the Tamil literature are mainly from T ...
, and almost every notable scholar of Tamil has written
exegesis
Exegesis ( ; from the Ancient Greek, Greek , from , "to lead out") is a critical explanation or interpretation (logic), interpretation of a text. The term is traditionally applied to the interpretation of Bible, Biblical works. In modern usage, ...
or commentaries (explanation in prose or verse), known in Tamil as ''urai'', on it. Some of the Tamil literature that was composed after the Kural quote or borrow its couplets in their own texts. According to Aravindan, these texts may be considered as the early commentaries to the Kural text.
Dedicated commentaries on the Kural text began to appear about and after the 10th century CE. There were at least ten medieval commentaries of which only six have survived into the modern era. The
ten medieval commentators
The Ten Medieval Commentators (Tamil language, Tamil: உரையாசிரியர்கள் பதின்மர்) were a canonical group of Tamil language, Tamil scholars whose commentaries on the Ancient Indian philosophy, ancient Ind ...
include
Manakkudavar
Manakkudavar (c. 10th century CE) was a Tamil language, Tamil scholar and commentator known for his Literary criticism, commentary on the Tirukkural. His is the earliest of the available commentaries on the Kural text, and hence considered to bea ...
,
Dharumar
Dharumar () was a Tamil poet, scholar, and commentator known for his commentary on the ''Thirukkural''. He was among the canon of Ten Medieval Commentators of the Kural text most highly esteemed by modern scholars. His work, however, has been l ...
,
Dhamatthar
Dhamatthar ( 11th century CE) was a Tamil poet, scholar, and commentator known for his commentary on the ''Thirukkural''. He was among the canon of ten medieval commentators of the Kural text most highly esteemed by modern scholars. His work, ho ...
,
Nacchar
Nacchar (), also known as Nakkar, was a Tamil language, Tamil poet, scholar, and commentator known for his Literary criticism, commentary on the ''Thirukkural''. He was among the canon of Ten Medieval Commentators, ten medieval commentators of th ...
,
Paridhi
Paridhi (c. 11th century CE), also referred to as Paridhiyaar, was a Tamil literary commentator known for his commentary on the ''Thirukkural''. He was among the canon of ten medieval commentators of the Kural text most highly esteemed by schola ...
yar,
Thirumalaiyar
Thirumalaiyar () was a Tamil poet, scholar, and commentator known for his commentary on the ''Thirukkural''. He was among the canon of Ten Medieval Commentators of the Kural text most highly esteemed by modern scholars. His work, however, has bee ...
,
Mallar,
Pari Perumal
Pari Perumal (c. 11th century CE), also known as Kaviperumal, was a Tamil scholar and commentator known for his commentary on the ''Thirukkural''. He was among the canon of Ten Medieval Commentators of the Kural text most highly esteemed by schol ...
,
Kaalingar
Kaalingar ( ta, காலிங்கர்) (c. 12th century CE), also known as Kalingarayar, was a Tamil scholar and commentator known for his commentary on the ''Thirukkural''. He was among the canon of Ten Medieval Commentators of the Kural te ...
, and
Parimelalhagar
Parimelalhagar ( ta, பரிமேலழகர்) (), sometimes spelled Parimelazhagar, born Vanduvarai Perumal, was a Tamil poet and scholar known for his commentary on the '' Thirukkural''. He was the last among the canon of ten medieval ...
, all of whom lived between the 10th and the 13th centuries CE. Of these, only the works of Manakkudavar, Paridhi, Kaalingar, Pari Perumal, and Parimelalhagar are available today. The works of Dharumar, Dhaamatthar, and Nacchar are only partially available. The commentaries by Thirumalaiyar and Mallar are lost completely. The best known among these are the commentaries by Parimelalhagar, Kaalingar, and Manakkudavar. Among the ten medieval commentaries, scholars have found spelling, homophonic, and other minor textual variations in a total of 900 couplets, including 217 couplets in Book I, 487 couplets in Book II, and 196 couplets in Book III.
The best known and influential historic commentary on the Kural text is the ''Parimelalhakiyar virutti''. It was written by
Parimelalhagar
Parimelalhagar ( ta, பரிமேலழகர்) (), sometimes spelled Parimelazhagar, born Vanduvarai Perumal, was a Tamil poet and scholar known for his commentary on the '' Thirukkural''. He was the last among the canon of ten medieval ...
– a
Vaishnava
Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...
Brahmin, likely based in
Kanchipuram
Kanchipuram ('; ) also known as ''Conjeevaram,'' is a city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu in the Tondaimandalam region, from Chennaithe capital of Tamil Nadu. Known as the ''City of Thousand Temples'', Kanchipuram is known for its temple ...
, who lived about or before 1272 CE. Along with the Kural text, this commentary has been widely published and is in itself a Tamil classic. Parimelalhagar's commentary has survived over the centuries in many folk and scholarly versions. A more scholarly version of this commentary was published by Krisnamachariyar in 1965. According to Norman Cutler, Parimelalhagar's commentary interprets and maneuvers the Kural text within his own context, grounded in the concepts and theological premises of Hinduism. His commentary closely follows the Kural's teachings, while reflecting both the cultural values and textual values of the 13th- and 14th-century Tamil Nadu. Valluvar's text can be interpreted and maneuvered in other ways, states Cutler.
Besides the ten medieval commentaries, there are at least three more commentaries written by unknown medieval authors. One of them was published under the title "Palhaiya Urai" (meaning ancient commentary), while the second one was based on Paridhiyar's commentary. The third one was published in 1991 under the title "Jaina Urai" (meaning Jaina commentary) by
Saraswathi Mahal Library
Saraswathi Mahal Library, also called Thanjavur Maharaja Serfoji's Saraswathi Mahal Library is a library located in Thanjavur (Tanjore), Tamil Nadu, India. It is one of the oldest libraries in Asia established during 16th century by Nayakar kin ...
in
Thanjavur
Thanjavur (), also Tanjore, Pletcher 2010, p. 195 is a city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Thanjavur is the 11th biggest city in Tamil Nadu. Thanjavur is an important center of South Indian religion, art, and architecture. Most of the Gr ...
. Following these medieval commentaries, there are at least 21
venpa
Venpa or Venba ('' வெண்பா'' in Tamil) is a form of classical Tamil poetry. Classical Tamil poetry has been classified based upon the rules of metric prosody. Such rules form a context-free grammar. Every venba consists of between two ...
commentaries to the Kural, including Somesar Mudumoli Venba, Murugesar Muduneri Venba, Sivasiva Venba, Irangesa Venba, Vadamalai Venba, Dhinakara Venba, and Jinendra Venba, all of which are considered commentaries in verse form. The 16th-century commentary by
Thirumeni Rathna Kavirayar, and the 19th-century commentary by
Ramanuja Kavirayar
Ramanuja Kavirayar (1780, Ramanathapuram – 1853, Madras) was a Tamil savant and poet. Living in Madras, he dominated the world of Tamil letters and had several eminent Tamil scholars as his students.
Ramanuja Kavirayar pioneered the work of ...
, are some of the well-known scholarly works before the 20th century.
Several modern commentaries started appearing in the 19th and 20th centuries. Of these, the commentaries by
Kaviraja Pandithar
Jagavira Pandiyanar (10 March 1886–17 June 1967), commonly known as Kaviraja Pandithar (Tamil language, Tamil: கவிராச பண்டிதர் செகவீர பாண்டியனார்), was a 20th-century Indian scholar o ...
and
U. V. Swaminatha Iyer
Uttamadhanapuram Venkatasubbaiyer Swaminatha Iyer (19 February 1855 – 28 April 1942) was a Tamil scholar and researcher who was instrumental in bringing many long-forgotten works of classical Tamil literature to light. His singular efforts ...
are considered classic by modern scholars. Some of the commentaries of the 20th century include those by
K. Vadivelu Chettiar, Krishnampet K. Kuppusamy Mudaliar,
Iyothee Thass,
V. O. Chidambaram Pillai
''V.'' is the debut novel of Thomas Pynchon, published in 1963. It describes the exploits of a discharged U.S. Navy sailor named Benny Profane, his reconnection in New York with a group of pseudo-bohemian artists and hangers-on known as the Who ...
,
Thiru Vi Ka
Thiruvarur Viruttachala Kalyanasundaram (Thiruvarur Virudhachala Kalyanasundaram : 26 August 1883 – 17 September 1953), better known by his Tamil initials Thiru. Vi. Ka, was a Tamil scholar, essayist and activist. The analytical depth ...
,
Bharathidasan
Bharathidasan Birth name: K. Subburathinam, the person's given name: Subburathinam, father's given name: Kanagasabai. (K. Subburathinam by the prevalent patronymic initials as prefix naming system in Tamil Nadu and it is Subburathinam Kanag ...
,
M. Varadarajan
Also known as Mu. Va. and Varatharasanar, was a Tamil scholar, author and academic from Tamil Nadu, India.
He was born in an aristocratic Tuluva Vellala family near Vellore. He was a prolific writer whose published works include 13 novels, 6 pla ...
,
Namakkal Kavignar,
Thirukkuralar V. Munusamy
V. Munusamy (26 September 1913 – 4 January 1994), popularly known as Tirukkuralar Munusamy, was a Tamil language, Tamil scholar and politician highly regarded for his work on promoting the Tamil classical work of the Tirukkural. He also serve ...
,
Devaneya Pavanar
Devaneya Pavanar (also known as G. Devaneyan, Ñanamuttan Tevaneyan; 7 February 1902 – 15 January 1981) was a prominent Tamil scholar who wrote over 35 research volumes. Additionally, he was a staunch proponent of the "Pure Tamil movement" an ...
,
M. Karunanithi, and
Solomon Pappaiah
Solomon Pappaiah (Tamil:சாலமன் பாப்பையா) (born 22 February 1936), also known as Solomon Pappiah and Salomon Pappayah is an Indian scholar and a television icon in Tamil Nadu, India. He is best known for moderating d ...
, besides several hundred others. The commentary by M. Varadarajan entitled ''Tirukkural Thelivurai'' (lit. Lucid commentary of the Kural), first published in 1949, remains the most published modern commentary, with more than 200 editions by the same publisher.
According to K. Mohanraj, as of 2013, there were at least 497 Tamil language commentaries written by 382 scholars beginning with Manakkudavar from the Medieval era. Of these at least 277 scholars have written commentaries for the entire work.
Translations
The Kural has been the most frequently translated ancient Tamil text. By 1975, its translations in at least 20 major languages had been published:
* Indian languages: Sanskrit, Hindi, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Bengali, Marathi, Gujarati, and Urdu
* Non-Indian languages: Burmese, Malay, Chinese, Fijian, Latin, French, German, Russian, Polish, Swedish, Thai, and English
The text was likely translated into Indian languages by Indian scholars over the centuries, but the palm leaf manuscripts of such translations have been rare. For example, S. R. Ranganathan, a librarian of
University of Madras
The University of Madras (informally known as Madras University) is a public university, public State university (India), state university in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. Established in 1857, it is one of the oldest and among the most prestigiou ...
during the
British rule
The British Raj (; from Hindi ''rāj'': kingdom, realm, state, or empire) was the rule of the British Crown on the Indian subcontinent;
*
* it is also called Crown rule in India,
*
*
*
*
or Direct rule in India,
* Quote: "Mill, who was hims ...
, discovered a Malayalam translation copied in year 777 of the Malayalam calendar, a manuscript that Zvelebil dates to late 16th century.
The text was translated into several European languages during the colonial era, particularly by the
Christian missionaries
A Christian mission is an organized effort for the propagation of the Christian faith. Missions involve sending individuals and groups across boundaries, most commonly geographical boundaries, to carry on evangelism or other activities, such as ...
. The first European language translation was made in
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
by
Constantius Joseph Beschi
Constantine Joseph Beschi (8 November 1680 – 4 February 1747), also known under his Tamil name of ''Vīramāmunivar'', was an Italian Jesuit priest, missionary in South India, and Tamil language littérateur.
Early years
Born in Castiglione ...
and was published in 1730. However, he translated only the first two books, viz., virtue and wealth, leaving out the book on love because its erotic and sexual nature was deemed by him to be inappropriate for a Christian missionary. The first
French translation was brought about by an unknown author by about 1767 that went unnoticed. The first available French version was by
E. S. Ariel
E. S. Ariel, also referred to as Monsieur Ariel ( French for "Mr. Ariel") by his contemporaries, was a 19th-century French translator known for his French translation of the ancient Indian philosophical text of the Tirukkural. He translated sel ...
in 1848. Again, he did not translate the whole work but only parts of it. The first
German
German(s) may refer to:
* Germany (of or related to)
** Germania (historical use)
* Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language
** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law
**Ge ...
translation was made by
Karl Graul
Karl Graul (6 February 1814 – 10 November 1864) was a leader of Leipzig Lutheran mission and a Tamil scholar. He was born in a poor weaver family in Germany. He moved to India as the director of the Lutheran Leipzig Mission in 1849 and ther ...
, who published it in 1856 both at
London
London is the capital and largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a estuary down to the North Sea, and has been a majo ...
and
Leipzig
Leipzig ( , ; Upper Saxon: ) is the most populous city in the German state of Saxony. Leipzig's population of 605,407 inhabitants (1.1 million in the larger urban zone) as of 2021 places the city as Germany's eighth most populous, as wel ...
. Graul additionally translated the work into Latin in 1856.
The first, and incomplete, English translations were made by
N. E. Kindersley in 1794 and then by
Francis Whyte Ellis
Francis Whyte Ellis (1777–1819) was a British civil servant in the Madras Presidency and a scholar of Tamil and Sanskrit.
Biography
Ellis became a writer in the East India Company's service at Madras in 1796. He was promoted to the offices o ...
in 1812. While Kindersley translated a selection of the Kural text, Ellis translated 120 couplets in all—69 of them in verse and 51 in prose.
E. J. Robinson's translations of part of the Kural into English were published in 1873 in his book ''The Tamil Wisdom'' and its 1885 expanded edition titled ''The Tales and Poems of South India'', ultimately translating the first two books of the Kural text.
W. H. Drew translated the first two books of the Kural text in prose in 1840 and 1852, respectively. It contained the original Tamil text of the Kural, Parimelalhagar's commentary,
Ramanuja Kavirayar
Ramanuja Kavirayar (1780, Ramanathapuram – 1853, Madras) was a Tamil savant and poet. Living in Madras, he dominated the world of Tamil letters and had several eminent Tamil scholars as his students.
Ramanuja Kavirayar pioneered the work of ...
's amplification of the commentary and Drew's English prose translation. However, Drew translated only 630 couplets, and the remaining were translated by
John Lazarus, a native missionary, providing the first complete translation in English made by two translators. Like Beschi, Drew did not translate the third book on love. The first complete English translation of the Kural by a single author was the one by the Christian missionary
George Uglow Pope
George Uglow Pope (24 April 1820 – 11 February 1908), or G. U. Pope, was an Anglican Christian missionary and Tamil scholar who spent 40 years in Tamil Nadu and translated many Tamil texts into English. His popular translations included those ...
in 1886, which introduced the complete Kural to the western world.
The translations of the Kural in Southeast Asian and East Asian languages were published in the 20th century. A few of these relied on re-translating the earlier English translations of the work.
By the end of the 20th century, there were about 24 translations of the Kural in English alone, by both native and non-native scholars, including those by
V. V. S. Aiyar
Varahaneri Venkatesa Subramaniam Aiyar (2 April 1881 – 3 June 1925), also known as V. V. S. Aiyar, was an Indian revolutionary from Tamil Nadu who fought against British colonial rule in India. His contemporaries include Subramanya Bhar ...
,
K. M. Balasubramaniam,
Shuddhananda Bharati
Kavi Yogi Maharishi Dr. Shuddhananda Bharati (11 May 1897 – 7 March 1990) was an Indian philosopher and poet. His teachings are focused mainly on the search for God in Self, through the Sama Yoga practice he created.
Biography
Bha ...
,
A. Chakravarti,
M. S. Purnalingam Pillai
Munnirpallam Sivasubramaniam Purnalingam Pillai (25 May 1866 – 6 June 1947) was a Tamil language-writer and Dravidologist.
Early life
Purnalingam Pillai was born on 25 May 1866 to Sivasubramaniam Pillai at Munnirpallam in Tinnevely distric ...
,
C. Rajagopalachari
Chakravarti Rajagopalachari (10 December 1878 – 25 December 1972), popularly known as Rajaji or C.R., also known as Mootharignar Rajaji (Rajaji'', the Scholar Emeritus''), was an Indian statesman, writer, lawyer, and independence activis ...
,
P. S. Sundaram
P. S. Sundaram (1910–1998), born Pazmarneri Subrahmanya Sundaram, was an Indian professor of English, best known for translating the Tirukkural and various Tamil classics into English. He had degrees in English from the University of Madras an ...
,
V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar
Vishnampet R. Ramachandra Dikshitar (16 April 1896 – 24 November 1953) was a historian, Indologist and Dravidologist from the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. He was professor of history and archaeology at the University of Madras and is the auth ...
,
G. Vanmikanathan
G. Vanmikanathan (6 January 1901 – 31 May 1989), better known as G. V. Pillai, was a Tamil scholar, author, founder and organiser of the 'Tirukkural Prachar Sangh'. He is known for translating the Tirukkural into English.
Biography
Vanmikana ...
,
Kasturi Srinivasan
Kasturi Srinivasan (7 August 1887 – 21 June 1959) was an Indian journalist and businessman. He was the eldest son of S. Kasturi Ranga Iyengar.
Biography
Srinivasan was born to well-known lawyer and journalist, S. Kasturi Ranga Iyengar, in ...
,
S. N. Sriramadesikan, and
K. R. Srinivasa Iyengar. The work has also been translated into
Vaagri Booli, the language of the
Narikuravas, a tribal community in Tamil Nadu, by Kittu Sironmani. As of , the Kural text had been translated into at least 42 languages, with some 100 different translations in English alone. In October 2021, the
Central Institute of Classical Tamil
The Central Institute of Classical Tamil (CICT) is a body established by the Government of India with a view to promoting the cause of Classical Tamil. It is located in Chennai.
History
The CICT was formerly known as the Centre of Excellence ...
announced its translating the Kural text into 102 world languages.
Translational difficulties and distortions
![Largest Thirukkural Book](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Largest_Thirukkural_Book.jpg)
With a highly compressed prosodic form, the Kural text employs the intricately complex ''
Kural venba
The Kural is one of the most important forms of classical Tamil language poetry. It is a very short poetic form being an independent couplet complete in 2 lines, the first line consisting of 4 words and the second line consisting of 3. As one o ...
''
metre
The metre (British spelling) or meter (American spelling; see spelling differences) (from the French unit , from the Greek noun , "measure"), symbol m, is the primary unit of length in the International System of Units (SI), though its pref ...
, known for its eminent suitability to gnomic poetry. This form, which Zvelebil calls "a marvel of brevity and condensation," is closely connected with the structural properties of the Tamil language and has historically presented extreme difficulties to its translators. Talking about translating the Kural into other languages,
Herbert Arthur Popley observes, "it is impossible in any translation to do justice to the beauty and force of the original." After translating a good portion of the Kural text, Karl Graul stated, "No translation can convey any idea of its charming effect. It is truly an apple of gold in a net-work of silver." Zvelebil claims that it is impossible to truly appreciate the maxims found in the Kural couplets through a translation but rather that the Kural has to be read and understood in its original Tamil form.
Besides these inherent difficulties in translating the Kural, some scholars have attempted to either read their own ideas into the Kural couplets or deliberately misinterpret the message to make it conform to their preconceived notions. The Latin translation by the Christian missionary
Father Beshi, for instance, contains several such mistranslations. According to V. Ramasamy, "Beschi is purposely distorting the message of the original when he renders as 'the sea of miserable life' and the phrase as 'sea of this birth' which has been translated by others as 'the sea of many births'. Beschi means thus 'those who swim the vast sea of miseries'. The concept of rebirth or many births for the same soul is contrary to Christian principle and belief."
According to Norman Cutler, both in the past and in the contemporary era, the Kural has been reinterpreted and fit to reflect the textual values in the text as well as the cultural values of the author(s). About 1300 CE, the Tamil scholar Parimelalhagar interpreted the text in
Brahmanical
The historical Vedic religion (also known as Vedicism, Vedism or ancient Hinduism and subsequently Brahmanism (also spelled as Brahminism)), constituted the religious ideas and practices among some Indo-Aryan peoples of northwest Indian Subco ...
premises and terms. Just like Christian missionaries during the colonial era cast the work in their own Christian premises, phrases and concepts, some
Dravidianists of the contemporary era reinterpret and cast the work to further their own goals and socio-political values. This has produced highly divergent interpretations of the original.
Publication
![Thirukkural Madras 1812](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Thirukkural_Madras_1812.JPG)
The ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' remained largely unknown outside India for over a millennium. As was the practice across the ancient Indian subcontinent, in addition to
palm-leaf manuscript
Palm-leaf manuscripts are manuscripts made out of dried palm leaves. Palm leaves were used as writing materials in the Indian subcontinent and in Southeast Asia reportedly dating back to the 5th century BCE. Their use began in South Asia and ...
s, the Kural literature had been passed on as
word of mouth
Word of mouth, or ''viva voce'', is the passing of information from person to person using oral communication, which could be as simple as telling someone the time of day. Storytelling is a common form of word-of-mouth communication where one pe ...
from parents to their children and from preceptors to their students for generations within the Tamil-speaking regions of
South India
South India, also known as Dakshina Bharata or Peninsular India, consists of the peninsular southern part of India. It encompasses the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Telangana, as well as the union territo ...
. According to Sanjeevi, the first translation of the work appeared in
Malayalam
Malayalam (; , ) is a Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry (Mahé district) by the Malayali people. It is one of 22 scheduled languages of India. Malayalam was des ...
(
Kerala
Kerala ( ; ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin, Malabar, South ...
) in 1595.
The first paper print of the ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' is traceable to 1812, credited to the efforts of Ñānapirakācar who used wooden blocks embossed from palm-leaf scripts to produce copies of the ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' along with those of ''Nalatiyar''. It was only in 1835 that Indians were permitted to establish printing press. The Kural was the first book to be published in Tamil, followed by the
Naladiyar. When
Francis Whyte Ellis
Francis Whyte Ellis (1777–1819) was a British civil servant in the Madras Presidency and a scholar of Tamil and Sanskrit.
Biography
Ellis became a writer in the East India Company's service at Madras in 1796. He was promoted to the offices o ...
, a British civil servant in the
Madras Presidency and a scholar of Tamil and Sanskrit who had established a Tamil ''sangam'' (academy) in
Madras
Chennai (, ), formerly known as Madras ( the official name until 1996), is the capital city of Tamil Nadu, the southernmost Indian state. The largest city of the state in area and population, Chennai is located on the Coromandel Coast of th ...
in 1825 and asked Tamil enthusiasts to "bring to him ancient Tamil manuscripts for publication," Kandappan, the butler of George Harrington, a European civil servant possibly in the
Madurai district
Madurai district is one of the Districts of Tamil Nadu, 38 districts of the States and territories of India, state of Tamil Nadu in southeastern India., National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, United States National Geospatial-Intelligence Ag ...
, and the grandfather of
Iyothee Thass handed in handwritten palm-leaf manuscripts of the Kural text as well as the ''Tiruvalluva Maalai'' and the ''Naladiyar'' which he found in a pile of leaves used for cooking between 1825 and 1831. The books were finally printed in 1831 by Ellis with the help of his manager Muthusamy Pillai and Tamil scholar Tandavaraya Mudaliar. Subsequent editions of the ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' appeared in 1833, 1838, 1840, and 1842. Soon many commentaries followed, including those by Mahalinga Iyer, who published only the first 24 chapters. The Kural has been continuously in print ever since. By 1925, the Kural literature had already appeared in more than 65 editions and by the turn of the 21st century, it had crossed 500 editions.
The first critical edition of the ''Tirukkaral'' based on manuscripts discovered in Hindu monasteries and private collections was published in 1861 by
Arumuka Navalar
Arumuka Navalar (; 18 December 1822 – 5 December 1879) was a Sri Lankan Shaivite Tamil language scholar, polemicist, and a religious reformer who was central in reviving native Hindu Tamil traditions in Sri Lanka and India.
Navalar's bi ...
– the
Jaffna
Jaffna (, ) is the capital city of the Northern Province of Sri Lanka. It is the administrative headquarters of the Jaffna District located on a peninsula of the same name. With a population of 88,138 in 2012, Jaffna is Sri Lanka's 12th most ...
-born Tamil scholar and
Shaivism
Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangi ...
activist. Navalar, states Zvelebil, was "probably the greatest and most influential among the forerunners" in studying numerous versions and bringing out an edited split-''sandhi'' version for the scholarship of the Kurral and many other historic Tamil texts in the 19th century.
Parimelalhagar's commentary on the ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' was published for the first time in 1840 and became the most widely published commentary ever since. In 1850, the Kural was published with commentaries by
Vedagiri Mudaliar
Vedagiri Mudaliar was a Tamil scholar best known for his work on publishing the Tamil classical work of the Tirukkural with commentaries for the first time.
Biography
Vedagiri Mudaliar hailed from Kalathur, originally called Ponvilaintha Kalathur ...
, who published a revised version later in 1853. This is the first time that the entire Kural text was published with commentaries. In 1917, Manakkudavar's commentary for the
first book of the Kural text was published by
V. O. Chidambaram Pillai
''V.'' is the debut novel of Thomas Pynchon, published in 1963. It describes the exploits of a discharged U.S. Navy sailor named Benny Profane, his reconnection in New York with a group of pseudo-bohemian artists and hangers-on known as the Who ...
. Manakkudavar commentary for the entire Kural text was first published in 1925 by
K. Ponnusami Nadar. As of 2013, Perimelalhagar's commentary appeared in more than 200 editions by as many as 30 publishers.
Since the 1970s, the Kural text has been transliterated into ancient Tamil scripts such as the
Tamil-Brahmi
Tamil-Brahmi, also known as Tamizhi or Damili, was a variant of the Brahmi script in southern India. It was used to write inscriptions in the early form of Old Tamil.Richard Salomon (1998) ''Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptio ...
script,
Pallava script
The Pallava script or Pallava Grantha, is a Brahmic scripts, Brahmic script, named after the Pallava dynasty of South India, attested since the 4th century AD. As epigrapher Arlo Griffiths makes clear, however, the term is misleading as not all o ...
,
Vatteluttu script
''Vatteluttu,'' popularly romanised as ''Vattezhuthu'' ( ta, வட்டெழுத்து, ' and ml, വട്ടെഴുത്ത്, ', ), was a syllabic alphabet of south India (Tamil Nadu and Kerala) and Sri Lanka used for writing ...
and others by Gift Siromoney of the
International Institute of Tamil Studies
The International Institute of Tamil Studies (IITS) is a linguistic research institution based in Chennai, India. It was established with a view to promoting the cause of Tamil language.
History
The International Institute of Tamil Studies was ...
(IITS, Madras Christian College).
Comparison with other ancient literature
![Thiruvalluvar 1960 stamp of India](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Thiruvalluvar_1960_stamp_of_India.jpg)
The Kural text is a part of the ancient Tamil literary tradition, yet it is also a part of the "one great Indian ethical, didactic tradition", as a few of his verses are "undoubtedly" translations of the verses in Sanskrit classics. The themes and ideas in ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' – sometimes with close similarities and sometimes with significant differences – are also found in Manu's ''
Manusmriti
The ''Manusmṛiti'' ( sa, मनुस्मृति), also known as the ''Mānava-Dharmaśāstra'' or Laws of Manu, is one of the many legal texts and constitution among the many ' of Hinduism. In ancient India, the sages often wrote their ...
'' (also called the ''Manavadharmasastra''),
Kautilya
Chanakya (Sanskrit: चाणक्य; IAST: ', ; 375–283 BCE) was an ancient Indian polymath who was active as a teacher, author, strategist, philosopher, economist, jurist, and royal advisor. He is traditionally identified as Kauṭilya o ...
's ''
Arthashastra
The ''Arthashastra'' ( sa, अर्थशास्त्रम्, ) is an Ancient Indian Sanskrit treatise on statecraft, political science, economic policy and military strategy. Kautilya, also identified as Vishnugupta and Chanakya, is ...
'', Kamandaka's ''
Nitisara
Nitisara () or the Nitisara of Kamandaki, is an ancient Indian treatise on politics and statecraft. It was authored by Kamandaka, also known as Kamandaki or Kamandakiya, who was a disciple of Chanakya. It is traditionally dated to the 4th-3rd ce ...
'', and
Vatsyayana's ''
Kamasutra
The ''Kama Sutra'' (; sa, कामसूत्र, , ; ) is an ancient Indian Sanskrit text on sexuality, eroticism and emotional fulfillment in life. Attributed to Vātsyāyana, the ''Kama Sutra'' is neither exclusively nor predominantly ...
''. Some of the teachings in the ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'', states Zvelebil, are "undoubtedly" based on the then extant Sanskrit works such as the more ancient ''
Arthashastra
The ''Arthashastra'' ( sa, अर्थशास्त्रम्, ) is an Ancient Indian Sanskrit treatise on statecraft, political science, economic policy and military strategy. Kautilya, also identified as Vishnugupta and Chanakya, is ...
'' and ''
Manusmriti
The ''Manusmṛiti'' ( sa, मनुस्मृति), also known as the ''Mānava-Dharmaśāstra'' or Laws of Manu, is one of the many legal texts and constitution among the many ' of Hinduism. In ancient India, the sages often wrote their ...
''.
According to Zvelebil, the ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' borrows "a great number of lines" and phrases from earlier Tamil texts. For example, phrases found in ''Kuruntokai'' (lit. "The Collection of Short
oems
An original equipment manufacturer (OEM) is generally perceived as a company that produces non-aftermarket parts and equipment that may be marketed by another manufacturer. It is a common industry term recognized and used by many professional or ...
) and many lines in ''Narrinai'' (lit. "The Excellent Love Settings") which starts with an invocation to
Vishnu
Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism.
Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" within t ...
, appear in the later ''Tirukkuṟaḷ''. Authors who came after the composition of the ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' similarly extensively quoted and borrowed from the ''Tirukkuṟaḷ''. For example, the Prabandhas such as the ''Tiruvalluvamalai'' probably from the 10th century CE are anthologies on ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'', and these extensively quote and embed it verses written in meters ascribed to gods, goddesses, and revered Tamil scholars. Similarly, the love story ''Perunkatai'' (lit. "The Great Story") probably composed in the 9th century quotes from the ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' and embeds similar teachings and morals. Verse 22.59–61 of the ''Manimekalai'' – a Buddhist-princess and later nun based love story epic, likely written about the 6th century CE, also quotes the ''Tirukkuṟaḷ''. This Buddhist epic ridicules Jainism while embedding morals and ideals similar to those in the Kural.
The ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' teachings are similar to those found in ''Arthasastra'' but differ in some important aspects. In Valluvar's theory of state, unlike Kautilya, the army (''patai'') is the most important element. Valluvar recommends that a well kept and well-trained army (''patai'') led by an able commander and ready to go to war is necessary for a state.
According to Hajela, the ''Porul'' of the Kural text is based on morality and benevolence as its cornerstones. The ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' teaches that the ministers and people who work in public office should lead an ethical and moral life.Unlike the ''Manusmriti'', the Kural does not give women a lowly and dependent position but are rather idealised. The ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' also does not give importance to castes or any dynasty of rulers and ministers. The text states that one should call anyone with virtue and kindness a
Brahmin
Brahmin (; sa, ब्राह्मण, brāhmaṇa) is a varna as well as a caste within Hindu society. The Brahmins are designated as the priestly class as they serve as priests (purohit, pandit, or pujari) and religious teachers (guru ...
.
World literature
Scholars compare the teachings in the ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' with those in other ancient thoughts such as the Confucian sayings in
Lun Yu
The ''Analects'' (; ; Old Chinese: '' ŋ(r)aʔ''; meaning "Selected Sayings"), also known as the ''Analects of Confucius'', the ''Sayings of Confucius'', or the ''Lun Yu'', is an ancient Chinese book composed of a large collection of sayings a ...
,
Hitopadesa
''Hitopadesha'' (Sanskrit: हितोपदेशः, IAST: ''Hitopadeśa'', "Beneficial Advice") is an Indian text in the Sanskrit language consisting of fables with both animal and human characters. It incorporates maxims, worldly wisdom and ...
,
Panchatantra,
Manusmriti
The ''Manusmṛiti'' ( sa, मनुस्मृति), also known as the ''Mānava-Dharmaśāstra'' or Laws of Manu, is one of the many legal texts and constitution among the many ' of Hinduism. In ancient India, the sages often wrote their ...
,
Tirumandiram
The ''Tirumantiram or Thirumantiram'' is a Tamil poetic work, written either in the 6th century CE or post 10th century CE by Tirumular and is the tenth of the twelve volumes of the ''Tirumurai'', the key texts of Saiva Siddhanta and the first k ...
,
Book of Proverbs
The Book of Proverbs ( he, מִשְלֵי, , "Proverbs (of Solomon)") is a book in the third section (called Ketuvim) of the Hebrew Bible and a book of the Christian Old Testament. When translated into Greek and Latin, the title took on different ...
in the Bible, sayings of the
Buddha
Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a śramaṇa, wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism.
According to Buddhist tradition, he was ...
in
Dhammapada, and the ethical works of Persian origin such as
Gulistan Gulistan, Golestan or Golastan ( fa, گلستان) means "flower land" in Persian language (''gol'' meaning "flower", and ''-stan'' or meaning "land").
It may refer to:
Places
Iran
"Golestan" most often refers to:
* Golestan province in nor ...
and
Bustan, in addition to the holy books of various religions.
The Kural text and the
Confucian sayings recorded in the classic
Analects of Chinese (called ''Lun Yu'', meaning "Sacred Sayings") share some similarities. Both Valluvar and
Confucius
Confucius ( ; zh, s=, p=Kǒng Fūzǐ, "Master Kǒng"; or commonly zh, s=, p=Kǒngzǐ, labels=no; – ) was a Chinese philosopher and politician of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages. C ...
focused on the behaviors and moral conducts of a common person. Similar to Valluvar, Confucius advocated legal justice embracing human principles, courtesy, and
filial piety
In Confucianism, Chinese Buddhism, and Daoist ethics, filial piety (, ''xiào'') (Latin: pietas) is a virtue of respect for one's parents, elders, and ancestors. The Confucian ''Classic of Filial Piety'', thought to be written around the late W ...
, besides the virtues of
benevolence,
righteousness
Righteousness is the quality or state of being morally correct and justifiable. It can be considered synonymous with "rightness" or being "upright". It can be found in Indian religions and Abrahamic traditions, among other religions, as a theologi ...
,
loyalty
Loyalty, in general use, is a devotion and faithfulness to a nation, cause, philosophy, country, group, or person. Philosophers disagree on what can be an object of loyalty, as some argue that loyalty is strictly interpersonal and only another h ...
and
trustworthiness
Trust is the willingness of one party (the trustor) to become vulnerable to another party (the trustee) on the presumption that the trustee will act in ways that benefit the trustor. In addition, the trustor does not have control over the acti ...
as foundations of life. While ahimsa or non-violence remains the fundamental virtue of the Valluvarean tradition,
Zen
Zen ( zh, t=禪, p=Chán; ja, text= 禅, translit=zen; ko, text=선, translit=Seon; vi, text=Thiền) is a school of Mahayana Buddhism that originated in China during the Tang dynasty, known as the Chan School (''Chánzong'' 禪宗), and ...
remains the central theme in Confucian tradition. Incidentally, Valluvar differed from Confucius in two respects. Firstly, unlike Confucius, Valluvar was also a poet. Secondly, Confucius did not deal with the subject of
conjugal love
Conjugal love refers to love in a conjugal relationship, that is, in a marriage, since the word "conjugal" is defined as related to the relationship between married partners.
Marriage does not necessarily involve love between the partners. Chris ...
, for which Valluvar devoted an entire division in his work. Child-rearing is central to the Confucian thought of procreation of humanity and the benevolence of society. The Lun Yu says, "Therefore an enlightened ruler will regulate his people's livelihood so as to ensure that, above they have enough to serve their parents and below they have enough to support their wives and children."
Reception
The Kural text has received highly esteemed reception from every section of the society ever since the ancient times. Many post-Sangam and medieval poets have sung in praise of the Kural text and its author.
Avvaiyar
Avvaiyar (Tamil: ஔவையார்) was the title of more than one female poet who were active during different periods of Tamil literature. They were some of the most famous and important female poets of the Tamil canon.
Abidhana Chinta ...
praised Valluvar as the one who pierced an atom and injected seven seas into it and then compressed it and presented it in the form of his work, emphasizing on the work's succinctness. The Kural remains the only work that has been honored with an exclusive work of compiled paeans known as the
Tiruvalluva Maalai
Tiruvalluva Maalai (Tamil: திருவள்ளுவ மாலை), literally 'Garland of Valluvar', is an anthology of ancient Tamil paeans containing fifty-five verses each attributed to different poets praising the ancient work of the ...
in the Tamil literary corpus, attributed to 55 different poets, including legendary ones. All ancient Indian religions, including
Shaivism
Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangi ...
,
Vaishnavism
Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...
,
Jainism
Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religions, Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current ...
, and
Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
, have greatly celebrated the Kural text, many of which incorporated Kural's teachings in both their religious and non-religious works, including the
Silappathikaram
''Cilappatikāram'' ( ta, சிலப்பதிகாரம் ml, ചിലപ്പതികാരം,IPA: ʧiləppət̪ikɑːrəm, ''lit.'' "the Tale of an Anklet"), also referred to as ''Silappathikaram'' or ''Silappatikaram'', is the e ...
,
Manimekalai
''Maṇimēkalai'' ( ta, மணிமேகலை, ), also spelled ''Manimekhalai'' or ''Manimekalai'', is a Tamil- Buddhist epic composed by Kulavāṇikaṉ Seethalai Sataṉar probably around the 6th century. It is an "anti-love story", a ...
,
Tirumurai
''Thirumurai'' (Tamil: திருமுறை, meaning holy division) is a twelve-volume compendium of songs or hymns in praise of Shiva in the Tamil language from the 6th to the 11th century CE by various poets in Tamil Nadu. Nambiyan ...
,
Periya Puranam
The ''Periya purāṇam'' (Tamil: பெரிய புராணம்), that is, the ''great purana'' or epic, sometimes called ''Tiruttontarpuranam'' ("Tiru-Thondar-Puranam", the Purana of the Holy Devotees), is a Tamil poetic ...
, and
Kamba Ramayanam
''Ramavataram'', popularly referred to as ''Kamba Ramayanam'', is a Tamil epic that was written by the Tamil poet Kambar during the 12th century. Based on Valmiki's ''Ramayana'' (which is in Sanskrit), the story describes the life of King ...
.
The Kural has been widely praised within and outside India for its universal, non-denominational values. The Russian philosopher
Alexander Piatigorsky
Alexander Moiseyevich Piatigorsky (russian: Алекса́ндр Моисе́евич Пятиго́рский; 30 January 192925 October 2009) was a Soviet dissident, Russian philosopher, scholar of Indian philosophy and culture, historian, phi ...
called it chef d'oeuvre of both Indian and world literature "due not only to the great artistic merits of the work but also to the lofty humane ideas permeating it which are equally precious to the people all over the world, of all periods and countries."
G. U. Pope
George Uglow Pope (24 April 1820 – 11 February 1908), or G. U. Pope, was an Anglican Christian missionary and Tamil scholar who spent 40 years in Tamil Nadu and translated many Tamil texts into English. His popular translations included t ...
called its author "a bard of universal man" for being a generalist and universal. According to
Albert Schweitzer
Ludwig Philipp Albert Schweitzer (; 14 January 1875 – 4 September 1965) was an Alsatian-German/French polymath. He was a theologian, organist, musicologist, writer, humanitarian, philosopher, and physician. A Lutheran minister, Schweit ...
, "there hardly exists in the literature of the world a collection of maxims in which we find so much of lofty wisdom."
Leo Tolstoy
Count Lev Nikolayevich TolstoyTolstoy pronounced his first name as , which corresponds to the romanization ''Lyov''. () (; russian: link=no, Лев Николаевич Толстой,In Tolstoy's day, his name was written as in pre-refor ...
called it "the Hindu Kural," and
Mahatma Gandhi
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (; ; 2 October 1869 – 30 January 1948), popularly known as Mahatma Gandhi, was an Indian lawyer, anti-colonial nationalist Quote: "... marks Gandhi as a hybrid cosmopolitan figure who transformed ... anti- ...
called it "a textbook of indispensable authority on moral life" and went on to say, "The maxims of Valluvar have touched my soul. There is none who has given such a treasure of wisdom like him."
![Keezhadi and Thirukkural 43rd Chennai Book Fair 2020](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Keezhadi_and_Thirukkural_43rd_Chennai_Book_Fair_2020.jpg)
Jesuit, Catholic and Protestant missionaries in colonial-era South India have highly praised the text, many of whom went on to translate the text into European languages. The Protestant missionary
Edward Jewitt Robinson
Edward Jewitt Robinson was a 19th-century Protestant Christian missionary, missionary to British India. He is best known as one of the earliest translators of the Tirukkural into English language, English.
Biography
Edward Jewitt Robinson pub ...
said that the Kural contains all things and there is nothing which it does not contain. The Anglican missionary
John Lazarus said, "No Tamil work can ever approach the purity of the Kural. It is a standing repute to modern Tamil." According to the American Christian missionary
Emmons E. White
Emmons E. White (1891–1982) was a Christianity, Christian missionary in South India. He is best known for his work on Tamil music and his List of translators into English, English translation of the Tirukkural.
Biography
Emmons E. White was ...
, "Thirukkural is a synthesis of the best moral teachings of the world."
The Kural has historically been exalted by leaders of political, spiritual, social and virtually every other domain.
Rajaji
Chakravarti Rajagopalachari (10 December 1878 – 25 December 1972), popularly known as Rajaji or C.R., also known as Mootharignar Rajaji (Rajaji'', the Scholar Emeritus''), was an Indian statesman, writer, lawyer, and independence activis ...
commented, "It is the gospel of love and a code of soul-luminous life. The whole of human aspiration is epitomized in this immortal book, a book for all ages." According to
K. M. Munshi
Kanhaiyalal Maneklal Munshi (; 30 December 1887 – 8 February 1971), popularly known by his pen name Ghanshyam Vyas, was an Indian independence movement activist, politician, writer and educationist from Gujarat state. A lawyer by profession, ...
, "Thirukkural is a treatise par excellence on the art of living." The Indian nationalist and Yoga guru
Sri Aurobindo
Sri Aurobindo (born Aurobindo Ghose; 15 August 1872 – 5 December 1950) was an Indian philosopher, yogi, maharishi, poet, and Indian nationalist. He was also a journalist, editing newspapers such as ''Vande Mataram''. He joined the ...
stated, "Thirukkural is gnomic poetry, the greatest in planned conception and force of execution ever written in this kind."
E. S. Ariel
E. S. Ariel, also referred to as Monsieur Ariel ( French for "Mr. Ariel") by his contemporaries, was a 19th-century French translator known for his French translation of the ancient Indian philosophical text of the Tirukkural. He translated sel ...
, who translated and published the third part of the Kural to French in 1848, called it "a masterpiece of Tamil literature, one of the highest and purest expressions of human thought."
Zakir Hussain Zakir Hussain ( ur, , link=no) is the name of:
* Zakir Husain (politician), an Indian politician and former president of India
* Zakir Hussain (actor), Bollywood actor
* Zakir Hussain (field hockey) (1934–2019), Pakistani field hockey player
* ...
, former
President of India
The president of India ( IAST: ) is the head of state of the Republic of India. The president is the nominal head of the executive, the first citizen of the country, as well as the commander-in-chief of the Indian Armed Forces. Droupadi Murmu ...
, said, "Thirukkural is a treasure house of worldly knowledge, ethical guidance and spiritual wisdom."
Inscriptions and other historical records
The ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' remained the chief administrative text of the
Kongu Nadu region of the medieval Tamil land. Kural inscriptions and other historical records are found across Tamil Nadu. The 15th-century Jain inscriptions in the
Ponsorimalai
Ponsorimalai, also known as Sorimalai, is a hill in Vennandur block of Namakkal district in Tamil Nadu, India.
Geology
Ponsorimalai is located northwest of Alavaimalai and southeast of Kanjamalai. North and West side foot hill limits are surro ...
near
Mallur in
Salem district
Salem District is one of the 38 districts of Tamil Nadu state in southern India. The district is now divided into Dharmapuri, Krishnagiri, Namakkal as individual districts. Salem is the district headquarters and other major towns in the distri ...
bear couplet 251 from the "Shunning meat" chapter of the Kural text, indicating that the people of the Kongu Nadu region practiced ahimsa and non-killing as chief virtues. Other inscriptions include the 1617 CE Poondurai Nattar scroll in Kongu Nadu, the 1798 CE
Palladam
Palladam () is a town and First Grade Municipality in Tirupur district in the state of Tamil Nadu, India. It is the headquarters of Palladam Taluk of Tirupur district. Palladam is located on National Highway NH 81. Palladam is a major Town wi ...
Angala Parameshwari Kodai copper inscriptions in
Naranapuram
Naranapuram is a panchayat town in Virudhunagar district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu.
Demographics
India census
A census is the procedure of systematically acquiring, recording and calculating information about the members of a given ...
in Kongu Nadu, the 18th-century copper inscriptions found in
Kapilamalai
Kabilarmalai was former state assembly constituency in Namakkal district in Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu (; , TN) is a state in southern India. It is the tenth largest Indian state by area and the sixth largest by population. Its capital and ...
near Kapilakkuricchi town in
Namakkal district
Namakkal District is one of the 38 districts (an districts of Tamil Nadu, administrative district) in the States and territories of India, state of Tamil Nadu, India. The district was bifurcated from Salem District with Namakkal town as headqua ...
, Veeramudiyalar mutt copper inscriptions in
Palani
Palani ( or ''Palni'' as in British records, is a town and a taluk headquarters in Dindigul district of the western part of Tamil Nadu state in India. It is located about south-east of Coimbatore and north-west of Madurai, from Kodaikan ...
, Karaiyur copper inscription in Kongu Nadu, Palaiyakottai records, and the 1818 Periya Palayathamman temple inscriptions by
Francis Ellis at
Royapettah
Royapettah is a neighbourhood of Chennai, India.
Location
Royapettah is located at the central part of the city of Chennai, with an elevation of 9 m (29 ft.) above mean sea level. The neighbourhood comes under Teynampet Zone (numbe ...
in
Chennai
Chennai (, ), formerly known as Madras ( the official name until 1996), is the capital city of Tamil Nadu, the southernmost Indian state. The largest city of the state in area and population, Chennai is located on the Coromandel Coast of th ...
.
Popular culture
![Kural in Chennai Metro Train](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Kural_in_Chennai_Metro_Train.jpg)
Various portraits of Valluvar have been drawn and used by the
Shivaite
Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangi ...
and
Jain communities
The Jains in India are the last direct representatives of the ancient Shramana tradition. People who practice Jainism, an ancient religion of the Indian subcontinent, are collectively referred to as Jains.
Sangha
Jainism has a fourfold orde ...
of Tamil Nadu since ancient times. These portraits appeared in various poses, with Valluvar's appearance varying from matted hair to fully shaven head. The portrait of Valluvar with matted hair and a flowing beard, as drawn by artist K. R. Venugopal Sharma in 1960, was accepted by the state and central governments as an official version. It soon became a popular and the most ubiquitous modern portrait of the poet. In 1964, the image was unveiled in the
Indian Parliament
The Parliament of India ( IAST: ) is the supreme legislative body of the Republic of India. It is a bicameral legislature composed of the president of India and two houses: the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the Lok Sabha (House of the ...
by the then President of India
Zakir Hussain Zakir Hussain ( ur, , link=no) is the name of:
* Zakir Husain (politician), an Indian politician and former president of India
* Zakir Hussain (actor), Bollywood actor
* Zakir Hussain (field hockey) (1934–2019), Pakistani field hockey player
* ...
. In 1967, the Tamil Nadu government passed an order stating that the image of Valluvar should be present in all government offices across the state of Tamil Nadu.
The Kural does not appear to have been set in music by Valluvar. However, a number of musicians have set it to tune and several singers have rendered it in their concerts. Modern composers who have tuned the Kural couplets include
Mayuram Viswanatha Sastri
Mayuram Viswanatha Sastri (Tamil: மாயூரம் விஸ்வநாத சாஸ்திரி) (1893–1958) was a Carnatic music composer. His most remembered composition is the patriotic song "Jayathi Jayathi Bharata Mata". Translat ...
and
Ramani Bharadwaj
Ramani Bharathwaj known professionally as Bharadwaj is an Indian music director, composer, singer-songwriter, and music producer, predominantly known for his work in Tamil cinema. He is trained in Hindustani, Western and Carnatic music and is a ...
. Singers who have performed full-fledged ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' concerts include
M. M. Dandapani Desikar
M M Dandapani Desikar (August 27, 1908 – June 26, 1972) was a Carnatic vocalist, actor and composer.
'Isai Arasu' Dandapani Desikar was born in Tiruchengattangudi, near Nannilam in Madras Presidency. He got training from Manicka Desikar and K ...
and
Chidambaram C. S. Jayaraman
Chidambaram Sundaram Jayaraman or C. S. Jayaraman (Tamil language, Tamil: சி. எஸ். ஜெயராமன்) (January 6, 1917 – January 29, 1995) was a noted actor, music director and a successful playback singer, whose numerous ...
.
Madurai Somasundaram
Madurai S. Somasundaram, popularly also called Madurai Somu (born S. Paramasivam; 9 February 1919 – 9 December 1989) was a Carnatic music vocalist. He learnt music from Sesha Bhagavatar, Abhirama Sastri and Chittoor Subramanyam Pillai. He sta ...
and
Sanjay Subramanian
Sanjay Subrahmanyan (born 21 January 1968 in Chennai, Tamil Nadu) is a Carnatic vocalist from India. He was awarded the Madras Music Academy's Sangeetha Kalanidhi in 2015.
Biography
Sanjay Subrahmanyan was born on 21 January 1968 in Chennai ...
are other people who have given musical rendering of the Kural. Mayuram Vishwanatha Shastri set all the verses to music in the early 20th century. In January 2016,
Chitravina N. Ravikiran
Narasimhan Ravikiran (born 12 February 1967) is an Indian slide instrumentalist, vocalist, composer, and orator, who created the concept of melharmony. He is the son of gottuvadhyam player Chitravina Narasimhan and the grandson of Narayan Iye ...
set the entire 1330 verses to music in a record time of 16 hours.
In 1818, the then Collector of Madras
Francis Whyte Ellis
Francis Whyte Ellis (1777–1819) was a British civil servant in the Madras Presidency and a scholar of Tamil and Sanskrit.
Biography
Ellis became a writer in the East India Company's service at Madras in 1796. He was promoted to the offices o ...
issued a gold coin bearing Valluvar's image. In the late 19th century, the South Indian saint
'Vallalar' Ramalinga Swamigal taught the Kural's message by conducting regular Kural classes to the masses. In 1968, the Tamil Nadu government made it mandatory to display a Kural couplet in all government buses. The train running a distance of 2,921 kilometers between Kanyakumari and
New Delhi
New Delhi (, , ''Naī Dillī'') is the capital of India and a part of the National Capital Territory of Delhi (NCT). New Delhi is the seat of all three branches of the government of India, hosting the Rashtrapati Bhavan, Parliament House ...
is named by the Indian Railways as the ''
Thirukural Express''.
The Kural is part of Tamil people's everyday life and is used in all walks of life.
K. Balachander
Kailasam Balachander (9 July 1930 – 23 December 2014) was an Indian film maker and playwright who worked mainly in the Tamil cinema. He was well known for his distinct film-making style, and the Indian film industry knew him as a master of un ...
's
Kavithalayaa Productions
Kavithalayaa Productions is an Indian film production and distribution company based in Chennai. It was founded by filmmaker K. Balachander in 1981. It has a library of 50+ films in three languages and 3500+ hours of television content. Kavitha ...
opened its films with the very first couplet of the Kural sung in the background. Kural's phrases and ideas are found in numerous songs of
Tamil movies. Several ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' conferences were conducted in the twentieth century, such as those by
Tirukkural V. Munusamy
V. Munusamy (26 September 1913 – 4 January 1994), popularly known as Tirukkuralar Munusamy, was a Tamil scholar and politician highly regarded for his work on promoting the Tamil classical work of the Tirukkural. He also served as a member of ...
in 1941 and by
Periyar E. V. Ramasamy in 1949. These were attended by several scholars, celebrities and politicians. The Kural's couplets and thoughts are also widely employed in visual arts, music, dance, street shows, recitals, activities, and puzzles and riddles. The couplets are frequently quoted by various political leaders even in pan-Indian contexts outside the Tamil diaspora, including
Ram Nath Kovind
Ram Nath Kovind (; born 1 October 1945) is an Indian politician who served as the 14th President of India from 2017 to 2022. He is a member of the Bharatiya Janata Party. He is the second person after K. R. Narayanan, from the Dalit community ...
,
P. Chidambaram
Palaniappan Chidambaram (born 16 September 1945), better known as P. Chidambaram, is an Indian politician and lawyer who currently serves as Member of Parliament, Rajya Sabha. He served as the Chairman of the Parliamentary Standing Committee ...
, and
Nirmala Sitaraman. When
Jallikattu
(or ), also known as and , is a traditional event in which a bull (''Bos indicus''), such as the Pulikulam or Kangayam breeds, is released into a crowd of people, and multiple human participants attempt to grab the large hump on the bull's ba ...
aficionados claimed that the sport is only to demonstrate the "Tamil love for the bull", the then Indian Minister of Women and Child Development
Maneka Gandhi
Maneka Sanjay Gandhi (also spelled Menaka; ''née'' Anand) (born 26 August 1956) is an Indian politician, animal rights activist, and environmentalist. She is a member of the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Indian parliament and a member of ...
denied the claim citing that the Tirukkural does not sanction
cruelty to animals. The Indian Prime Minister
Narendra Modi
Narendra Damodardas Modi (; born 17 September 1950) is an Indian politician serving as the 14th and current Prime Minister of India since 2014. Modi was the Chief Minister of Gujarat from 2001 to 2014 and is the Member of Parliament from ...
has quoted the couplets on several occasions, including his recital to the Indian armed forces in 2020. The Kural literature is one of the ancient texts from which the
Economic Survey of India, the official annual report of the state of India's economy, draws heavy references.
Temples and memorials
The Kural text and its author have been highly venerated over the centuries. In the early 16th century, the
Shaiva Hindu community built a temple within the
Ekambareeswara-Kamakshi (Shiva-Parvati) temple complex in
Mylapore
Mylapore, also spelt Mayilapur, is a neighbourhood in the central part of the city of Chennai, India. It is one of the oldest residential parts of the city. It is also called Tirumayilai. The locality is claimed to be the birthplace of the cel ...
,
Chennai
Chennai (, ), formerly known as Madras ( the official name until 1996), is the capital city of Tamil Nadu, the southernmost Indian state. The largest city of the state in area and population, Chennai is located on the Coromandel Coast of th ...
, in honor of the ''Tirukkuṟaḷs author, Valluvar. The locals believe that this is where Valluvar was born, underneath a tree within the shrine's complex. A Valluvar statue in yoga position holding a palm leaf manuscript of the ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' sits under the tree. In the shrine dedicated to him, Valluvar's wife
Vasukiamma is patterned after the Hindu deity
Kamakshi inside the sanctum. The temple shikhara (spire) above the sanctum shows scenes of Hindu life and deities, along with Valluvar reading his couplets to his wife. The ''sthala vriksham'' (holy tree of the temple) at the temple is the
oil-nut or ''iluppai'' tree under which Valluvar is believed to have been born. The temple was extensively renovated in the 1970s.
![ValluvarShrineAtMylaporeTemple](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/ValluvarShrineAtMylaporeTemple.jpg)
Additional Valluvar shrines in South India are found at
Tiruchuli,
Periya Kalayamputhur,
Thondi
Thondi or Tondi is a Panchayat town in Ramanathapuram district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu (; , TN) is a state in southern India. It is the tenth largest Indian state by area and the sixth largest by population. Its c ...
,
Kanjoor Thattanpady,
Senapathy, and
Vilvarani. Many of these communities, including those in
Mylapore
Mylapore, also spelt Mayilapur, is a neighbourhood in the central part of the city of Chennai, India. It is one of the oldest residential parts of the city. It is also called Tirumayilai. The locality is claimed to be the birthplace of the cel ...
and
Tiruchuli, consider Valluvar as the
64th Nayanmar of the
Saivite
Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangi ...
tradition and worship him as god and saint.
In 1976,
Valluvar Kottam
Valluvar Kottam ( ta, வள்ளுவர் கோட்டம்) is a monument in Chennai, dedicated to the classical Tamil poet philosopher Valluvar. It is the city’s biggest Tamil cultural centre.
Location
Valluvar Kottam is located a ...
, a monument to honor the Kural literature and its author, was constructed in
Chennai
Chennai (, ), formerly known as Madras ( the official name until 1996), is the capital city of Tamil Nadu, the southernmost Indian state. The largest city of the state in area and population, Chennai is located on the Coromandel Coast of th ...
. The chief element of the monument includes a chariot, a replica of the chariot in the temple town of
Thiruvarur
Thiruvarur () also spelt as Tiruvarur is a town and municipality in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is the administrative headquarters of Thiruvarur district and Thiruvarur taluk. The temple chariot of the Thyagaraja temple, weighing and mea ...
, and it contains a life-size statue of Valluvar. Around the chariot's perimeter are marble plates inscribed with ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' couplets. All the 1,330 verses of the Kural text are inscribed on bas-relief in the corridors in the main hall.
Statues of Valluvar have been erected across the globe, including the ones at
Kanyakumari
Kanniyakumari (; , referring to Devi Kanya Kumari), also known as Cape Comorin, is a city in Kanniyakumari district in the state of Tamil Nadu, India. It is the southern tip of the Indian subcontinent and the southernmost city in mainland Ind ...
, Chennai,
Bengaluru,
Pondicherry
Pondicherry (), now known as Puducherry ( French: Pondichéry ʊdʊˈtʃɛɹi(listen), on-dicherry, is the capital and the most populous city of the Union Territory of Puducherry in India. The city is in the Puducherry district on the sout ...
,
Vishakapatnam
, image_alt =
, image_caption = From top, left to right: Visakhapatnam aerial view, Vizag seaport, Simhachalam Temple, Aerial view of Rushikonda Beach, Beach road, Novotel Visakhapatnam, INS Kursura submarine museu ...
,
Haridwar
Haridwar (; ) is a city and municipal corporation in the Haridwar district of Uttarakhand, India. With a population of 228,832 in 2011, it is the second-largest city in the state and the largest in the district.
The city is situated on the righ ...
,
Puttalam
Puttalam ( si, පුත්තලම, translit=Puttalama; ta, புத்தளம், translit=Puttaḷam) is the largest town in Puttalam District, North Western Province, Sri Lanka. Puttalam is the administrative capital of the Puttalam ...
,
Singapore
Singapore (), officially the Republic of Singapore, is a sovereign island country and city-state in maritime Southeast Asia. It lies about one degree of latitude () north of the equator, off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, borde ...
,
London
London is the capital and largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a estuary down to the North Sea, and has been a majo ...
and
Taiwan
Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the nort ...
. The tallest of these is the stone
statue of Valluvar erected in 2000 atop a small island in the town of Kanyakumari on the southernmost tip of the
Indian peninsula
The Indian subcontinent is a physiographical region in Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean from the Himalayas. Geopolitically, it includes the countries of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India ...
, at the confluence of the
Bay of Bengal
The Bay of Bengal is the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean, bounded on the west and northwest by India, on the north by Bangladesh, and on the east by Myanmar and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India. Its southern limit is a line between ...
, the
Arabian Sea
The Arabian Sea ( ar, اَلْبَحرْ ٱلْعَرَبِيُّ, Al-Bahr al-ˁArabī) is a region of the northern Indian Ocean bounded on the north by Pakistan, Iran and the Gulf of Oman, on the west by the Gulf of Aden, Guardafui Channel ...
, and the
Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, covering or ~19.8% of the water on Earth's surface. It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia to the east. To the south it is bounded by th ...
. This statue is currently India's 25th tallest. A life-size statue of Valluvar is one among an array of statues installed by the Tamil Nadu government on the stretch of the
Marina Beach.
Legacy
![Thiruvalluvar Statue Kanyakumari](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Thiruvalluvar_Statue_Kanyakumari.jpg)
The Kural remains one of the most influential Tamil texts admired by generations of scholars. The work has inspired Tamil culture and people from all walks of lives, with parallels in the literature of various languages within the Indian subcontinent. Its translations into European languages starting from the early 18th century brought it global fame. Authors influenced by the Kural include
Ilango Adigal
Ilango Adigal ()() was a Jain monk and a poet, sometimes identified as a Chera prince. He is traditionally credited as the author of '' Cilappatikaram'', one of the Five Great Epics of Ancient Tamil literature. He is one of the greatest poets ...
,
Seethalai Satthanar
Satthanar or Chithalai Satthanar ( ta, சாத்தனார் or சீத்தலைச் சாத்தனார், ''cītalai cāttanār'') was the Tamil poet who composed the epic Manimekalai. A total of 11 verses of the Sangam liter ...
,
Sekkilar
Sēkkilān Mādēvadigal Rāmadēva (12th century CE), known popularly by his family name as Sekkizhar, was a saint and a contemporary of Kulottunga Chola II. He compiled and wrote the '' Periya Puranam'' (Great Story or Narrative) in 4253 ver ...
,
Kambar,
Leo Tolstoy
Count Lev Nikolayevich TolstoyTolstoy pronounced his first name as , which corresponds to the romanization ''Lyov''. () (; russian: link=no, Лев Николаевич Толстой,In Tolstoy's day, his name was written as in pre-refor ...
,
Mahatma Gandhi
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (; ; 2 October 1869 – 30 January 1948), popularly known as Mahatma Gandhi, was an Indian lawyer, anti-colonial nationalist Quote: "... marks Gandhi as a hybrid cosmopolitan figure who transformed ... anti- ...
,
Albert Schweitzer
Ludwig Philipp Albert Schweitzer (; 14 January 1875 – 4 September 1965) was an Alsatian-German/French polymath. He was a theologian, organist, musicologist, writer, humanitarian, philosopher, and physician. A Lutheran minister, Schweit ...
,
Ramalinga Swamigal
Thiruvarutprakasa Vallalār Chidambaram Ramalingam (5 October 1823 – 30 January 1874), commonly known in India and across the world as Vallalār, Ramalinga Swamigal and Ramalinga Adigal, was one of the most famous Tamil Saints and also one of t ...
,
E. S. Ariel
E. S. Ariel, also referred to as Monsieur Ariel ( French for "Mr. Ariel") by his contemporaries, was a 19th-century French translator known for his French translation of the ancient Indian philosophical text of the Tirukkural. He translated sel ...
,
Constantius Joseph Beschi
Constantine Joseph Beschi (8 November 1680 – 4 February 1747), also known under his Tamil name of ''Vīramāmunivar'', was an Italian Jesuit priest, missionary in South India, and Tamil language littérateur.
Early years
Born in Castiglione ...
,
Karl Graul
Karl Graul (6 February 1814 – 10 November 1864) was a leader of Leipzig Lutheran mission and a Tamil scholar. He was born in a poor weaver family in Germany. He moved to India as the director of the Lutheran Leipzig Mission in 1849 and ther ...
,
August Friedrich Caemmerer
August Friedrich Caemmerer (1767–1837) was a Danish missionary in South India. He is known as the first translator of the Kural into German.
Biography
August Friedrich Caemmerer arrived in Tranquebar
Tharangambadi (), formerly Tranqueba ...
,
Nathaniel Edward Kindersley
Nathaniel Edward Kindersley (2 February 1763 – 16 February 1831) was an English civil service officer to the British East India Company. He is known for being the first translator of the Tirukkural into English in 1794.
Family
Nathaniel Edwar ...
,
Francis Whyte Ellis
Francis Whyte Ellis (1777–1819) was a British civil servant in the Madras Presidency and a scholar of Tamil and Sanskrit.
Biography
Ellis became a writer in the East India Company's service at Madras in 1796. He was promoted to the offices o ...
,
Charles E. Gover
Charles Edward Gover (1835–1872) was a British folklorist in Madras (present-day Chennai), India. He was one of the earliest translators of the Tirukkural into English.
Life
Gover was the son of Thomas Gover of Poplar, Middlesex. In 1864, he ...
,
George Uglow Pope
George Uglow Pope (24 April 1820 – 11 February 1908), or G. U. Pope, was an Anglican Christian missionary and Tamil scholar who spent 40 years in Tamil Nadu and translated many Tamil texts into English. His popular translations included those ...
,
Vinoba Bhave
Vinayak Narahari, also known as Vinoba Bhave (; 11 September 1895 – 15 November 1982), was an Indian advocate of nonviolence and human rights. Often called ''Acharya'' (Sanskrit teacher), he is best known for the Bhoodan Movement. He is con ...
,
Alexander Piatigorsky
Alexander Moiseyevich Piatigorsky (russian: Алекса́ндр Моисе́евич Пятиго́рский; 30 January 192925 October 2009) was a Soviet dissident, Russian philosopher, scholar of Indian philosophy and culture, historian, phi ...
,
A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, and
Yu Hsi
Yu Hsi (born Hung Ching Yu) (born March 16, 1951) is a Taiwanese Tamil poet and scholar, who has translated the Tirukkural and the poems of Subramaniya Bharathi and poet Bharathidasan in Mandarin. He is the founder president of the Tamil Sangam ...
. Many of these authors have translated the work into their languages.
![KuralDiscourse](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/KuralDiscourse.jpg)
The Kural is an oft-quoted Tamil work. Classical works such as the
Purananuru
The ''Purananuru'' (, literally "four hundred oemsin the genre puram"), sometimes called ''Puram'' or ''Purappattu'', is a classical Tamil poetic work and traditionally the last of the Eight Anthologies (''Ettuthokai'') in the Sangam literatu ...
,
Manimekalai
''Maṇimēkalai'' ( ta, மணிமேகலை, ), also spelled ''Manimekhalai'' or ''Manimekalai'', is a Tamil- Buddhist epic composed by Kulavāṇikaṉ Seethalai Sataṉar probably around the 6th century. It is an "anti-love story", a ...
,
Silappathikaram
''Cilappatikāram'' ( ta, சிலப்பதிகாரம் ml, ചിലപ്പതികാരം,IPA: ʧiləppət̪ikɑːrəm, ''lit.'' "the Tale of an Anklet"), also referred to as ''Silappathikaram'' or ''Silappatikaram'', is the e ...
,
Periya Puranam
The ''Periya purāṇam'' (Tamil: பெரிய புராணம்), that is, the ''great purana'' or epic, sometimes called ''Tiruttontarpuranam'' ("Tiru-Thondar-Puranam", the Purana of the Holy Devotees), is a Tamil poetic ...
, and
Kamba Ramayanam
''Ramavataram'', popularly referred to as ''Kamba Ramayanam'', is a Tamil epic that was written by the Tamil poet Kambar during the 12th century. Based on Valmiki's ''Ramayana'' (which is in Sanskrit), the story describes the life of King ...
all cite the Kural by various names, bestowing numerous titles to the work that was originally untitled by its author. Kural couplets and thoughts are cited in 32 instances in the Purananuru, 35 in
Purapporul Venba Maalai
Purapporul Venbamaalai ( ta, புறப்பொருள் வெண்பாமாலை) is a medieval Tamil text on the grammar of the ''puram'' (lit. "external") genre of the Tamil literature. Authored by Iyyanarithanar, the work is dated ...
, 1 each in
Pathittrupatthu and the
Ten Idylls
The Ten Idylls, known as Pattuppāṭṭu ( ta, பத்துப்பாட்டு) or Ten Lays, is an anthology of ten longer poems in the Sangam literature – the earliest known Tamil literature. They range between about 100 and 800 lin ...
, 13 in the Silappathikaram, 91 in the Manimekalai, 20 in
Jivaka Chinthamani, 12 in Villi Bharatham, 7 in
Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam
The ''Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam'' (; ) is a collection of sixty-four 16th-century Shaivite devotional epic stories by Paranjothi Munivar. They describe the actions (and antics) of Lord Shiva on Earth in a number of disguises to test and help his dev ...
, and 4 in
Kanda Puranam
The ''Skanda Purana'' (IAST: Skanda Purāṇa) is the largest '' Mukyapurana'', a genre of eighteen Hindu religious texts. The text contains over 81,000 verses, and is of Kaumara literature, titled after Skanda, a son of Shiva and Parvati, w ...
. In Kamba Ramayanam, poet
Kambar has used Kural thoughts in as many as 600 instances. The work is commonly quoted in vegetarian conferences, both in India and abroad.
The Kural text was first included in the school syllabus by the colonial era
British government
ga, Rialtas a Shoilse gd, Riaghaltas a Mhòrachd
, image = HM Government logo.svg
, image_size = 220px
, image2 = Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom (HM Government).svg
, image_size2 = 180px
, caption = Royal Arms
, date_es ...
. However, only select 275 couplets have been taught to the schoolchildren from Standards III to XII. Attempts to include the Kural literature as a compulsory subject in schools were ineffective in the decades following
Independence
Independence is a condition of a person, nation, country, or state in which residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over its territory. The opposite of independence is the statu ...
. On 26 April 2016, the
Madras High Court
The Madras High Court is a High Court in India. It has appellate jurisdiction over the state of Tamil Nadu and the union territory of Puducherry. It is located in Chennai, and is the third oldest high court of India after the Calcutta High C ...
directed the state government to include all the 108 chapters of the
Books of Aram and
Porul of the Kural text in school syllabus for classes VI through XII from the academic year 2017–2018 "to build a nation with moral values." The court further observed, "No other philosophical or religious work has such moral and intellectual approach to problems of life."
The Kural has inspired many, including Mahatma Gandhi, to pursue the path of ahimsa or non-violence.
Leo Tolstoy
Count Lev Nikolayevich TolstoyTolstoy pronounced his first name as , which corresponds to the romanization ''Lyov''. () (; russian: link=no, Лев Николаевич Толстой,In Tolstoy's day, his name was written as in pre-refor ...
was inspired by the concept of
non-violence found in the Kural when he read a
German
German(s) may refer to:
* Germany (of or related to)
** Germania (historical use)
* Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language
** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law
**Ge ...
version of the book, who in turn instilled the concept in
Mahatma Gandhi
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (; ; 2 October 1869 – 30 January 1948), popularly known as Mahatma Gandhi, was an Indian lawyer, anti-colonial nationalist Quote: "... marks Gandhi as a hybrid cosmopolitan figure who transformed ... anti- ...
through his
A Letter to a Hindu
"A Letter to a Hindu" (also known as "A Letter to a Hindoo") was a letter written by Leo Tolstoy to Tarak Nath Das on 14 December 1908.
The letter was written in response to two letters sent by Das, seeking support from the Russian author and thi ...
when young Gandhi sought his guidance. Gandhi then took to studying the Kural in prison, which eventually culminated in his starting the non-violence movement to fight against the British.
'Vallalar' Ramalinga Swamigal was inspired by the Kural at a young age, who then spent his life promoting compassion and non-violence, emphasizing on non-killing and meatless way of life.
See also
*
Eastern philosophy
*
List of historic Indian texts
This article attempts to capture in one place the names of books and other works written in ancient India. For the purpose of this list, we consider all books written in India up to and including the Mughal era as being 'ancient books'.
Collect ...
*
A Letter to a Hindu
"A Letter to a Hindu" (also known as "A Letter to a Hindoo") was a letter written by Leo Tolstoy to Tarak Nath Das on 14 December 1908.
The letter was written in response to two letters sent by Das, seeking support from the Russian author and thi ...
by
Leo Tolstoy
Count Lev Nikolayevich TolstoyTolstoy pronounced his first name as , which corresponds to the romanization ''Lyov''. () (; russian: link=no, Лев Николаевич Толстой,In Tolstoy's day, his name was written as in pre-refor ...
*
Tao Te Ching
The ''Tao Te Ching'' (, ; ) is a Chinese classic text written around 400 BC and traditionally credited to the sage Laozi, though the text's authorship, date of composition and date of compilation are debated. The oldest excavated portion d ...
*
Manu Smriti
The ''Manusmṛiti'' ( sa, मनुस्मृति), also known as the ''Mānava-Dharmaśāstra'' or Laws of Manu, is one of the many legal texts and constitution among the many ' of Hinduism. In ancient India, the sages often wrote their ...
*
Vedas
upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''.
The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...
Notes
a. The Kural strictly insists on moral vegetarianism, the doctrine that humans are morally obligated to refrain from
eating meat or
harming sentient beings
Sentience is the capacity to experience feelings and sensations. The word was first coined by philosophers in the 1630s for the concept of an ability to feel, derived from Latin '' sentientem'' (a feeling), to distinguish it from the ability to ...
, which is equated to veganism of today. The concept of
ahimsa
Ahimsa (, IAST: ''ahiṃsā'', ) is the ancient Indian principle of nonviolence which applies to all living beings. It is a key virtue in most Indian religions: Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism.Bajpai, Shiva (2011). The History of India ...
or , which remains the moral foundation of vegetarianism and veganism, is described in the Kural chapter on
non-violence (Chapter 32). For modern philosophers' take on this, see, for example,
Engel's "The Immorality of Eating Meat" (2000).
b. For examples of Sanskrit loan words, see Zvelebil's ''The Smile of Murugan''.
c. The
Valluvar Year
Valluvar year, also known as the Thiruvalluvar year, is an officially recognized Tamil calendar system for use in Tamil Nadu. It is calculated on the basis of the supposed year of birth of the Tamil poet-philosopher Valluvar. When comparing it ...
is obtained by adding 31 years to the present
Gregorian year
Gregorian may refer to:
*The thought or ideology of Pope Gregory I or Pope Gregory VII (also called ''Gregorianism'')
*Things named for Pope Gregory I:
**Gregorian chant, the central tradition of Western plainchant, a form of monophonic, unaccompa ...
.
d. Nallaswamy Pillai declares Pope's claim as "an absurd literary anachronism" and says that the first two books of the Kural in particular are "a stumbling block which can browbeat the most sublime ideas of Christian morality."
John Lazarus observes that, in stark contrast to the Bible's concept of killing, which refers only to the taking away of human life, the Kural's concept of killing "deals exclusively with the literal taking away of life" and thus applies to both humans and animals.
e. Quote: "Non-killing is an absolute virtue (''aram'') in the ''Arattuppal'' (the glory of virtue section), but the army's duty is to kill in battle and the king has to execute a number of criminals in the process of justice. In these cases, the violations of the ''aram''
n the earlier sectionare justified
y Thiruvalluvar
Y, or y, is the twenty-fifth and penultimate Letter (alphabet), letter of the Latin alphabet, used in the English alphabet, modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. According to some auth ...
in virtue of the special duties cast on the king and the justification is that 'a few wicked must be weeded out to save the general public' (TK 550)."
f. The couplets are generally numbered in a linear fashion across the three books, covering all the 1,330 couplets. They can also be denoted by their chapter number and couplet number within the chapter. Thus, the third couplet in Chapter 104 (
Agriculture
Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people to ...
), for instance, can be numbered either as 1033 or, less commonly, as 104:3. Since the medieval commentators have variously changed the chapter ordering within the books of the Kural text and couplet ordering within the chapters, the present numbering of the chapters and couplets is not the author's.
g.
Avvaiyar
Avvaiyar (Tamil: ஔவையார்) was the title of more than one female poet who were active during different periods of Tamil literature. They were some of the most famous and important female poets of the Tamil canon.
Abidhana Chinta ...
's ''Gnanakural'' and
Umapathi Shivachariyar
Umapathi Shivachariyar (13th century–14th century CE) was a Tamil poet and scholar. It is from his writings that details about earlier poets, chiefly Parimelalhagar, have become known.
Works
Umapati Sivacharya celebrated the life of the Saivite ...
's ''Tiruvarutpayan'', both of which appeared centuries later, further the ideas of the Kural's chapters on ''veedu'' or ''moksha'' and are considered as ''Veettuppāl'' (Books of Salvation).
h. The doctrine of ''
nishkama karma
''Nishkama Karma'' (Sanskrit IAST : ''Niṣkāmakarma''), self-less or desireless action, is an action performed without any expectation of fruits or results, and the central tenet of Karma Yoga path to liberation. Its modern advocates press upon ...
'' in Hinduism states that the dharmic householder can achieve the same goals as the renouncing monk through "inner renunciation", that is "motiveless action." Cf. Kural 629: "He who never exulted in joy will not be depressed by sorrow." This is recommended by the
Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita (; sa, श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता, lit=The Song by God, translit=śrīmadbhagavadgītā;), often referred to as the Gita (), is a 700- verse Hindu scripture that is part of the epic ''Mahabharata'' (c ...
as well, which discusses and synthesizes the three dominant trends in Hinduism, namely, enlightenment-based renunciation, dharma-based householder life, and devotion-based theism, and this synthetic answer of the Gita recommends that one must resist the "either–or" view, and consider a "both–and" view.
i. As observed by
P. S. Sundaram
P. S. Sundaram (1910–1998), born Pazmarneri Subrahmanya Sundaram, was an Indian professor of English, best known for translating the Tirukkural and various Tamil classics into English. He had degrees in English from the University of Madras an ...
in the introduction to his work, while "all other sins may be redeemed, but never ingratitude," Valluvar couldn't understand "how anyone could wish to fatten himself by feeding on the fat of others."
j. ''Commentary'' – sometimes referred to as ''
bhashya Bhashya () is a "commentary" or "exposition" of any primary or secondary text in ancient or medieval Indian literature. Common in Sanskrit literature, ''Bhashya'' is also found in other Indian languages. Bhashya are found in various fields, ranging ...
'' in the Indian tradition – refers to explanations and interpretations of aphoristic texts. These are written by various scholars to develop, comment on and expound the terse ideas such as a ''kural'' or a ''
sutra
''Sutra'' ( sa, सूत्र, translit=sūtra, translit-std=IAST, translation=string, thread)Monier Williams, ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press, Entry fo''sutra'' page 1241 in Indian literary traditions refers to an aph ...
'' or any text of significant significance (e.g. Jain, Hindu and Buddhist scriptures).
k. Compare this with Chapter 7 of the ''Tirukkuṟaḷ''—the Kural chapter on bearing children.
l.
Government of Tamil Nadu
Government of Tamil Nadu is the subnational government for the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is seated at Fort St George, Chennai. The legislature of Tamil Nadu was bicameral until 1986, when it was replaced by a unicameral legislature, lik ...
, G. O. Ms. 1193, dated 1967.
m. A stone inscription found on the walls of a well at the Periya Palayathamman temple at
Royapettai indicates Ellis' regard for Valluvar. It is one of the 27 wells dug on the orders of Ellis in 1818, when Madras suffered a severe drinking
water shortage
Water scarcity (closely related to water stress or water crisis) is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two types of water scarcity: physical or economic water scarcity. Physical water scarcity is wher ...
. In the long inscription Ellis praises Valluvar and uses a couplet from the ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' to explain his actions during the drought. When he was in charge of the Madras treasury and mint, he also issued a gold coin bearing Valluvar's image. The Tamil inscription on his grave makes note of his commentary of ''Tirukkuṟaḷ''.
n. The original inscription in Tamil written in the ''asiriyapa''
metre
The metre (British spelling) or meter (American spelling; see spelling differences) (from the French unit , from the Greek noun , "measure"), symbol m, is the primary unit of length in the International System of Units (SI), though its pref ...
and first-person perspective: (The kural couplet he quotes is in italics)
, , , , , , , , , ' , ' , , , , , , , , , , .
Citations
References
Classical primary sources (Tamil)
* ,
புறநானூறு uranānuru(Verse 34), See original text i
Tamil Virtual University
*
*
Ilango Adigal
Ilango Adigal ()() was a Jain monk and a poet, sometimes identified as a Chera prince. He is traditionally credited as the author of '' Cilappatikaram'', one of the Five Great Epics of Ancient Tamil literature. He is one of the greatest poets ...
, ''சிலப்பதிகாரம்
ilappathigāram', See original text i
Tamil Virtual University
*
Kambar, ''கம்பராமாயணம்
ambarāmāyanam', See original text i
Tamil Virtual University
*
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Seethalai Sāthanār, ''மணிமேகலை
animekalai', See original text i
Tamil Virtual University.*
Sekkiḻar, ''
பெரிய புராணம் eriya Puranam', See original text i
Tamil Virtual University.* See original text i
Project Madurai
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Further reading
* Stuart Blackburn, "The Legend of Valluvar and Tamil Literary History," Modern Asian Studies 34, 2 (May, 2000): 459.
* Diaz, S. M. (2000). ''Tirukkural with English Translation and Explanation.'' (Mahalingam, N., General Editor; 2 volumes), Coimbatore, India: Ramanandha Adigalar Foundation.
* Gnanasambandan, A. S. (1994). ''Kural Kanda Vaazhvu''. Chennai: Gangai Puthaga Nilayam.
* Udaiyar Koil Guna. (n.d.). திருக்குறள் ஒரு தேசிய நூல்
irukkural: A National Book(Pub. No. 772). Chennai: International Institute of Tamil Studies.
* Karunanidhi, M. (1996). ''Kuraloviam''. Chennai: Thirumagal Nilayam.
* Klimkeit, Hans-Joachim. (1971). ''Anti-religious Movement in Modern South India'' (in German). Bonn, Germany: Ludwig Roehrscheid Publication, pp. 128–133.
* Kuppusamy, R. (n.d.). ''Tirukkural: Thatthuva, Yoga, Gnyana Urai''
ardbound Salem: Leela Padhippagam. 1067 pp. https://vallalars.blogspot.in/2017/05/thirukkural-thathuva-yoga-gnayna-urai.html
* Nagaswamy, R. ''Tirukkural: An Abridgement of Sastras''. Mumbai: Giri, .
* Nehring, Andreas. (2003). ''Orientalism and Mission'' (in German). Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrasowitz Publication.
* M. S. Purnalingam Pillai. (n.d.). Critical Studies in Kural. Chennai: International Institute of Tamil Studies.
* Subramaniyam, Ka Naa. (1987). ''Tiruvalluvar and his Tirukkural.'' New Delhi: Bharatiya Jnanpith.
* '' Thirukkural with English Couplets'' L'Auberson, Switzerland: Editions ASSA, .
* Thirunavukkarasu, K. D. (1973). Tributes to Tirukkural: A compilation. In: ''First All India Tirukkural Seminar Papers''. Madras: University of Madras Press. pp. 124.
* Varadharasan, Mu. (1974). ''Thirukkual Alladhu Vaazhkkai Vilakkam''. Chennai: Pari Nilayam.
* Varadharasan, Mu. (1996). ''Tamil Ilakkiya Varalaru''. New Delhi: Sakitya Academy.
* Viswanathan, R. (2011). ''Thirukkural: Universal Tamil Scripture (Along with the Commentary of Parimelazhagar in English)'' (Including Text in Tamil and Roman). New Delhi: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. 278 pp.
* Yogi Shuddhananda Bharati (Trans.). (15 May 1995). ''Thirukkural with English Couplets.'' Chennai: Tamil Chandror Peravai.
* Zvelebil, K. (1962). Foreword. In: ''Tirukkural by Tiruvalluvar'' (Translated by K. M. Balasubramaniam). Madras: Manali Lakshmana Mudaliar Specific Endowments. 327 pages.
External links
Tirukkural: Work by Tiruvalluvar from Encyclopaedia BritannicaG. U. Pope's English Translation of the TirukkuralTirukkural and Psychology*
{{DEFAULTSORT:Tirukkural
Sangam literature
Tamil philosophy
Tamil Hindu literature
Tamil Jain literature
Hindu texts
Jain texts
Ancient Indian philosophy
Philosophy books
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Veganism
Vegetarianism
Jain vegetarianism
Public domain books