Graphic notation (or graphic score) is the representation of music through the use of visual symbols outside the realm of traditional music notation. Graphic notation became popular in the 1950s, and can be used either in combination with or instead of traditional music notation.Pryer, Anthony. "Graphic Notation." ''The Oxford Companion to Music'', edited by Alison Latham. ''Oxford Music Online''. 12 April 2011 Graphic notation was influenced by contemporary visual art trends in its conception, bringing stylistic components from modern art into music. Composers often rely on graphic notation in

experimental music Experimental music is a general label for any music or music genre that pushes existing boundaries and genre definitions. Experimental compositional practice is defined broadly by exploratory sensibilities radically opposed to, and questioning of, ...

, where standard musical notation can be ineffective. Other uses include pieces where an

aleatoric Aleatoricism or aleatorism, the noun associated with the adjectival aleatory and aleatoric, is a term popularised by the musical composer Pierre Boulez, but also Witold Lutosławski and Franco Evangelisti, for compositions resulting from "action ...

or undetermined effect is desired. One of the earliest pioneers of this technique was Earle Brown, who, along with

John Cage John Milton Cage Jr. (September 5, 1912 – August 12, 1992) was an American composer and music theorist. A pioneer of indeterminacy in music, electroacoustic music, and non-standard use of musical instruments, Cage was one of the leading fi ...

, sought to liberate performers from the constraints of notation and make them active participants in the creation of the music.

Characteristics

Graphic notation is characterized by its variability and lack of standardization. According to ''Baker's Student Encyclopedia of Music, Vol. 1'', "Graphic notation is used to indicate extremely precise (or intentionally imprecise) pitch or to stimulate musical behavior or actions in performance." Modern graphic notation relies heavily on the imagination and inspiration of each individual performer to interpret the visual content provided by the composer. Because of this relative freedom, the realization of graphically notated pieces usually varies from performance to performance. For example, in notation indication "E" of his piece ''Concert for Piano and Orchestra'', John Cage writes: "Play with hands indicated. Where clefs differ, a note is either bass or treble", an indeterminacy which is not unusual in Cage's work, and which leaves decision-making up to the performer. Some graphic scores can be defined as ''action-based,'' where musical gestures are notated as shapes instead of conventional musical ideas. The use of graphic notation within a score can vary widely, from the score being made up entirely of graphic notation to graphic notation being a small part of an otherwise largely-traditional score. Some composers include written explanations to aid the performer in interpreting the graphic notation, while other composers opt to leave the interpretation entirely up to the performer. Graphic notation is difficult to characterize with specificity, as the notation system is only limited by the imagination and ability of the composer. Though some composers, like John Cage, formulate graphic notation systems which unify the approach of specific pieces, or several pieces, there is no universal consensus on the parameters of graphic notation and its use.

History

Early history

Though its most popular usage occurred in the mid-twentieth century, the first evidence of graphic notation dates back much earlier. Originally called "

eye music Eye music (often referred to in English by its exact German translation ''Augenmusik'') describes graphical features of scores which when performed are unnoticeable by the listener. Difficulties in defining eye music By simple definition eye music ...

", these graphic scores bear much resemblance to the scores of composers like

George Crumb George Henry Crumb Jr. (24 October 1929 – 6 February 2022) was an American composer of avant-garde contemporary classical music. Early in his life he rejected the widespread modernist usage of serialism, developing a highly personal musical ...

. One of the earliest surviving pieces of eye music is ''Belle, Bonne, Sage'' by

Baude Cordier Baude Cordier () was a French composer in the style of late medieval music. Virtually nothing is known of Cordier's life, aside from an inscription on one of his works which indicates he was born in Rheims and had a Master of Arts. Some scholar ...

, a

Renaissance The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass ideas ...

composer. His score, formed in the shape of a heart, was intended to enhance the meaning of the chanson. Characteristic of the

Ars subtilior ''Ars subtilior'' (Latin for 'subtler art') is a musical style characterized by rhythmic and notational complexity, centered on Paris, Avignon in southern France, and also in northern Spain at the end of the fourteenth century.Hoppin 1978, 47 ...

, "experimentations with mensural signs and graphic shapes and colours were often a feature of musical design – for the sake of visual, rather than necessarily audible effect." Another example of eye music from the ''ars subtilior'' is

Jacob Senleches Jacob Senleches ( fl. 1382/1383 – 1395) (also Jacob de Senlechos .e. Senleches'' and Jacopinus Senlesses) was a Franco-Flemish composer and harpist of the late Middle Ages. He composed in a style commonly known as the ''ars subtilior''. Life and ...

' La harpe de melodie, where the voices are notated on a stave that appears to be the strings of a harp. Eye music's popularity died down after the Humanist movement of the mid-16th century, later to be revitalized in the twentieth century as the use of graphic scores became prominent once again. The 19th century music educator

Pierre Galin Pierre Galin (1786–1822) was a French music educator, and developer of what became the Galin-Paris-Chevé system. Life and career Galin studied mathematics and commerce, and became a mathematics teacher in Bordeaux, at a school for children wit ...

developed a method of notating music known as the ''Galin-Paris-Chevé'' system, building on a notation system created in the 18th century by

Jean-Jacques Rousseau Jean-Jacques Rousseau (, ; 28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer. His political philosophy influenced the progress of the Age of Enlightenment throughout Europe, as well as aspects of the French Revolu ...

. This system used numbers to indicate scale degrees, and used dots either above or below the note to indicate if they were in the lowest octave or the highest. The middle octave, relative to the example, contained no dots. Flats and sharps were notated using backslashes and forward slashes respectively. Prolongations of the note were notated using periods, and silence was notated with the number zero. This method was primarily used to teach sight-singing. The usage of symbols to indicate musical direction have been likened to an early version of graphic notation.

Uses in the twentieth century

Experimental music Experimental music is a general label for any music or music genre that pushes existing boundaries and genre definitions. Experimental compositional practice is defined broadly by exploratory sensibilities radically opposed to, and questioning of, ...

appeared in the United States and Europe during the 1950s, when many of the once untouchable parameters of traditional music began to be challenged. Aleatoric music,

indeterminate music Indeterminacy is a composing approach in which some aspects of a musical work are left open to chance or to the interpreter's free choice. John Cage, a pioneer of indeterminacy, defined it as "the ability of a piece to be performed in substantially ...

musique concrète Musique concrète (; ): " problem for any translator of an academic work in French is that the language is relatively abstract and theoretical compared to English; one might even say that the mode of thinking itself tends to be more schematic, ...

and

electronic music Electronic music is a genre of music that employs electronic musical instruments, digital instruments, or circuitry-based music technology in its creation. It includes both music made using electronic and electromechanical means ( electroac ...

shook previously unquestioned concepts, such as musical time or the function of the musician, and dared to add others to musical space in all its dimensions, with all their ontological consequences and burdens. They also changed the roles of the composer, the performer and the public, giving them totally new functions to explore. In this context, the score, which had to a great extent been considered a mere support for musical writing (with the exception of

), began to flirt with the limits of the work and its identity. This marriage produced three paths: the first considered the musical score to be a representation of organized sound; the second conceived it as an extension of sound; and the third viewed it as another type of music, a visual music with its own autonomy, independent of sound. The score took on new meanings and went from being a mere support of sound to being an extension of the work, or even another work altogether, an element that was as important as the sounds and silences it contained, or more. These conceptions required a new language and a new reading of what it is to be musical. They also required a new notation, one that would reflect the changes taking place in the second artistic vanguards, and contain them, granting them a new semantics. In this way, taken with the porousness of

with respect to the

plastic arts Plastic arts are art forms which involve physical manipulation of a plastic medium by molding or modeling such as sculpture or ceramics. Less often the term may be used broadly for all the visual arts (such as painting, sculpture, film and pho ...

, notation came to be more and more influenced by a dialogue with painting, installations and performativity. As J.Y. Bosseur mentions in ''La musique du XXè siècle à la croisé des artes'', the score progressed towards representing the management of space, a graphic space that allows us to know the multiple connections enclosed within it. Graphic notation in its modern form first appeared in the 1950s as an evolution of movement of Indeterminacy as pioneered by

. The technique was originally used by

avant-garde The avant-garde (; In 'advance guard' or ' vanguard', literally 'fore-guard') is a person or work that is experimental, radical, or unorthodox with respect to art, culture, or society.John Picchione, The New Avant-garde in Italy: Theoretical ...

musicians and manifested itself as the use of symbols to convey information that could not be rendered with traditional notation such as extended techniques. Graphic scores have, since their conception, evolved into two broadly defined categories, one being the invention of new notation systems used to convey specific musical techniques and the other the use of conceptual notation such as shapes, drawings and other artistic techniques that are meant to evoke improvisation from the performer. Examples of the former include

Morton Feldman Morton Feldman (January 12, 1926 – September 3, 1987) was an American composer. A major figure in 20th-century classical music, Feldman was a pioneer of indeterminate music, a development associated with the experimental New York School ...

's ''Projection 1,'' which was the result of Feldman drawing abstract shapes on graph paper, and Stockhausen's ''

Prozession ''Prozession'' (Procession), for tamtam, viola, electronium, piano, microphones, filters, and potentiometers (six performers), is a composition by Karlheinz Stockhausen, written in 1967. It is Number 23 in the catalogue of the composer's works. Co ...

''. Examples of the latter include Earle Brown's ''December 1952'' and Cornelius Cardew's ''Treatise'', which was written in response to Cage's '' 4'33"'' and which he wrote after having worked as Stockhausen's assistant. The score consists of 193 pages of lines and shapes on a white background. Here the lines represented elements in space and the score was merely a representation of that space at a given instant. In Europe, one of the most notable users was Sylvano Bussotti, whose scores have often been displayed as pieces of visual art by enthusiasts. In 1969, in an effort to promote the movement of abstract notation,

and Allison Knowles published an archive of excerpts of scores by 269 composers with the intention of showing "the many directions in which notation is now going". Other notable pioneers of graphic notation include composers such as

Roman Haubenstock-Ramati Roman Haubenstock-Ramati ( he, רוֹמן האובּנשׁטוֹק-רָמָתִי; 27 February 1919 – 3 March 1994) was a composer and music editor who worked in Kraków, Tel Aviv and Vienna. Life Haubenstock-Ramati was born in Kraków. He stud ...

Mauricio Kagel Mauricio Raúl Kagel (; 24 December 1931 – 18 September 2008) was an Argentine-German composer. Biography Kagel was born in Buenos Aires, Argentina, into an Ashkenazi Jewish family that had fled from Russia in the 1920s . He studied music, his ...

György Ligeti György Sándor Ligeti (; ; 28 May 1923 – 12 June 2006) was a Hungarian-Austrian composer of contemporary classical music. He has been described as "one of the most important avant-garde composers in the latter half of the twentieth century" ...

('' Artikulation''), Krzysztof Penderecki,

Karlheinz Stockhausen Karlheinz Stockhausen (; 22 August 1928 – 5 December 2007) was a German composer, widely acknowledged by critics as one of the most important but also controversial composers of the 20th and early 21st centuries. He is known for his groun ...

, and Iannis Xenakis,

Constance Cochnower Virtue Constance Cochnower Virtue (6 January 1905 – 21 February 1992) was an American composer and organist who developed a musical notation system called the ''Virtue Notagraph''. Life and career Virtue was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, to Robert and Edi ...

, and Christian Wolff.

Twenty-first-century advancements

In 2008, Theresa Sauer edited a compendium featuring graphic scores by composers from over fifty countries, demonstrating how widespread the practice has become. In addition to the more widespread popularity of graphic notation, new technology has expanded its possibilities. In his book ''The Digital Score: Musicianship, Creativity, and Innovation'', Craig Vear describes how

Artificial Intelligence Artificial intelligence (AI) is intelligence—perceiving, synthesizing, and inferring information—demonstrated by machines, as opposed to intelligence displayed by animals and humans. Example tasks in which this is done include speech re ...

and

animation Animation is a method by which image, still figures are manipulated to appear as Motion picture, moving images. In traditional animation, images are drawn or painted by hand on transparent cel, celluloid sheets to be photographed and exhibited ...

can be used to enhance the graphic score experience. He claims that these technologies are "the logical development of graphic score experiments from the latter part of the twentieth century. An interesting element of these is that they have to move in order for them to be read; without movement, they are unintelligible."

Examples

As a notational system

*''Time-based pictographic scores'' such as ''Waterwalk'' by

, uses a combination of time marking a pictographic notation as instruction on how and when to perform certain actions. *''Pictographic scores'' such as ''Stripsody'' by Cathy Berberian use only drawings and text, foregoing any sort of time reference. This allows the performer to interpret the piece as they like. *''Line staves showing approximate pitch'', with the actual pitches being decided upon performance. Relative pitch staff

*''Altered notation'' can be seen in

's work, where he uses traditional notation but presents the music on the page in a graphic or nontraditional manner such as spirals or circles. One example of altered notation is Crumb's ''

Makrokosmos ''Makrokosmos'' is a series of four volumes of pieces for piano by American composer George Crumb. The name alludes to '' Mikrokosmos'', a set of piano pieces by Béla Bartók, one of Crumb's favorite 20th-century composers. The first volume of t ...

''" for Amplified Piano. Crumb's score contained three detailed pages of instructions, with movements including ''Primeval Sounds'', ''Crucifixus'' and ''Spiral Galaxy''. *''New specific notation system'', that is, a new of specifically and graphically notate musical actions like that of Xenakis' ''Psappha''.

As abstract visual reference

*''Time-based abstract representation'', can be seen in Hans-Christoph Steiner's score for ''Solitude'' in which the music is represented using symbols and illustrations. Note that here, time is still represented horizontally from left to right like in a pitch graph system, and thus implies that the piece has a specific

form Form is the shape, visual appearance, or configuration of an object. In a wider sense, the form is the way something happens. Form also refers to: *Form (document), a document (printed or electronic) with spaces in which to write or enter data ...

*''Time-based abstract notation'', such as

Rudolf Komorous Rudolf Komorous (born 8 December 1931, Prague, Czechoslovakia) is a Czech-born Canadian composer. His works include ''Twenty-Three Poems about Horses'' (1978), based on the poetry of Li Ho, the opera ''No no miya'' (1988) which uses elements of N ...

's ''Chanson'' utilizes abstract notation with time indication, or least a direction in which the piece is read and therefore implies a form. *''Free abstract representations'', such as Brown's ''December 1952'', where the form, pitch material and instrumentation are left up to the performer. *Another example is

's ''Aria'', it might look like random squiggles, but each line indicates a different style of singing, notated in wavy lines in ten different colors, and the black squares indicate non specified 'non-musical' sounds. *''Free abstract notation'', such as

Mark Applebaum Mark Applebaum (born 1967 in Chicago, Illinois) is an American composer and full professor of music composition and theory at Stanford University. Biography Applebaum received his PhD in music composition from the University of California, Sa ...

's "The Metaphysics of Notation" and where elements of traditional music notation are melded with abstract designs. Phillips golden flower piece

*Another example is Tom Phillips' ''Golden Flower Piece,'' this piece uses uppercase letters to show notes that should be played in the bass, and lowercase letters played in a higher register. You're allowed to add flats and sharps as you please. And the dots around the notes are supposed to help with how loud to play the note, and how long to hold it for.

Other notable users

Notable practitioners of graphic notation not mentioned previously include: *

Aphex Twin Richard David James (born 18 August 1971), best known as Aphex Twin, is an Irish-born British musician, composer and DJ. He is known for his idiosyncratic work in electronic music, electronic styles such as techno, ambient music, ambient, and jun ...

* Dennis Báthory-Kitsz * Cathy Berberian *

Luciano Berio Luciano Berio (24 October 1925 – 27 May 2003) was an Italian composer noted for his experimental work (in particular his 1968 composition ''Sinfonia'' and his series of virtuosic solo pieces titled ''Sequenza''), and for his pioneering work ...

* John Bergamo * Anthony Braxton *

André Boucourechliev André Boucourechliev (28 July 1925 – 13 November 1997) was a French composer of Bulgarian origin. Born in Sofia, Boucourechliev studied piano at the Conservatory there. Subsequently, he studied in Paris at the École Normale de Musique de Pari ...

* Leo Brouwer *

Herbert Brün Herbert Brün (July 9, 1918 – November 6, 2000) was a composer, pioneer of electronic and computer music, and cybernetician. Born in Berlin, Germany, he taught at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign from 1962 until he retired, several y ...

* Randolph Coleman *

Henry Cowell Henry Dixon Cowell (; March 11, 1897 – December 10, 1965) was an American composer, writer, pianist, publisher and teacher. Marchioni, Tonimarie (2012)"Henry Cowell: A Life Stranger Than Fiction" ''The Juilliard Journal''. Retrieved 19 June 202 ...

Emily Doolittle Emily Lenore Doolittle (born 16 October 1972) is a Canadian composer, zoomusicologist, and Athenaeum Research Fellow and Lecturer in Composition at the Royal Conservatoire of Scotland based in Glasgow, Scotland. Her music, frequently inspired by ...

* Toby Driver * Iancu Dumitrescu *

Brian Eno Brian Peter George St John le Baptiste de la Salle Eno (; born Brian Peter George Eno, 15 May 1948) is a British musician, composer, record producer and visual artist best known for his contributions to ambient music and work in rock, pop an ...

Eric Ewazen Eric Ewazen (; born March 1, 1954, Cleveland, Ohio) is an American composer and teacher. Biography Ewazen studied composition under Samuel Adler, Milton Babbitt, Gunther Schuller, Joseph Schwantner, Warren Benson, and Eugene Kurtz at the Eas ...

Goldie Clifford Joseph Price MBE (born 19 September 1965), better known as Goldie, is a British music producer and DJ. Initially gaining exposure for his work as a graffiti artist, Goldie became well known for his pioneering role as a musician in th ...

Jerry Goldsmith Jerrald King Goldsmith (February 10, 1929July 21, 2004) was an American composer and conductor known for his work in film and television scoring. He composed scores for five films in the ''Star Trek'' franchise and three in the Rambo (franchise) ...

Michail Goleminov Michail Marinov Goleminov ( bg, Михаил Маринов Големинов) (2 June 1956 – 26 February 2022) was a Bulgarian pianist, conductor and composer. Life and career Goleminov was born in Bulgaria, and was the son of composer Mari ...

Jonny Greenwood Jonathan Richard Guy Greenwood (born 5 November 1971) is an English musician and composer. He is the lead guitarist and keyboardist of the alternative rock band Radiohead, and has written numerous film scores. Along with his elder brother, th ...

* Barry Guy * Lou Harrison *

Alfred Harth Alfred Harth, now known as Alfred 23 Harth or A23H, is a German multimedia artist, band leader, multi-instrumentalist musician, and composer who creatively mixes genres. Career Harth founded a free improvisation band, Just Music (1967 to 1972) ...

Panayiotis Kokoras Panayiotis Kokoras ( el, Παναγιώτης Κόκορας; born 1974, Ptolemaida) is a Greek composer and computer music innovator. Kokoras's sound compositions use timbre as the main element of form. His concept of "holophony" describes his ...

Andrzej Krzanowski Andrzej Krzanowski (9 April 1951, in Czechowice-Dziedzice – 1 October 1990, in Czechowice-Dziedzice) was a Polish composer of classical music, accordionist, and teacher. Between 1971–75 Krzanowski studied with Henryk Górecki at the Un ...

Bruno Liberda Bruno Liberda (born February 17, 1953 in Mödling, Vienna) is an Austrian composer of contemporary classical music. Life Liberda started his academic and musical education when he was 16. He studied composition under Alfred Uhl at the Unive ...

* Helmut Lachenmann * Yuri Landman * Anestis Logothetis *

Raymond MacDonald Raymond MacDonald is a saxophonist, composer and psychologist with an extensive career in music, cross-disciplinary arts and academia. Much of his work explores the boundaries and ambiguities between what is conventionally seen as improvisation and ...

Robert Moran Robert Moran (born January 8, 1937) is an American composer of operas and ballets as well as numerous orchestral, vocal, chamber and dance works. Life A native of Denver, Moran studied twelve-tone music privately with Hans Apostel in Vienna an ...

Luigi Morleo Luigi Morleo (born 16 November 1970 in Mesagne, Province of Brindisi) is an Italian percussionist and composer of contemporary music, who lives in Bari and teaches at the Niccolò Piccinni Conservatory. He uses varied musical and artistic ...

* Conlon Nancarrow *

Pauline Oliveros Pauline Oliveros (May 30, 1932 – November 24, 2016) was an American composer, accordionist and a central figure in the development of post-war experimental and electronic music. She was a founding member of the San Francisco Tape Music Center ...

Roberto Paci Dalò Roberto Paci Dalò is an Italian author, composer and musician, film maker and theatre director, sound and visual artist, radio-maker. He is the co-founder and director of the performing arts ensemblGiardini Pensiliand he has been the artistic d ...

* Krzysztof Penderecki *

Norbert Walter Peters Norbert Walter Peters (born March 17, 1954) in Stolberg (Rhld.) / district of Aachen is a German composer, sound artist and author for Radio Art. Biography Early years Norbert Walter Peters finished his musical education at the Aachen academy ...

Deborah Pritchard Deborah Pritchard is an award-winning British composer. She is known for her concert works, a compositional approach informed by her Synesthesia, synaesthesia, and her work in response to Visual arts, visual artists, most notably Marc Chagall and ...

* Sylvano Bussotti * Emanuel Dimas de Melo Pimenta *

Randy Raine-Reusch Randy Raine-Reusch (born 1952) is a Canadian composer, performer, improviser, and multi-instrumentalist specializing in New and Experimental Music for instruments from around the world, particularly those from East and Southeast Asia. Research ...

Rival Consoles Ryan Lee West, known by his stage name Rival Consoles, is a British electronic musician, living in London. All of his albums and EPs have been released by Erased Tapes Records. Biography West was born in Leicester. He learned to play guitar in ...

* Bernard Rands *

Roger Reynolds Roger Lee Reynolds (born July 18, 1934) is a Pulitzer prize-winning American composer. He is known for his capacity to integrate diverse ideas and resources, and for the seamless blending of traditional musical sounds with those newly enabled by t ...

Matana Roberts Matana Roberts (born 1975) is an American sound experimentalist, visual artist, jazz saxophonist and clarinetist, composer and improviser based in New York City. They have previously been an active member of the Association for the Advancement of ...

Marina Rosenfeld Marina Rosenfeld is an American composer, sound artist and visual artist based in New York City.Sven-David Sandström Sven-David Sandström (30 October 1942, in Motala – 10 June 2019) was a Swedish classical composer of operas, oratorios, ballets, and choral works, as well as orchestral works. Life and career Sandström studied art history and musicology at ...

Leon Schidlowsky Jorge León Schidlowsky Gaete (; 21 July 1931 – 10 October 2022) was a Chilean-Israeli composer and painter. He wrote music for orchestra, chamber ensemble, choir, and instruments including the piano, violin, cello, flute, mandolin, guitar, ha ...

R. Murray Schafer Raymond Murray Schafer (18 July 1933 – 14 August 2021) was a Canadian composer, writer, music educator, and environmentalist perhaps best known for his World Soundscape Project, concern for acoustic ecology, and his book ''The Tuning of the ...

R. Murray Schafer
at National Arts Centre ''ArtsAlive'' web site. Retrieved 2011-11-17. *

Netty Simons Netty Simons (née Rothenberg) (b. 26 October 1913, d. 1 April 1994) was an American pianist, music editor, music educator and composer. Biography Netty Simons was born in New York City and studied music at Third Street Music School. She graduated ...

Stuart Saunders Smith Stuart Saunders Smith (born 16 March 1948) is an American composer and percussionist. After having studied composition and music theory at three music institutions, Smith is currently based in Vermont, United States, with his wife Sylvia. He h ...

Wadada Leo Smith Ishmael Wadada Leo Smith (born December 18, 1941) is an American trumpeter and composer, working primarily in the fields of avant-garde jazz and free improvisation. He was one of three finalists for the 2013 Pulitzer Prize for Music for ''Ten Free ...

Juan María Solare Juan María Solare (born August 11, 1966) is an Argentine composer and pianist. Education Born in Buenos Aires, Argentina, Solare studied and received his diploma in piano (María Teresa Criscuolo), composition (Fermina Casanova, Juan Carlos Zo ...

Allen Strange Allen Strange (June 26, 1943 – February 20, 2008http://www.kitsapsun.com/news/2008/feb/25/allen-strange-leader-in-electronic-music-dies/ ''Allen Strange, Leader in Electronic Music, Dies at 64'' By Rachel Pritchet, Kitsap Sun) was an American c ...

* Shiori Usui *

Michael Vetter Michael Vetter (18 September 1943 – 7 December 2013) was a German composer, novelist, poet, performer, calligrapher, artist, and teacher. Biography Vetter was born in Oberstdorf in the Allgäu region of Germany, and received a conventional scho ...

* Claude Vivier *

Jennifer Walshe Jennifer Walshe (born 1 June 1974) is an Irish composer, vocalist and artist. Biography Jennifer Walshe was born in Dublin, Ireland, in 1974. She studied composition with John Maxwell Geddes at the Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama, ...

Sabrina Peña Young Sabrina Peña Young is an American composer and percussionist. Early life Young grew up in South Florida, the daughter of Dominican and Cuban parents. She spent her early years performing in orchestras, alternative bands, and avant-garde ens ...

John Zorn John Zorn (born September 2, 1953) is an American composer, conductor, saxophonist, arranger and producer who "deliberately resists category". Zorn's avant-garde and experimental approaches to composition and improvisation are inclusive of jaz ...

References

External links

Pictures of Music at Northwestern University

Online bibliographies. * ttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=71hNl_skTZQ Real-time interpretation of Rainer Wehinger visualizationof

's electronic work '' Artikulation''
An online collection of graphic scores curated by the New York Miniaturist Ensemble

Raine-Reusch's page showing more than 20 graphic scores

HighC: a graphic score-based composition system
inspired by Iannis Xenakis'

UPIC UPIC (Unité Polyagogique Informatique CEMAMu) is a computerised musical composition tool, devised by the composer Iannis Xenakis. It was developed at the ''Centre d'Etudes de Mathématique et Automatique Musicales'' (CEMAMu) in Paris, and was c ...

system.
IanniX : A graphical real-time open-source sequencer for digital art

Cuaderno de Yokohama by Llorenç Barber
The complete series of 17 graphic scores that Barber created in Yokohama (Japan) in 2005
Ràdio Web MACBA
Barcelona, 2009.
How to read and write Graphic Notation
{{Authority control Musical notation Post-tonal music theory