The Lockheed F-104 Starfighter is an American single-engine,
supersonic
Supersonic speed is the speed of an object that exceeds the speed of sound ( Mach 1). For objects traveling in dry air of a temperature of 20 °C (68 °F) at sea level, this speed is approximately . Speeds greater than five times ...
air superiority fighter
An air superiority fighter (or air-superiority fighter) is a fighter aircraft designed to seize control of enemy airspace by establishing tactical dominance ( air superiority) over the opposing air force. Air-superiority fighters are primarily ...
which was extensively deployed as a fighter-bomber during the
Cold War
The Cold War is a term commonly used to refer to a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies, the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc. The term '' cold war'' is used because the ...
. Created as a
day fighter A day fighter is a fighter aircraft equipped only to fight during the day. More specifically, it refers to a multi-purpose aircraft that does not include equipment for fighting at night (such as a radar and specialized avionics), although it is some ...
Century Series
The Century Series is a popular name for a group of US fighter aircraft representing models designated between F-100 and F-106 which went into full production. They included the first successful supersonic aircraft designs in the United State ...
" of fighter aircraft for the
United States Air Force
The United States Air Force (USAF) is the air service branch of the United States Armed Forces, and is one of the eight uniformed services of the United States. Originally created on 1 August 1907, as a part of the United States Army Signal ...
(USAF), it was developed into an all-weather
multirole aircraft
A multirole combat aircraft (MRCA) is a combat aircraft intended to perform different roles in combat. These roles can include air to air combat, air support,
aerial bombing, reconnaissance, electronic warfare, and suppression of air defen ...
in the early 1960s and produced by several other nations, seeing widespread service outside the United States.
After a series of interviews with
Korean War
, date = {{Ubl, 25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953 (''de facto'')({{Age in years, months, weeks and days, month1=6, day1=25, year1=1950, month2=7, day2=27, year2=1953), 25 June 1950 – present (''de jure'')({{Age in years, months, weeks a ...
fighter pilots in 1951, Kelly Johnson, then lead designer at Lockheed, opted to reverse the trend of ever-larger and more complex fighters and produce a simple, lightweight aircraft with maximum altitude and climb performance. On 4 March 1954, the
Lockheed XF-104
The Lockheed XF-104 Starfighter was a single-engine, high-performance, supersonic interceptor prototype for a United States Air Force (USAF) series of lightweight and simple fighters. Only two aircraft were built; one aircraft was used primar ...
took to the skies for the first time, and on 26 February 1958 the production fighter was activated by the USAF. Only a few months later it was pressed into action during the
Second Taiwan Strait Crisis
The Second Taiwan Strait Crisis, also called the 1958 Taiwan Strait Crisis, was a conflict that took place between the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC). In this conflict, the PRC shelled the islands of Kinm ...
, when it was deployed as a deterrent to Chinese
MiG-15
The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 (russian: Микоя́н и Гуре́вич МиГ-15; USAF/DoD designation: Type 14; NATO reporting name: Fagot) is a jet fighter aircraft developed by Mikoyan-Gurevich for the Soviet Union. The MiG-15 was one of ...
and
MiG-17
The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17 (russian: Микоян и Гуревич МиГ-17; NATO reporting name: Fresco) is a high-subsonic fighter aircraft produced in the Soviet Union from 1952 and was operated by air forces internationally. The MiG-17 w ...
fighters. Problems with the
General Electric J79
The General Electric J79 is an axial-flow turbojet engine built for use in a variety of fighter and bomber aircraft and a supersonic cruise missile. The J79 was produced by General Electric Aircraft Engines in the United States, and under lice ...
engine and a preference for fighters with longer ranges and heavier payloads meant its service with the USAF was short-lived, though it was reactivated for service during the
Berlin Crisis of 1961
The Berlin Crisis of 1961 (german: Berlin-Krise) occurred between 4 June – 9 November 1961, and was the last major European politico-military incident of the Cold War about the occupational status of the German capital city, Berlin, and of po ...
and the
Vietnam War
The Vietnam War (also known by #Names, other names) was a conflict in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vie ...
, when it flew over 5,000 combat sorties.
While its time with the USAF was brief, the Starfighter found much more lasting success with other
NATO
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO, ; french: Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique nord, ), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance between 30 member states – 28 European and two No ...
and allied nations. In October 1958, West Germany selected the F-104 as its primary fighter aircraft. Canada soon followed, along with the Netherlands, Belgium, Japan, and Italy. The European nations formed a construction consortium that was the largest international manufacturing program in history to that point, though the Starfighter's export success was marred in 1975 by the discovery of bribe payments made by Lockheed to many foreign military and political figures for securing purchase contracts. The Starfighter eventually flew with fifteen air forces, but its poor safety record, especially in ''
Luftwaffe
The ''Luftwaffe'' () was the aerial-warfare branch of the German ''Wehrmacht'' before and during World War II. Germany's military air arms during World War I, the ''Luftstreitkräfte'' of the Imperial Army and the '' Marine-Fliegerabtei ...
'' service, brought it substantial criticism. The Germans lost 292 of 916 aircraft and 116 pilots from 1961 to 1989, its high accident rate earning it the nickname "the Widowmaker" from the German public. The final production version, the
F-104S
The Aeritalia F-104S Starfighter was a licensed production Italian version of the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter, which served in the Italian Air Force, and was its mainstay from the late 1960s until the beginning of the 21st century. The F-104S als ...
, was an all-weather interceptor built by
Aeritalia
Aeritalia was an aerospace engineering corporation based in Italy. It was formed out of the merger of two aviation companies, Fiat Aviazione and Aerfer, in 1969.
Aeritalia continued several programs of its preceding companies, perhaps most p ...
for the
Italian Air Force
, colours =
, colours_label =
, march = (Ordinance March of the Air Force) by Alberto Di Miniello
, mascot =
, anniversaries = 28 March ...
. It was retired from active service in 2004, though several F-104s remain in civilian operation with Florida-based
Starfighters Inc
Starfighters Inc is a civilian organization that uses F-104 Starfighters for contract testing and flight simulations.
History
Starfighters Inc, based in Clearwater, Florida, began as a private venture founded in 1995 to restore and fly three f ...
.
The Starfighter featured a radical design, with thin, stubby wings attached farther back on the fuselage than most contemporary aircraft. The wing provided excellent supersonic and high-speed, low-altitude performance, but also poor turning capability and high landing speeds. It was the first production aircraft to achieve Mach 2, and the first aircraft to reach an altitude of after taking off under its own power. The Starfighter established world records for airspeed, altitude, and time-to-climb in 1958, becoming the first aircraft to hold all three simultaneously. It was also the first aircraft to be equipped with the
M61 Vulcan
The M61 Vulcan is a hydraulically, electrically, or pneumatically driven, six- barrel, air-cooled, electrically fired Gatling-style rotary cannon which fires rounds at an extremely high rate (typically 6,000 rounds per minute). The M61 and i ...
autocannon.
Development
Background and early development
Clarence L. "Kelly" Johnson, vice president of engineering and research at Lockheed's Skunk Works, visited USAF air bases across South Korea in November 1951 to speak with fighter pilots about what they wanted and needed in a fighter aircraft.Upton 2003, p. 7.Pace 1992, p. 10. At the time, the American pilots were confronting the
MiG-15
The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 (russian: Микоя́н и Гуре́вич МиГ-15; USAF/DoD designation: Type 14; NATO reporting name: Fagot) is a jet fighter aircraft developed by Mikoyan-Gurevich for the Soviet Union. The MiG-15 was one of ...
with
North American F-86 Sabre
The North American F-86 Sabre, sometimes called the Sabrejet, is a transonic jet fighter aircraft. Produced by North American Aviation, the Sabre is best known as the United States' first swept-wing fighter that could counter the swept-wing ...
s, and many felt that the MiGs were superior to the larger and more complex American fighters. The pilots requested a small and simple aircraft with excellent performance, especially high-speed and high-altitude capabilities.Bowman 2000, p. 26. Johnson started the design of such an aircraft upon his return to the United States. In March 1952, his team was assembled; they studied over 100 aircraft configurations,Upton 2003, p. 8. ranging from small designs at just ,Upton 2003, p. 9. to large ones up to .Upton 2003, p. 10. To achieve the desired performance, Lockheed chose a small and simple aircraft, weighing in at with a single powerful engine. The engine chosen was the new
General Electric J79
The General Electric J79 is an axial-flow turbojet engine built for use in a variety of fighter and bomber aircraft and a supersonic cruise missile. The J79 was produced by General Electric Aircraft Engines in the United States, and under lice ...
turbojet, an engine of dramatically improved performance in comparison with contemporary designs.Bashow 1986, p. 13. The small design powered by a single J79, issued Temporary Design Number L-246, remained essentially identical to the prototype Starfighter as eventually delivered. Lockheed designated the prototype Model 083.Pace 1992, pp. 12, 15.
Johnson presented his new fighter concept to the United States Air Force on 5 November 1952, and they were interested enough to create a general operational requirement for a lightweight fighter to supplement and ultimately replace the yet-to-fly
North American F-100
The North American F-100 Super Sabre is an American supersonic jet fighter aircraft that served with the United States Air Force (USAF) from 1954 to 1971 and with the Air National Guard (ANG) until 1979. The first of the Century Series of U ...
. Three additional companies were named finalists for the requirement:
Republic Aviation
The Republic Aviation Corporation was an American aircraft manufacturer based in Farmingdale, New York, on Long Island. Originally known as the Seversky Aircraft Company, the company was responsible for the design and production of many important ...
with the AP-55, an improved version of its prototype
XF-91 Thunderceptor
The Republic XF-91 Thunderceptor (originally designated XP-91) is a mixed-propulsion prototype interceptor aircraft, developed by Republic Aviation. The aircraft would use a jet engine for most flight, and a cluster of four small rocket engines ...
;
North American Aviation
North American Aviation (NAA) was a major American aerospace manufacturer that designed and built several notable aircraft and spacecraft. Its products included: the T-6 Texan trainer, the P-51 Mustang fighter, the B-25 Mitchell bomber, the F ...
with the NA-212, which eventually evolved into the
F-107
The North American F-107 is North American Aviation's entry in a United States Air Force tactical fighter-bomber design competition of the 1950s. The F-107 was based on the F-100 Super Sabre, but included many innovations and radical design ...
; and
Northrop Corporation
Northrop Corporation was an American aircraft manufacturer from its formation in 1939 until its 1994 merger with Grumman to form Northrop Grumman. The company is known for its development of the flying wing design, most successfully the B-2 Sp ...
with the N-102 Fang, another J79-powered entry. Although all three finalists' proposals were strong, Lockheed had what proved to be an insurmountable head start, and was granted a development contract on 12 March 1953 for two
prototype
A prototype is an early sample, model, or release of a product built to test a concept or process. It is a term used in a variety of contexts, including semantics, design, electronics, and Software prototyping, software programming. A prototyp ...
s; these were given the designation " XF-104".Bowman 2000, p. 32.Pace 1992, pp. 12–15.
Work progressed quickly, with a mock-up ready for inspection at the end of April,Bowman 2000, p. 32. and work starting on two prototypes soon after.Pace 1992, p. 15. Meanwhile, the J79 engine was not ready. Both prototypes were instead built to use the
Wright J65
The Wright J65 was an axial-flow turbojet engine produced by Curtiss-Wright under license from Armstrong Siddeley. A development of the Sapphire, the J65 powered a number of US designs.
Design and development
Curtiss-Wright purchased a license f ...
engine, a license-constructed version of the
Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire
The Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire is a British turbojet engine that was produced by Armstrong Siddeley in the 1950s. It was the ultimate development of work that had started as the Metrovick F.2 in 1940, evolving into an advanced axial flow de ...
.Bowman 2000, p. 31. The first prototype was completed at Lockheed's Burbank facility by early 1954 and first flew on 4 March at
Edwards AFB
Edwards Air Force Base (AFB) is a United States Air Force installation in California. Most of the base sits in Kern County, but its eastern end is in San Bernardino County and a southern arm is in Los Angeles County. The hub of the base is E ...
.Kropf 2002, p. 11. The total time from contract to first flight was less than one year.
Though development of the F-104 was never a secret, only a vague description of the aircraft was given when the USAF first revealed its existence. No photographs of the aircraft were released to the public until 1956, even though the XF-104 first flew in 1954. At the April 1956 public unveiling of the YF-104A, the engine inlets were obscured with metal covers. Visible weapons, including the
M61 Vulcan
The M61 Vulcan is a hydraulically, electrically, or pneumatically driven, six- barrel, air-cooled, electrically fired Gatling-style rotary cannon which fires rounds at an extremely high rate (typically 6,000 rounds per minute). The M61 and i ...
cannon, were also hidden.Upton 2003, p. 20.Donald 2003, p. 138. Despite the secrecy, an artist's rendering of the yet-unseen F-104 appeared in the September 1954 edition of ''
Popular Mechanics
''Popular Mechanics'' (sometimes PM or PopMech) is a magazine of popular science and technology, featuring automotive, home, outdoor, electronics, science, do-it-yourself, and technology topics. Military topics, aviation and transportation o ...
'' that was very close to the actual design.
The prototype made a hop into the air during taxi trials on 28 February 1954 and flew about off the ground for a short distance, but this was not counted as a first flight. On 4 March, Lockheed test pilot
Tony LeVier
Anthony W. LeVier (February 14, 1913 – February 6, 1998) was an American air racer and test pilot for the Lockheed Corporation from the 1940s to the 1970s.
Early life
Born Anthony Puck in Duluth, Minnesota, his father died while he was still ...
flew the XF-104 for its first official flight. He was airborne for only 21 minutes, much shorter than planned, due to landing gear retraction problems.Pace 1992, p. 16-17.Upton 2003, p. 37. The second prototype was destroyed several weeks later during gun-firing trials when the hatch to the ejector seat blew out, depressurizing the cockpit and causing the pilot to eject in the mistaken belief that a cannon mishap had crippled the aircraft.Pace 1991, p. 20. Nevertheless, on 1 November 1955 the remaining XF-104 was accepted by the USAF.Pace 1991, p. 131.
Further development
Based on the testing and evaluation of the XF-104, the next variant, the YF-104A, was lengthened and fitted with a General Electric J79 engine, modified landing gear, and modified air intakes.Cacutt 1988, p. 159. The YF-104A and subsequent models were longer than the XF-104 to accommodate the larger GE J79 engine. The YF-104 initially flew with the GE XJ79-GE-3 turbojet which generated 9,300 pounds of dry thrust (14,800 with afterburner), which was later replaced by the J79-GE-3A with an improved afterburner.Upton 2003, p. 38.
Seventeen YF-104As were ordered by the USAF on 30 March 1955 for further flight testing.Pace 1992, p. 23. The first of them flew on 17 February 1956 and, with the other 16 trial aircraft, was soon carrying out aircraft and equipment evaluation and tests. On 1 May 1957 one of the prototypes was destroyed when the ailerons malfunctioned, resulting in the aircraft tumbling wildly. The pilot ejected safely. Lockheed made several improvements to the YF-104A throughout this testing period, including strengthening the airframe, adding a ventral fin to improve directional stability at supersonic speed, and installing a
boundary layer control system
Blown flaps, or jet flaps, are powered aerodynamic high-lift devices used on the wings of certain aircraft to improve their low-speed flight characteristics. They use air blown through nozzles to shape the airflow over the rear edge of the wing, d ...
(BLCS) to reduce landing speed.
Problems were encountered with the J79 afterburner; further delays were caused by the need to add
AIM-9 Sidewinder
The AIM-9 Sidewinder (where "AIM" stands for "Air Intercept Missile") is a short-range air-to-air missile which entered service with the US Navy in 1956 and subsequently was adopted by the US Air Force in 1964. Since then the Sidewinder has prov ...
air-to-air missiles. On 28 January 1958, the first production F-104A to enter service was delivered to the 83rd Fighter Interceptor Wing.
Redesign for NATO
In response to a 1957 German Air Staff Paper asking for a single aircraft to fulfill its fighter, fighter-bomber, and reconnaissance mission requirements,Kropf 2002, p. 16. Lockheed redesigned the entire airframe, including 96 new forgings, additional skin panels, and reinforced landing gear with larger tires and improved brakes. The proposed F-104G (for Germany) "Super Starfighter" featured a more powerful J79-11A engine, a larger tail with powered rudder (the same used on the two-seat F-104B and D), improved blown flaps with a mode for improved maneuverability, electric de-icing equipment for the air intake inlets, and a larger drag chute. Avionics were improved as well, primarily with the
Autonetics
Autonetics was a division of North American Aviation that produced various avionics but is best known for their inertial navigation systems used in submarines and intercontinental ballistic missiles. Its 188-acre facility in Anaheim, California, ...
F15A NASARR (North American Search and Range Radar) multi-mode radar and the
LN-3 inertial navigation system
The LN-3 inertial navigation system is an inertial navigation system (INS) that was developed in the 1960s by Litton Industries. It equipped the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter versions used as strike aircraft in European forces. An inertial navigatio ...
by
Litton Industries
Litton Industries was a large defense contractor in the United States named after inventor Charles Litton Sr.
During the 1960s, the company began acquiring many unrelated firms and became one of the largest conglomerates in the United States. A ...
, the first such system to be placed into operational service. Altogether, these changes increased the amount of external weapons that could be carried to , and also allowed the aircraft to fulfill the
NATO
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO, ; french: Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique nord, ), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance between 30 member states – 28 European and two No ...
requirement of carrying a "special store" (nuclear weapon) under the fuselage.Cacutt 1988, pp. 165–166.
Belgium, the Netherlands, and Italy selected the F-104 soon after as well, and the four European nations set up four production groups to jointly manufacture the F-104G under license. ''Arbeitsgemeinschaft'' (ARGE) South consisted of
Messerschmitt
Messerschmitt AG () was a German share-ownership limited, aircraft manufacturing corporation named after its chief designer Willy Messerschmitt from mid-July 1938 onwards, and known primarily for its World War II fighter aircraft, in partic ...
Siebel
Siebel was a German aircraft manufacturer founded in 1937 in Halle an der Saale.Gunston p.424
History
It originated in the Klemm-Flugzeugwerke Halle that had been founded in 1934 as a branch of Leichtflugzeugbau Klemm in Böblingen. Its nam ...
Focke-Wulf
Focke-Wulf Flugzeugbau AG () was a German manufacturer of civil and military aircraft before and during World War II. Many of the company's successful fighter aircraft designs were slight modifications of the Focke-Wulf Fw 190. It is one of the ...
, and
Weserflug
Weser Flugzeugbau GmbH, known as Weserflug, was an aircraft manufacturing company in Germany.
History
The company was founded in 1934 as a subsidiary of the ship and machine company Deutsche Schiff- und Maschinenbau AG (DESCHIMAG). It began prod ...
in Germany, as well as
Fokker
Fokker was a Dutch aircraft manufacturer named after its founder, Anthony Fokker. The company operated under several different names. It was founded in 1912 in Berlin, Germany, and became famous for its fighter aircraft in World War I. In 1919 ...
and
Aviolanda
Aviolanda was a Dutch aircraft manufacturer. The company was established in December 1926 by H. Adolph Burgerhout. Aviolanda mainly produced licensed-built aircraft, such as the Curtiss P-6 Hawk, the Dornier Wal and Do 24 flying boats, and the ...
in the Netherlands; the West Group was made of SABCA and Avions Fairey in Belgium; and the Italian Group was formed of
Fiat
Fiat Automobiles S.p.A. (, , ; originally FIAT, it, Fabbrica Italiana Automobili di Torino, lit=Italian Automobiles Factory of Turin) is an Italian automobile manufacturer, formerly part of Fiat Chrysler Automobiles, and since 2021 a subsidiary ...
Piaggio
Piaggio & C. SpA (Piaggio ) is an Italian motor vehicle manufacturer, which produces a range of two-wheeled motor vehicles and compact commercial vehicles under seven brands: Piaggio, Vespa, Gilera, Aprilia, Moto Guzzi, Derbi, and Scarabeo ...
SIAI-Marchetti
SIAI-Marchetti was an Italian aircraft manufacturer primarily active during the interwar period.
History
The original company was founded during 1915 as SIAI (''Società Idrovolanti Alta Italia'' - Seaplane Company of Upper Italy). As suggested ...
.Kropf 2002, pp. 19–21. The four groups were contracted to manufacture 210, 350, 189, and 200 F-104G aircraft, respectively.Donald 2003, p. 152. In addition, 1,225 J79 turbojets were also produced under license by BMW in Germany,
Fabrique Nationale
Fabrique Nationale Herstal (), trading as FN Herstal and often referred to as Fabrique Nationale or simply FN, is a leading firearms manufacturer based in Herstal, Belgium. It is currently the largest exporter of military small arms in Europe.
...
in Belgium, and
Alfa Romeo
Alfa Romeo Automobiles S.p.A. () is an Italian luxury car manufacturer and a subsidiary of Stellantis. The company was founded on 24 June 1910, in Milan, Italy. "Alfa" is an acronym of its founding name, "Anonima Lombarda Fabbrica Automobili." ...
in Italy.Donald 2003, p. 154.Kropf 2002, p. 21. Canada, who had also chosen the Starfighter to fulfill its NATO obligations, delivered 121 sets of wings, aft fuselages, and tail assemblies built by Canadair to Europe while it constructed 200 CF-104s with
Orenda
Orenda is the Iroquois name for a certain spiritual energy inherent in people and their environment. It is an "extraordinary invisible power believed by the Iroquois Native Americans to pervade in varying degrees in all animate and inanimate na ...
-built engines for the
Royal Canadian Air Force
The Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF; french: Aviation royale canadienne, ARC) is the air and space force of Canada. Its role is to "provide the Canadian Forces with relevant, responsive and effective airpower". The RCAF is one of three environm ...
. Later the two would also build an additional 110 MAP-funded F-104Gs destined for Europe.Cacutt 1988, p. 166. Lockheed for its part built 191 two-seat trainers for both Europe and Canada, as well as supplying spares and technical support.
The multinational consortium formed a central coordination office named NASMO (NATO Starfighter Management Office) in
Koblenz, Germany
Koblenz (; Moselle Franconian: ''Kowelenz''), spelled Coblenz before 1926, is a German city on the banks of the Rhine and the Moselle, a multi-nation tributary.
Koblenz was established as a Roman military post by Drusus around 8 B.C. Its name ...
, which succeeded in achieving a high level of standardization and cooperation. This was evidenced by an F-104G being assembled in April 1963 at
Erding Air Base
Erding Air Base (German: ''Fliegerhorst Erding'', ICAO: ETSE) is a German Air Force airfield near the town of Erding, about northeast of central Munich in Bavaria. It is the home of the 5th Air Defense Missile Squadron and the 1st Air Force M ...
in Germany consisting of components constructed in all four European partner countries. However, this central coordination resulted in long delays in implementing needed modifications and upgrades. Some of the modifications that were proposed during this time, mainly from the Joint Test Force at Edwards AFB in California, were the installation of an arrester hook, a standby attitude indicator, and the emergency engine nozzle closure system.
In all, 2,578 F-104s were produced by Lockheed and under license by various foreign manufacturers.Matricardi 2006, p. 129.
Design
Airframe
The Starfighter's airframe was all-metal, primarily
duralumin
Duralumin (also called duraluminum, duraluminium, duralum, dural(l)ium, or dural) is a trade name for one of the earliest types of age-hardenable aluminium alloys. The term is a combination of '' Dürener'' and ''aluminium''.
Its use as a tra ...
with some stainless steel and titanium.Dobrzyński 2015, p. 107. The fuselage was approximately two and a half times as long as the airplane's wingspan. The wings were centered on the horizontal reference plane, or along the longitudinal centerline of the
fuselage
The fuselage (; from the French ''fuselé'' "spindle-shaped") is an aircraft's main body section. It holds crew, passengers, or cargo. In single-engine aircraft, it will usually contain an engine as well, although in some amphibious aircraft t ...
, and were located substantially farther aft on the fuselage than most contemporary designs. The aft fuselage was elevated from the horizontal reference plane, resulting a "lifted" tail, and the nose was "drooped". This caused the aircraft to fly nose up, helping to minimize drag. As a result, the
pitot tube
A pitot ( ) tube (pitot probe) measures fluid flow velocity. It was invented by a French engineer, Henri Pitot, in the early 18th century, and was modified to its modern form in the mid-19th century by a French scientist, Henry Darcy. It ...
, air inlet scoops, and engine thrust line were all canted slightly from centerline of the fuselage.Upton 2003, p. 21.
The F-104 featured a radical wing design. Most jet fighters of the period used a swept-wing or
delta-wing
A delta wing is a wing shaped in the form of a triangle. It is named for its similarity in shape to the Greek uppercase letter delta (Δ).
Although long studied, it did not find significant applications until the Jet Age, when it proved suitab ...
, which balanced aerodynamic performance, lift, and internal space for fuel and equipment. The Lockheed tests determined that the most efficient shape for high-speed
supersonic
Supersonic speed is the speed of an object that exceeds the speed of sound ( Mach 1). For objects traveling in dry air of a temperature of 20 °C (68 °F) at sea level, this speed is approximately . Speeds greater than five times ...
flight was a very small and thin, straight, mid-mounted,
trapezoidal wing
In aeronautics, a trapezoidal wing is a straight-edged and tapered wing planform. It may have any aspect ratio and may or may not be swept.G. Dimitriadis; ''Aircraft Design'Lecture 2: Aerodynamics Université de Liège. (retrieved 30 November ...
. Much of the data on the wing shape was derived from testing done with the experimental unmanned Lockheed X-7, which used a wing of a similar shape.Upton 2003, pp. 21–22. The leading edge of the wing was swept back at 26 degrees, with the trailing edge swept forward by a slightly smaller amount.
The new wing design was extremely thin, with a thickness-to- chord ratio of only 3.36% and an aspect ratio of 2.45.Pace 1992, p. 13. The wing's leading edges were so thin () that they were a hazard to ground crews. Hence, protective guards were installed on them during maintenance. The thinness of the wings required fuel tanks and
landing gear
Landing gear is the undercarriage of an aircraft or spacecraft that is used for takeoff or landing. For aircraft it is generally needed for both. It was also formerly called ''alighting gear'' by some manufacturers, such as the Glenn L. Martin ...
to be placed in the fuselage, and the
hydraulic cylinder
A hydraulic cylinder (also called a linear hydraulic motor) is a mechanical actuator that is used to give a unidirectional force through a unidirectional stroke. It has many applications, notably in construction equipment ( engineering vehicles ...
s driving the ailerons were limited to thickness to fit.Davies 2014, p. 8.
The small, highly loaded wing caused an unacceptably high landing speed, even after adding both leading- and trailing-edge flaps. Thus, designers developed a boundary layer control system, or BLCS, of high-pressure
bleed air
Bleed air is compressed air taken from the compressor stage of a gas turbine upstream of its fuel-burning sections. Automatic air supply and cabin pressure controller (ASCPCs) valves bleed air from high or low stage engine compressor sections. Lo ...
, which was blown over the trailing-edge flaps to lower landing speeds by more than , and help make landing safer.Davies 2014, p. 11.Upton 2003, p. 22. Flapless landings would be without the BLCS engaged, as flaps in the "land" position were required for its operation. Landing without the BLCS engaged was only done in emergencies and could be a harrowing experience, especially at night.Bowman 2000, p. 122.
The stabilator (fully moving horizontal stabilizer) was mounted atop the fin to reduce inertia coupling. Because the vertical fin was only slightly shorter than the length of each wing and nearly as aerodynamically effective, it could act as a wing-on-
rudder
A rudder is a primary control surface used to steer a ship, boat, submarine, hovercraft, aircraft, or other vehicle that moves through a fluid medium (generally aircraft, air or watercraft, water). On an aircraft the rudder is used primarily to ...
application, rolling the aircraft in the opposite direction of rudder input. To offset this effect, the wings were canted downward at a 10° negative-dihedral (anhedral) angle.Bowman 2000, p. 28. This downward canting also improved roll control during high-G maneuvers, common in air-to-air combat.
The fuselage had a high
fineness ratio
In naval architecture and aerospace engineering, the fineness ratio is the ratio of the length of a body to its maximum width. Shapes that are short and wide have a low fineness ratio, those that are long and narrow have high fineness ratios. A ...
. It was slender, tapered towards the sharp nose, and had a small frontal area. The tightly packed fuselage contained the radar, cockpit, cannon, fuel, landing gear, and engine. The fuselage and wing combination provided low drag except at high angle of attack (alpha), at which point
induced drag
In aerodynamics, lift-induced drag, induced drag, vortex drag, or sometimes drag due to lift, is an aerodynamic drag force that occurs whenever a moving object redirects the airflow coming at it. This drag force occurs in airplanes due to wings or ...
became very high. The F-104 had good acceleration, rate of climb, and top speed, but its sustained turn performance was poor. A "clean" (no external weapons or fuel tanks) F-104 could sustain a 7- g turn below 5,000 feet with full afterburner. Given the aircraft's prodigious fuel consumption at that altitude and relatively small fuel capacity, such a maneuver would dramatically reduce its time on station.Bashow 1986, p. 24.
Engine
The F-104 was designed to use the General Electric J79 turbojet engine,Donald 1997, p. 578. fed by side-mounted intakes with fixed inlet cones optimized for performance at Mach 1.7 (increased to Mach 2 for later F-104s equipped with more powerful J79-GE-19 engines).Davies 2014, p. 10. Unlike some supersonic aircraft, the F-104 did not have variable-geometry inlets; instead at high Mach numbers excess air was bypassed around the engine. This bypass air also helped cool the engine. Its thrust-to-drag ratio was excellent, allowing a maximum speed well in excess of Mach 2. Available thrust was actually limited by the geometry of the inlet scoop and duct; the aircraft was capable of even higher Mach numbers if the aluminum skin of the aircraft were able to withstand the heating due to air friction. Furthermore, speeds above Mach 2 quickly overheated the J79 engine beyond its thermal capabilities, which resulted in the F-104 being given a design airspeed limitation of Mach 2.Upton 2003, pp. 24–25.
The engine consisted of a 17-stage compressor, an accessory drive section, an annular combustion chamber, a three-stage turbine, and an afterburner. The most powerful version of the J79, the J79-GE-19, was rated at dry thrust and with afterburner. Bleed air from the compressor's 17th stage was used for a number of purposes: the BLCS, cabin pressurization and air conditioning, hot-air jet rain removal, fuel transfer, canopy and windshield defogging and defrosting, pressure for the pilot's anti-G suit, pressurization and cooling of the nose-mounted radar equipment, and purging of gas from the M61 autocannon. The accessory drive ran two hydraulic pumps, two variable-frequency generators, the generator for the tachometer, and pumps for engine fuel and oil.Dobrzyński 2015, pp. 108, 112, 114.Upton 2003, p. 30.
Armament
The basic armament of the F-104 was the M61 Vulcan autocannon. As the first aircraft to carry the weapon, testing of the Starfighter revealed issues with the initial version of the M61: the
Gatling
The Gatling gun is a rapid-firing multiple-barrel firearm invented in 1861 by Richard Jordan Gatling. It is an early machine gun and a forerunner of the modern electric motor-driven rotary cannon.
The Gatling gun's operation centered on a cy ...
-mechanism cannon suffered problems with its
linked ammunition
upright=1.35, An M60 machine gun belt loaded with 7.62×51mm NATO cartridges, aboard a U.S. Navy">7.62×51mm_NATO.html" ;"title="M60 machine gun belt loaded with 7.62×51mm NATO">M60 machine gun belt loaded with 7.62×51mm NATO cartridges, aboar ...
, being prone to misfeed and presenting a
foreign object damage
In aviation and aerospace, foreign object debris (FOD), is any particle or substance, alien to an aircraft or system, which could potentially cause damage.
External FOD hazards include bird strikes, hail, ice, sandstorms, ash-clouds or obje ...
(FOD) hazard as discarded links were occasionally sucked into the engine. A linkless ammunition feed system was developed for the upgraded M61A1 installed in the F-104C; the M61A1 has subsequently been used by a wide variety of American combat aircraft.
The cannon, mounted in the lower part of the port fuselage, was fed by a 725-round drum behind the pilot's seat. With its firing rate of 6,000 rounds per minute, the cannon would empty the drum after just over seven seconds of continuous fire. The cannon was omitted in all the two-seat models and some single-seat versions including reconnaissance aircraft, with the gun bay and ammunition drum typically replaced by additional fuel tanks.Fricker and Jackson 1996, p. 47.
Two AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles could be carried on the wingtip stations, which could also be used for fuel tanks. The F-104C and later models added a centerline pylon and two underwing pylons for bombs, rocket pods, or fuel tanks; the centerline pylon could carry a
nuclear weapon
A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from nuclear reactions, either fission (fission bomb) or a combination of fission and fusion reactions ( thermonuclear bomb), producing a nuclear explosion. Both bom ...
. A "catamaran" launcher for two additional Sidewinders could be fitted under the forward fuselage, although the installation had minimal ground clearance and so rendered the seeker heads of the missiles vulnerable to ground debris. The two F-104S variants added a pair of fuselage pylons beneath the intakes for conventional bomb carriage and an additional pylon under each wing, for a total of nine.
Early Starfighters were also capable of carrying and launching a single
MB-1
The Douglas Aircraft Company, Douglas AIR-2 Genie (previous designation MB-1) was an unguided air-to-air rocket with a 1.5 kt W25 (nuclear warhead), W25 nuclear warhead. It was deployed by the United States Air Force (USAF 1957–1985) and Cana ...
(AIR-2A Genie) rocket-powered nuclear missile using an extending trapeze launcher. This configuration was tested on a single aircraft but was not adopted for service use; however, NASA later used it for launching test rockets.Davies 2014, p. 15.
Avionics
The initial USAF Starfighters had a basic RCA AN/ASG-14T1 ranging radar,
tactical air navigation system
A tactical air navigation system, commonly referred to by the acronym TACAN, is a navigation system used by military aircraft. It provides the user with bearing and distance (slant-range or hypotenuse) to a ground or ship-borne station. It is a mor ...
(TACAN), and an AN/ARC-34 UHF radio. The AN/ASG-14 fire control system used a pencil-beam radar antenna with two independent sights: one optical and one infrared. Early versions of the radar had a range of approximately in search mode, with later models reaching up to ; the scan pattern was spiral, covering a 90-degree cone. Search mode was usable only above due to ground return effects below that altitude. Track mode was usable within of the target, which narrowed the scan to 20 degrees and initiated a strobe sweep between in auto-acquisition mode. The radar also had a third, receive-only mode useful for locking onto sources of interference from
electronic countermeasures
An electronic countermeasure (ECM) is an electrical or electronic device designed to trick or deceive radar, sonar, or other detection systems, like infrared (IR) or lasers. It may be used both offensively and defensively to deny targeting info ...
(ECM).Davies 2014, p. 13.
In the late 1960s, Lockheed developed a more advanced version of the Starfighter, the F-104S, for use by the Italian Air Force. Similar to the F-104G, Lockheed produced two main variants of the F-104S: an all-weather interceptor (''caccia intercettore'', CI) and a strike aircraft (''caccia bombardiere'', CB). The CI variant received a FIAR/NASARR F15G radar with AIM-7 Sparrow guidance capability; however, the new missile-guidance
avionics
Avionics (a blend word, blend of ''aviation'' and ''electronics'') are the Electronics, electronic systems used on aircraft. Avionic systems include communications, Air navigation, navigation, the display and management of multiple systems, ...
came at the expense of the M61A1 Vulcan cannon, which was removed to make room. The CB variant was equipped with a FIAR/NASARR R21G-H radar and a radar altimeter for low-level strike missions, retaining the cannon as its only air-to-air weapon.Dobrzyński 2015, p. 51.
As part of the ''Aggiornamento Sistema d'Arma'' (ASA), or "Weapons System Upgrade" in the mid-1980s, both variants were given an ALQ-70/72 ECM and a FIAR/NASARR R-21G/M1 radar with
frequency hopping
Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) is a method of transmitting radio signals by rapidly changing the carrier frequency among many distinct frequencies occupying a large spectral band. The changes are controlled by a code known to both tra ...
and
look-down/shoot-down A radar system has look-down/shoot-down capability if it can detect, track and guide a weapon to an air target that (as seen by the radar) is silhouetted against the ground.
Problem and naming
Airborne intercept radar relying exclusively on time ...
capability. The new radar and guidance systems enabled the aircraft to carry the new AIM-9L Sidewinder infrared-guided missile (replacing the older AIM-9B) as well as the AIM-7 Sparrow and the
Selenia Aspide
Aspide (the Italian name for the asp) is an Italian medium range air-to-air and surface-to-air missile produced by Selenia (then by Alenia Aeronautica, now a part of Leonardo S.p.A.). It is provided with semi-active radar homing seeker. It is ...
radar-guided missiles.Dobrzyński 2015, p. 52.
Ejection seat
Early Starfighters used a downward-firing
ejection seat
In aircraft, an ejection seat or ejector seat is a system designed to rescue the pilot or other crew of an aircraft (usually military) in an emergency. In most designs, the seat is propelled out of the aircraft by an explosive charge or rock ...
(the
Stanley
Stanley may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Film and television
* ''Stanley'' (1972 film), an American horror film
* ''Stanley'' (1984 film), an Australian comedy
* ''Stanley'' (1999 film), an animated short
* ''Stanley'' (1956 TV series) ...
C-1), out of concern over the ability of an upward-firing seat to clear the "T-tail"
empennage
The empennage ( or ), also known as the tail or tail assembly, is a structure at the rear of an aircraft that provides stability during flight, in a way similar to the feathers on an arrow.Crane, Dale: ''Dictionary of Aeronautical Terms, third e ...
. This presented obvious problems in low-altitude escapes, and 21 USAF pilots, including test pilot Captain Iven Carl Kincheloe Jr., failed to escape from their stricken aircraft in low-level emergencies because of it. The downward-firing seat was replaced by the Lockheed C-2 upward-firing seat, which was capable of clearing the tail, but still had a minimum speed limitation of .Upton 2003, p. 35. Many export Starfighters were later retrofitted with
Martin-Baker Mk.7
The Martin-Baker Mk.7 is a British rocket-assisted ejection seat designed and built by Martin-Baker. Introduced in the mid-1960s, the Mk.7 has been installed in combat aircraft worldwide.
History
The Mk.7 seat was developed from the earlier Mk. ...
"zero-zero" (zero altitude and zero airspeed) ejection seats.
Production assembly
The Starfighter was designed for production rates of up to 20 airplanes per day from a single assembly line. The entire aircraft was designed for modular assembly and disassembly. The two principal fuselage sections were split along the vertical centerline and completely assembled in two separate halves. All equipment, including wiring and plumbing, were installed inside the two-halves before being joined. The wings were then attached with ten bolts plus a fairing.Upton 2003, pp. 16–19.
Operational history
U.S. Air Force
Although the F-104 was designed as an air-superiority fighter, the United States Air Force's immediate need at the time was for a supersonic
interceptor
Interceptor may refer to:
Vehicles
* Interceptor aircraft (or simply "interceptor"), a type of point defense fighter aircraft designed specifically to intercept and destroy enemy aircraft
* Ford Crown Victoria Police Interceptor, a police car
* ...
. In the late 1950s, the United States government believed it was significantly behind the
USSR
The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen nationa ...
F-106 Delta Dart
The Convair F-106 Delta Dart was the primary all-weather interceptor aircraft of the United States Air Force from the 1960s through to the 1980s. Designed as the so-called "Ultimate Interceptor", it proved to be the last specialist interceptor ...
, but both aircraft were experiencing long development delays. The Starfighter's speed and rate-of-climb performance intrigued the Air Force, who pressed the F-104A into service as an interim interceptor with the
Air Defense Command
Aerospace Defense Command was a major command (military formation), command of the United States Air Force, responsible for continental air defense. It was activated in 1968 and disbanded in 1980. Its predecessor, Air Defense Command, was est ...
(ADC), even though its range and armament were not well-suited for the role. On 26 February 1958, the first unit to become operational with the F-104A was the
83rd Fighter Interceptor Squadron 83rd may refer to:
*83rd Academy Awards, a ceremony that honored the best films of 2010 in the United States and took place on February 27, 2011
*83rd Grey Cup, the 1995 Canadian Football League championship game
*83rd meridian east, a line of lon ...
(FIS) at
Hamilton AFB
Hamilton Field (Hamilton AFB) was a United States Air Force base, which was inactivated in 1973, decommissioned in 1974, and put into a caretaker status with the Air Force Reserves until 1976. It was transferred to the United States Army in 1983 ...
, California.
The newly operational aircraft experienced problems with both the J79 engine and M61 cannon, and after three months of service, the unit was grounded following a series of engine-related accidents. The aircraft were then fitted with the J79-GE-3B engine and another three ADC units were equipped with the F-104A. During this time, the Air Force's interest in the Starfighter was waning due to a shift in strategy toward fighters with longer ranges and heavier ordnance loads.Davies 2014, p. 19. As a result, the USAF reduced their orders of the F-104A from 722 to 170,Pace 1992, p. 32. and the F-104A and F-104B aircraft of the 83rd, 56th and 337th FIS were handed over to the 151st, 157th and 197th FIS of the
Air National Guard
The Air National Guard (ANG), also known as the Air Guard, is a federal military reserve force of the United States Air Force, as well as the air militia of each U.S. state, the District of Columbia, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, and the ter ...
(ANG) after less than a year of service with the ADC.Bowman 2000, p. 45.
Taiwan Strait Crisis of 1958
In August 1958, only a few months after establishing operational readiness with the F-104, the 83rd FIS was assigned to an air defense and deterrence mission in Taiwan after the
People's Republic of China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
began an intense artillery campaign against the
Republic of China
Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the northeast ...
(ROC) on the disputed islands of
Quemoy
Kinmen, alternatively known as Quemoy, is a group of islands governed as a county by the Republic of China (Taiwan), off the southeastern coast of mainland China. It lies roughly east of the city of Xiamen in Fujian, from which it is separate ...
and Matsu. Tension between the two forces was high; artillery duels were ongoing since the first crisis in 1954 and the
People's Liberation Army Air Force
The People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF; ), also known as the Chinese Air Force (中国空军) or the People's Air Force (人民空军), is an aerial service branch of the People's Liberation Army, the regular armed forces of the Peo ...
(PLAAF) had recently relocated 200 MiG-15s and
MiG-17
The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17 (russian: Микоян и Гуревич МиГ-17; NATO reporting name: Fresco) is a high-subsonic fighter aircraft produced in the Soviet Union from 1952 and was operated by air forces internationally. The MiG-17 w ...
s to airfields on the mainland to fight against the
Republic of China Air Force
The Republic of China Air Force, retroactively known by its historical name the Chinese Air Force and unofficially referred to as the Taiwanese Air Force, is the military aviation branch of the Republic of China Armed Forces, currently based i ...
(ROCAF). According to Colonel Howard "Scrappy" Johnson, one of the F-104 pilots deployed to Taiwan, the Starfighters' presence was so the PLAAF would "track them on their radar screens ... and sit back and scratch their head in awe."Davies 2014, p. 22.Bowman 2000, p. 44.
On 10 September, the first F-104s arrived in Taiwan, delivered disassembled by C-124 Globemaster II transport aircraft. This was the first time that air transport was used to move fighter aircraft long distances. Within 30 hours of arriving, First Lieutenant Crosley J. Fitton had the first of the 83rd's airplanes in the air, and by 19 September the entire unit was ready for day or night alert status. The F-104 flew a number of supersonic runs between Taiwan and mainland China at speeds up to Mach 2 as an air-superiority demonstration, and though there were no direct enemy engagements prior to withdrawal after a ceasefire was agreed on 6 October, the Starfighter provided a significant deterrent effect. USAF Gen Laurence Cuter, commander-in-chief of the
Pacific Air Forces
Pacific Air Forces (PACAF) is a Major Command (MAJCOM) of the United States Air Force and is also the air component command of the United States Indo-Pacific Command (USINDOPACOM). PACAF is headquartered at Joint Base Pearl Harbor–Hickam (fo ...
, reported that the F-104A had "made a tremendous impression on both sides of the Taiwan Strait".Davies 2014, pp. 22–25.
Berlin Crisis of 1961
During the Berlin Crisis of 1961, President
John F. Kennedy
John Fitzgerald Kennedy (May 29, 1917 – November 22, 1963), often referred to by his initials JFK and the nickname Jack, was an American politician who served as the 35th president of the United States from 1961 until his assassination ...
ordered 148,000
United States National Guard
The National Guard is a state-based military force that becomes part of the reserve components of the United States Army and the United States Air Force when activated for federal missions.Operation Stair Step
Operation or Operations may refer to:
Arts, entertainment and media
* Operation (game), ''Operation'' (game), a battery-operated board game that challenges dexterity
* Operation (music), a term used in musical set theory
* Operations (magazine ...
. Because of their short range, 60 F-104As were airlifted to Europe in late November, among them the 151st FIS and 157th FIS. As with the Taiwan crisis three years earlier, the Starfighter did not directly engage any enemy fighters, but its presence provided a powerful air-superiority deterrent; it demonstrated very quick reaction times and exemplary acceleration during practice intercepts, and proved superior to all other fighters in the
theater
Theatre or theater is a collaborative form of performing art that uses live performers, usually actor, actors or actresses, to present the experience of a real or imagined event before a live audience in a specific place, often a stage. The p ...
. The crisis ended in the summer of 1962 and the ANG personnel returned to the United States, but the F-104's solid performance helped convince the ADC to recall some F-104s back into active USAF service the following year.Davies 2014, p. 29.
Vietnam War
The F-104C entered service with USAF
Tactical Air Command
Tactical Air Command (TAC) is an inactive United States Air Force organization. It was a Major Command of the United States Air Force, established on 21 March 1946 and headquartered at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia. It was inactivated on 1 J ...
George AFB
George Air Force Base was a United States Air Force base located within the city limits, 8 miles northwest, of central Victorville, California, about 75 miles northeast of Los Angeles, California.
Established by the United States Army Air Co ...
, California, was the first unit to be equipped with the type, in September 1958.Bowman 2000, p. 49. Commencing with
Operation Rolling Thunder
Operation Rolling Thunder was a gradual and sustained aerial bombardment campaign conducted by the United States (U.S.) 2nd Air Division (later Seventh Air Force), U.S. Navy, and Republic of Vietnam Air Force (RVNAF) against the Democratic R ...
, the Starfighter was used both in the air-superiority and air-support roles. On 19 April 1965 the 476th Tactical Fighter Squadron (TFS) of the 479th TFW arrived at
Da Nang AB
Da Nang Air Base ( vi, Căn cứ không quân Đà Nẵng) (1930s–1975) (also known as Da Nang Airfield, Tourane Airfield or Tourane Air Base) was a French Air Force and later Republic of Vietnam Air Force (RVNAF) facility located in the city ...
to help protect US
F-105 Thunderchief
The Republic F-105 Thunderchief is an American supersonic fighter-bomber that served with the United States Air Force from 1958 to 1984. Capable of Mach 2, it conducted the majority of strike bombing missions during the early years of the Viet ...
fighter-bombers against MiG-17s and especially
MiG-21
The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 (russian: Микоян и Гуревич МиГ-21; NATO reporting name: Fishbed) is a supersonic jet fighter and interceptor aircraft, designed by the Mikoyan-Gurevich Design Bureau in the Soviet Union. Its nickna ...
s that were beginning to be flown by the
Vietnamese People's Air Force
The Vietnam People's Air Force (VPAF, ), formally refers itself as the Air Defence - Air Force (ADAF, ) or the Vietnamese Air Force (VNAF, ), is the aerial warfare service branch of Vietnam. It is the successor of the former North Vietnamese ...
(VPAF). The F-104 was also deployed extensively as a
barrier combat air patrol
Combat air patrol (CAP) is a type of flying mission for fighter aircraft. A combat air patrol is an aircraft patrol provided over an objective area, over the force protected, over the critical area of a combat zone, or over an air defense area, ...
(BARCAP) protector for the
EC-121
The Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star was an American airborne early warning and control radar surveillance aircraft operational in the 1950s in both the United States Navy (USN) and United States Air Force (USAF).
The military version of the Lock ...
D Warning Star
airborne early warning
Airborne or Airborn may refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media
Films
* ''Airborne'' (1962 film), a 1962 American film directed by James Landis
* ''Airborne'' (1993 film), a comedy–drama film
* ''Airborne'' (1998 film), an action film sta ...
aircraft patrolling off the North Vietnamese coast.Davies 2014, p. 41. The F-104s were successful in deterring MiG interceptors and performed well as close support aircraft, though they were largely uninvolved in aerial combat and recorded no air-to-air kills during the conflict.Dobrzyński 2015, p. 62.Thompson 2004, p. 155. The North Vietnamese were well aware of the F-104's performance, and the 479th TFW's pilots felt that the MiGs deliberately avoided engaging them. Twenty-five MiG kills were scored by fighters controlled by EC-121 Big Eye missions, and their Starfighter escorts played a vital role in ensuring their safety.Davies 2014, p. 43.
From the first F-104 deployment in April 1965 to December, Starfighters flew a total of 2,937 combat sorties. These sorties resulted in the loss of five aircraft, one from the 476th TFS, which deployed from April to July 1965,Hobson 2001, p. 256. and four from the 436th Tactical Fighter Squadron, which deployed from July to October 1965.Hobson 2001, p. 255.Thompson 2004, p. 157. One incident on 20 September claimed three F-104s when Captain Philip E. Smith strayed into Chinese airspace and was shot down by a Chinese
Shenyang J-6
The Shenyang J-6 ( Chinese: 歼-6; designated F-6 for export versions; NATO reporting name: Farmer) is the Chinese-built version of the Soviet MiG-19 'Farmer' fighter aircraft, the world's first mass-produced supersonic aircraft.
Design and ...
; two more collided in mid-air while searching for Smith's missing jet.Smith and Herz pp. 29–35, 67, 68Windle and Bowman 2011, pp. 38, 39.Hobson 2001, p. 32. No losses were reported from the 435th Tactical Fighter Squadron's first deployment from October to December 1965.
Starfighters returned to Vietnam when the 435th Tactical Fighter Squadron re-deployed from June 1966 until August 1967. During this time F-104s flew a further 2,269 combat sorties, for a total of 5,206. F-104s operating in Vietnam were upgraded in service with AN/APR-25/26 radar warning receiver equipment. One such example is on display in the Air Zoo in
Kalamazoo, Michigan
Kalamazoo ( ) is a city in the southwest region of the U.S. state of Michigan. It is the county seat of Kalamazoo County. At the 2010 census, Kalamazoo had a population of 74,262. Kalamazoo is the major city of the Kalamazoo-Portage Metropolit ...
. During the second deployment, an additional nine aircraft were lost for a total of 14 F-104s lost to all causes in Vietnam. In July 1967, the Starfighter units transitioned to the
McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II
The McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II is an American tandem two-seat, twin-engine, all-weather, long-range supersonic jet interceptor and fighter-bomber originally developed by McDonnell Aircraft for the United States Navy.Swanborough and B ...
.Hobson 2001, p. 269.
In 1967, these TAC aircraft were transferred to the Air National Guard.Bowman 2000, p. 56.
North American service
By the late 1950s, USAF fighter doctrine had shifted away from air superiority (fighter against fighter combat) and placed more importance on the interceptor (fighter against bomber combat) and tactical fighter-bomber roles. The F-104 was deemed inadequate for either, lacking both payload capability and endurance in comparison with other USAF aircraft. As a result, the USAF procured only 296 examples of the Starfighter, including both single-seat and two-seat versions. The F-104's service with the USAF was quickly wound down after the aircraft's second deployment to southeast Asia in 1967.Dobrzyński 2015, p. 60. Although the remaining F-104As in regular USAF service had been recently fitted with more powerful and reliable J79-GE-19 engines, the last USAF Starfighters left regular Air Force service in 1969.Davies 2014, p. 34. The aircraft continued in use with the
Puerto Rico Air National Guard
The Puerto Rico Air National Guard (PR ANG) — es, Guardia Nacional Aérea de Puerto Rico— is the aerial militia of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, an unincorporated territory of the United States of America. It is, along with the Puerto Ri ...
until 1975 when it was replaced by the
A-7 Corsair II
The LTV A-7 Corsair II is an American carrier-capable subsonic light attack aircraft designed and manufactured by Ling-Temco-Vought (LTV).
The A-7 was developed during the early 1960s as replacement for the Douglas A-4 Skyhawk. Its design w ...
.Pace 1992, p. 53 (photo).
The last use of the F-104 Starfighter in US markings was training pilots for the
West German Air Force
The German Air Force (german: Luftwaffe, lit=air weapon or air arm, ) is the aerial warfare branch of the , the armed forces of Germany. The German Air Force (as part of the ''Bundeswehr'') was founded in 1956 during the era of the Cold War as ...
, with a wing of TF-104Gs and F-104Gs based at
Luke Air Force Base
Luke Air Force Base is a United States Air Force base in Maricopa County, Arizona, United States., effective 20 December 2007 It is located west of the central business district of Glendale, and west of Phoenix.
Luke AFB is a major traini ...
, Arizona. Although operated in USAF markings, these aircraft (which included German-built aircraft) were owned by West Germany. They continued in use until 1983.Fricker and Jackson 1996, p. 74.
Pakistan Air Force
In 1961, Pakistan being a
Major non-NATO ally
Major non-NATO ally (MNNA) is a designation given by the United States government to close allies that have strategic working relationships with the US Armed Forces but are not members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). While the ...
Mutual Assistance Program Mutual Assistance Program is a generic term denoting any form of international—and, in the United States, between states—cooperation projects, treaties, or joint ventures related to a specific issue, both civilian or military on, for example, he ...
which comprised of 12 F-104A models and 2 dual seat F-104B models. These were fitted with C-2 upward firing
ejection seats
In aircraft, an ejection seat or ejector seat is a system designed to rescue the pilot or other crew of an aircraft (usually military) in an emergency. In most designs, the seat is propelled out of the aircraft by an explosive charge or rocke ...
, AN/ASG-14T1
fire control system
A fire-control system (FCS) is a number of components working together, usually a gun data computer, a director, and radar, which is designed to assist a ranged weapon system to target, track, and hit a target. It performs the same task as a h ...
s, more powerful General Electric J79-11A engines and the M-61 Vulcans were also re-fitted on PAF's request. Moreover, an F-104B was modified by the PAF to carry Swedish TA-7M
reconnaissance
In military operations, reconnaissance or scouting is the exploration of an area by military forces to obtain information about enemy forces, terrain, and other activities.
Examples of reconnaissance include patrolling by troops (skirmisher ...
cameras in the back seat, other than that a single F-104A was modified to carry Radar homing devices like the Radar Locator (RALOR) and Short-range Low Altitude Radar Detection (SLARD). The No. 9 Squadron "Griffins" was the only PAF squadron to be equipped with these Starfighters.
The PAF also provided F-104 instructors to
Jordan
Jordan ( ar, الأردن; tr. ' ), officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan,; tr. ' is a country in Western Asia. It is situated at the crossroads of Asia, Africa, and Europe, within the Levant region, on the East Bank of the Jordan Rive ...
in order to train their pilots on the aircraft after the Royal Jordanian Air Force started receiving its Starfighters in 1968. One of the Jordanian pilots "Major Ihsan Shurdom" later rose to command the RJAF.
The Starfighter served with the
Pakistan Air Force
, "Be it deserts or seas; all lie under our wings" (traditional)
, colours =
, colours_label =
, march =
, mascot =
, anniversaries = ...
from 1961 until 1972 when lack of spare parts due to post-war
US sanctions
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territori ...
led to an early retirement.
Rann of Kutch Conflict
During the
Rann of Kutch
The Rann of Kutch (alternately spelled as Kuchchh) is a large area of salt marshes that span the border between India and Pakistan. It is located in Gujarat (primarily the Kutch district), India, and in Sindh, Pakistan. It is divided into t ...
crisis in April 1965, a detachment of 2
Griffin
The griffin, griffon, or gryphon (Ancient Greek: , ''gryps''; Classical Latin: ''grȳps'' or ''grȳpus''; Late Latin, Late and Medieval Latin: ''gryphes'', ''grypho'' etc.; Old French: ''griffon'') is a legendary creature with the body, tail ...
Army
An army (from Old French ''armee'', itself derived from the Latin verb ''armāre'', meaning "to arm", and related to the Latin noun ''arma'', meaning "arms" or "weapons"), ground force or land force is a fighting force that fights primarily on ...
Dassault Ouragan
The Dassault M.D.450 Ouragan (french: Hurricane) is a French fighter-bomber developed and produced by Dassault Aviation. It has its origins in a private venture by Dassault to produce an all-French aircraft which would make use of jet propulsion ...
which had intruded into Pakistani airspace to make a
forced landing
A forced landing is a landing by an aircraft made under factors outside the pilot's control, such as the failure of engines, systems, components, or weather which makes continued flight impossible. For a full description of these, see article on ' ...
at Jangshahi Village near
Badin
Badin ( Sindhi and ur, ) is the main city and capital of Badin District in Sindh, Pakistan. It lies east of the Indus River. It is the 87th largest city in Pakistan.
Badin is often called 'Sugar State' due to its production of sugar.
Badi ...
.
Indo-Pakistani war of 1965
PAF F-104s were deployed in a variety of roles during the 1965 war. These included
Air defence
Anti-aircraft warfare, counter-air or air defence forces is the battlespace response to aerial warfare, defined by NATO as "all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action".AAP-6 It includes surface based, ...
Reconnaissance
In military operations, reconnaissance or scouting is the exploration of an area by military forces to obtain information about enemy forces, terrain, and other activities.
Examples of reconnaissance include patrolling by troops (skirmisher ...
sonic boom
A sonic boom is a sound associated with shock waves created when an object travels through the air faster than the speed of sound. Sonic booms generate enormous amounts of sound energy, sounding similar to an explosion or a thunderclap to t ...
s in his F-104 over the enemy airbase at
Amritsar
Amritsar (), historically also known as Rāmdāspur and colloquially as ''Ambarsar'', is the second largest city in the Indian state of Punjab, after Ludhiana. It is a major cultural, transportation and economic centre, located in the Majha r ...
. This was done in order to harass the
Indian Air Force
The Indian Air Force (IAF) is the air arm of the Indian Armed Forces. Its complement of personnel and aircraft assets ranks third amongst the air forces of the world. Its primary mission is to secure Indian airspace and to conduct aerial w ...
as a sign of dominance.
On 3 September 1965, two Griffin F-104As flown by Flying Officer Abbas Mirza and Flight Lieutenant Hakimullah intercepted 6 IAF
Folland Gnat
The Folland Gnat is a British compact swept-wing subsonic fighter aircraft that was developed and produced by Folland Aircraft. Envisioned as an affordable light fighter in contrast to the rising cost and size of typical combat aircraft, it wa ...
s over
Akhnur
Akhnoor is a city and municipal committee, near city of Jammu in Jammu district of Indian union territory of Jammu and Kashmir. It lies 28 km away from Jammu city. Akhnoor is on the bank of the Chenab River, just before it enters the Pa ...
which had attacked a lone
F-86 Sabre
The North American F-86 Sabre, sometimes called the Sabrejet, is a transonic jet fighter aircraft. Produced by North American Aviation, the Sabre is best known as the United States' first swept-wing fighter that could counter the swept-wing So ...
. While the Sabre managed to return to base despite sustaining heavy damage, the Starfighters made supersonic passes near the Indian Gnats which resultantly spread panic amongst the IAF pilots. In the ensuing chaos, Squadron Ldr. Brij Pal Singh Sikand landed his Gnat F.1 at an abandoned Pakistani
airstrip
An aerodrome (Commonwealth English) or airdrome (American English) is a location from which aircraft flight operations take place, regardless of whether they involve air cargo, passengers, or neither, and regardless of whether it is for publ ...
at
Pasrur
Pasrur (Punjabi and ur, ), is a city of Sialkot District in the Punjab province of Pakistan. The city is the capital of Pasrur Tehsil and is administratively subdivided into 26 wards of municipal committee Pasrur.
It is located at 32°16'0N 74 ...
.
The F-104s first Air to Air combat victory was achieved by the
Pakistan Air Force
, "Be it deserts or seas; all lie under our wings" (traditional)
, colours =
, colours_label =
, march =
, mascot =
, anniversaries = ...
(PAF) on the dawn of 6 September 1965, when a pair of Griffin F-104As flown by Flight Lieutenant Aftab Alam Khan and Flight Lieutenant Amjad Hussain Khan were vectored towards 4 Indian
Dassault Mystere IV
Dassault Group (; also GIM Dassault or Groupe Industriel Marcel Dassault SAS) is a French group of companies established in 1929 with the creation of Société des Avions Marcel Bloch (now Dassault Aviation) by Marcel Dassault, and led by son Ser ...
s that were attacking a passenger train at Ghakhar Station. While Flight Lt. Amjad aborted due to radio failure, Flight Lt. Aftab went ahead with the interception and shot down a Mystere IV with an AIM-9B while damaging another with his 20mm M-61 Vulcan. The kill with an AIM-9B Sidewinder is claimed by the PAF as the first combat kill by any Mach 2 aircraft and the PAF's first missile kill, though the
Indian Air Force
The Indian Air Force (IAF) is the air arm of the Indian Armed Forces. Its complement of personnel and aircraft assets ranks third amongst the air forces of the world. Its primary mission is to secure Indian airspace and to conduct aerial w ...
denies the loss.Davies 2014, p. 77.
On 7 September 1965, a Griffin F-104A flown by Flight Lt. Amjad Hussein Khan intercepted 6 Indian
Dassault Mystere
Dassault Group (; also GIM Dassault or Groupe Industriel Marcel Dassault SAS) is a French group of companies established in 1929 with the creation of Société des Avions Marcel Bloch (now Dassault Aviation) by Marcel Dassault, and led by son Ser ...
s which were attacking the
Sargodha Airbase
PAF Base Mushaf (formerly PAF Base Sargodha), ), is a Pakistan Air Force (PAF) airbase situated at Sargodha in the Punjab province of Pakistan. It is designated as a "Major Operational Base" or "MOB" by the PAF.Squadron Ldr. Devaiah's Mystere. Amjad fired an AIM-9B but it missed and hit the ground so he switched to his 20mm M-61 Vulcan cannon and after some attempts, managed to score several hits on Devaiah's Mystere. However, due to High-G maneuvering, Amjad's F-104 was forced into a low speed
dogfight
A dogfight, or dog fight, is an aerial battle between fighter aircraft conducted at close range. Dogfighting first occurred in Mexico in 1913, shortly after the invention of the airplane. Until at least 1992, it was a component in every majo ...
by a determined Devaiah (something which the F-104 performs badly in due to its poor low speed maneuverability and agility.) This forced Amjad to
ram
Ram, ram, or RAM may refer to:
Animals
* A male sheep
* Ram cichlid, a freshwater tropical fish
People
* Ram (given name)
* Ram (surname)
* Ram (director) (Ramsubramaniam), an Indian Tamil film director
* RAM (musician) (born 1974), Dutch
* ...
his F-104 into the Mystere. The
mid-air collision
In aviation, a mid-air collision is an accident in which two or more aircraft come into unplanned contact during flight. Owing to the relatively high velocities involved and the likelihood of subsequent impact with the ground or sea, very sever ...
resulted in both pilots losing control of their
warplanes
A military aircraft is any fixed-wing or rotary-wing aircraft that is operated by a legal or insurrectionary armed service of any type. Military aircraft can be either combat or non-combat:
* Combat aircraft are designed to destroy enemy equipm ...
. While Flight Lt. Amjad managed to eject safely over Kot Nakka, the Indian pilot perished with his Mystere.
On 11 September 1965, a Griffin F-104A flown by Flight Lt. Hakumullah almost engaged with an Indian
Mig-21
The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 (russian: Микоян и Гуревич МиГ-21; NATO reporting name: Fishbed) is a supersonic jet fighter and interceptor aircraft, designed by the Mikoyan-Gurevich Design Bureau in the Soviet Union. Its nickna ...
F during a
Combat Air Patrol
Combat air patrol (CAP) is a type of flying mission for fighter aircraft. A combat air patrol is an aircraft patrol provided over an objective area, over the force protected, over the critical area of a combat zone, or over an air defense area, ...
over
Lahore
Lahore ( ; pnb, ; ur, ) is the second most populous city in Pakistan after Karachi and 26th most populous city in the world, with a population of over 13 million. It is the capital of the province of Punjab where it is the largest city. ...
English Electric Canberra
The English Electric Canberra is a British first-generation, jet-powered medium bomber. It was developed by English Electric during the mid- to late 1940s in response to a 1944 Air Ministry requirement for a successor to the wartime de Havil ...
Fazilka
Fazilka, also known as Bangla, is a city and a municipal council in Fazilka district of Punjab, India. In 2011, it was made the headquarter of the newly created Fazilka district. The Trans-Afghanistan Pipeline (TAPI) project originating in Tu ...
over Pakistani airspsace.
In total, Griffin F-104s flew 246 hours and 45mins during the 1965 war which comprised of 204 day
sorties
A sortie (from the French word meaning ''exit'' or from Latin root ''surgere'' meaning to "rise up") is a deployment or dispatch of one military unit, be it an aircraft, ship, or troops, from a strongpoint. The term originated in siege warfare. ...
and 42 night missions.
Indo-Pakistani War of 1971
The commencement of hostilities in 1971 led to PAF deploying its small fleet of F-104s heavily in Air to Air and Ground Attack roles. Surplus F-104As and F-104Bs were also received from
Jordan
Jordan ( ar, الأردن; tr. ' ), officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan,; tr. ' is a country in Western Asia. It is situated at the crossroads of Asia, Africa, and Europe, within the Levant region, on the East Bank of the Jordan Rive ...
.
; Ground Attack
In early December 1971, PAF launched
Operation Chengiz Khan
Operation Chengiz Khan was the code name assigned to the preemptive strikes carried out by the Pakistani Air Force (PAF) on the forward airbases and radar installations of the Indian Air Force (IAF) on the evening of 3 December 1971, and marke ...
(inspired from Israel's
Operation Focus
Operation Focus ( he, מבצע מוקד, ''Mivtza Moked'') was the opening airstrike by Israel at the start of the Six-Day War in 1967. It is sometimes referred to as the "Sinai Air Strike". At 07:45 on 5 June 1967, the Israeli Air Force (IAF) u ...
) after a series of invasions by Indian forces in
East Pakistan
East Pakistan was a Pakistani province established in 1955 by the One Unit Scheme, One Unit Policy, renaming the province as such from East Bengal, which, in modern times, is split between India and Bangladesh. Its land borders were with India ...
. As part of these
Preemptive strikes
A preemptive war is a war that is commenced in an attempt to repel or defeat a perceived imminent offensive or invasion, or to gain a strategic advantage in an impending (allegedly unavoidable) war ''shortly before'' that attack materializes. It ...
, the Starfighters were employed particularly in attacks on various Indian
Radar stations
Radar is a detection system that uses radio waves to determine the distance (''ranging''), angle, and radial velocity of objects relative to the site. It can be used to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor vehicles, weat ...
.
On 3 December 1971, a formation of two starfighters attacked the IAF Radar station at
Amritsar
Amritsar (), historically also known as Rāmdāspur and colloquially as ''Ambarsar'', is the second largest city in the Indian state of Punjab, after Ludhiana. It is a major cultural, transportation and economic centre, located in the Majha r ...
.
On 4 December 1971,
Squadron leader
Squadron leader (Sqn Ldr in the RAF ; SQNLDR in the RAAF and RNZAF; formerly sometimes S/L in all services) is a commissioned rank in the Royal Air Force and the air forces of many countries which have historical British influence. It is also ...
s Amanullah and Rashid Bhatti flying F-104As again struck the IAF's
Amritsar
Amritsar (), historically also known as Rāmdāspur and colloquially as ''Ambarsar'', is the second largest city in the Indian state of Punjab, after Ludhiana. It is a major cultural, transportation and economic centre, located in the Majha r ...
radar without any significant results due to heavy Anti-Aircraft fire.
On 11 December, two F-104As piloted by Wing Commander Arif Iqbal Squadron Leader M. Amanullah struck the Indian airbase of
Uttarlai
Uttarlai is a village in Barmer district of Rajasthan state of India. It also has an Air Force
An air force – in the broadest sense – is the national military branch that primarily conducts aerial warfare. More specifically, it i ...
during which Squadron Ldr. Amanullah destroyed an HF-24 parked on the
tarmac Tarmac may refer to:
Engineered surfaces
* Tarmacadam, a mainly historical tar-based material for macadamising road surfaces, patented in 1902
* Asphalt concrete, a macadamising material using asphalt instead of tar which has largely superseded ta ...
with his Starfighter's M-61 Vulcan while Flight Lt. Arif Iqbal strafed another HF-24 which was trying to take off from the airbase.
;Air to Air Combat
On 4 December 1971, a
Folland Gnat
The Folland Gnat is a British compact swept-wing subsonic fighter aircraft that was developed and produced by Folland Aircraft. Envisioned as an affordable light fighter in contrast to the rising cost and size of typical combat aircraft, it wa ...
and Sukhoi Su-7 were shot down after they confronted a formation of two PAF Starfighters attacking the Amritsar Radar.
On 8 December, an F-104 piloted by Flight Lieutenant Manzoor Bokhari intercepted a Canberra bomber and shot it down.
On 10 December, an F-104 flown by Wing Commander Arif Iqbal shot down an Indian Navy
Bréguet 1050 Alizé
The Bréguet Br.1050 Alizé (French: "Tradewind") is a French carrier-based anti-submarine warfare aircraft. It was developed in the 1950s, based loosely on the second prototype Bréguet Vultur attack aircraft which had been modified into the ...
while attacking the
Okha Port
Okha port is a census town in Devbhumi Dwarka in the Indian state of Gujarat.
Demographics
India census, Okha port had a population of 18,847. Males constitute 55% of the population and females 45%. Okha port has an average literacy rate of 6 ...
.
On the morning of 12 December, the first direct air-to-air combat engagement between an F-104 and a
MiG-21
The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 (russian: Микоян и Гуревич МиГ-21; NATO reporting name: Fishbed) is a supersonic jet fighter and interceptor aircraft, designed by the Mikoyan-Gurevich Design Bureau in the Soviet Union. Its nickna ...
wingman
A wingman (or wingmate) is a pilot or UAV who supports another pilot in a potentially dangerous flying environment. ''Wingman'' was originally the plane flying beside and slightly behind the lead plane in an aircraft formation.
According to t ...
Tariq Habib while performing airstrikes on the IAF's Jamnagar Airbase were bounced by 2 Indian Mig-21FLs of the No. 47 Squadron. While the F-104 formation was returning to Pakistani territory, one of the Mig-21s fired a
K-13 missile
The Vympel K-13 (NATO reporting name: AA-2 "Atoll") is a short-range, infrared homing air-to-air missile developed by the Soviet Union. It is similar in appearance and function to the American AIM-9B Sidewinder from which it was reverse-enginee ...
at Mervyn's F-104. Though he managed to dodge it with evasive maneuvers, a second missile was fired at a range of 300 meters this time hitting his Starfighter. Mervyn was seen ejecting over the
Gulf of Kutch
The Gulf of Kutch is located between the peninsula regions of Kutch and Saurashtra, bounded in the state of Gujarat that borders Pakistan. It opens towards the Arabian Sea facing the Osman Gulf.
It is about 50 km wide at the entrance bef ...
however the Indian vessels dispatched to capture him claimed he was never found. The PAF initially declared him
MIA
Mia, MIA, or M.I.A. may refer to:
Music Artists
* M.I.A. (rapper) (born 1975), English rapper and singer
* M.I.A. (band), 1980s punk rock band from Orange County, California
* MIA., a German rock/pop band formed in 1997
* Mia (singer) (born 1983) ...
but was later declared
KIA
Kia Corporation, commonly known as Kia (, ; formerly known as Kyungsung Precision Industry and Kia Motors Corporation), is a South Korean multinational automobile manufacturer headquartered in Seoul, South Korea. It is South Korea's second lar ...
and
posthumously awarded
A posthumous award is granted after the recipient has died. Many prizes, medals, and awards can be granted posthumously. Australian actor Heath Ledger, for example, won many awards after his death in 2008. Military decorations, such as Hero of ...
a
Bar
Bar or BAR may refer to:
Food and drink
* Bar (establishment), selling alcoholic beverages
* Candy bar
* Chocolate bar
Science and technology
* Bar (river morphology), a deposit of sediment
* Bar (tropical cyclone), a layer of cloud
* Bar (u ...
to
Sitara-e-Jurat
Sitara-e-Jurat (, Star of Courage) is the third highest military award of Pakistan. It was established in 1957 after Pakistan became a republic; however, it was instituted retrospectively back to 1947. It is awarded for Courage, gallantry or dist ...
.
The second F-104 loss occurred several days later on 17 December when a pair of Jordanian loaned Starfighters on
Combat Air Patrol
Combat air patrol (CAP) is a type of flying mission for fighter aircraft. A combat air patrol is an aircraft patrol provided over an objective area, over the force protected, over the critical area of a combat zone, or over an air defense area, ...
near
Hyderabad
Hyderabad ( ; , ) is the capital and largest city of the Indian state of Telangana and the ''de jure'' capital of Andhra Pradesh. It occupies on the Deccan Plateau along the banks of the Musi River (India), Musi River, in the northern part ...
intercepted 2
Mig-21
The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 (russian: Микоян и Гуревич МиГ-21; NATO reporting name: Fishbed) is a supersonic jet fighter and interceptor aircraft, designed by the Mikoyan-Gurevich Design Bureau in the Soviet Union. Its nickna ...
Jordan
Jordan ( ar, الأردن; tr. ' ), officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan,; tr. ' is a country in Western Asia. It is situated at the crossroads of Asia, Africa, and Europe, within the Levant region, on the East Bank of the Jordan Rive ...
engaged one of the Mig-21s and managed to get behind its tail. Unknown to him the second Mig-21 had sneaked up behind him and had fired a
K-13 missile
The Vympel K-13 (NATO reporting name: AA-2 "Atoll") is a short-range, infrared homing air-to-air missile developed by the Soviet Union. It is similar in appearance and function to the American AIM-9B Sidewinder from which it was reverse-enginee ...
which had missed. His leader tried warning him but to no avail. As Changezi was about to shoot the Mig-21 down, a second
K-13 missile
The Vympel K-13 (NATO reporting name: AA-2 "Atoll") is a short-range, infrared homing air-to-air missile developed by the Soviet Union. It is similar in appearance and function to the American AIM-9B Sidewinder from which it was reverse-enginee ...
was fired by the pursuing IAF Mig-21 which slammed into his F-104. The Starfighter went down over Mirpur Khas along with its pilot. Changezi was
posthumously
Posthumous may refer to:
* Posthumous award - an award, prize or medal granted after the recipient's death
* Posthumous publication – material published after the author's death
* ''Posthumous'' (album), by Warne Marsh, 1987
* ''Posthumous'' (E ...
awarded the
Sitara-e-Jurat
Sitara-e-Jurat (, Star of Courage) is the third highest military award of Pakistan. It was established in 1957 after Pakistan became a republic; however, it was instituted retrospectively back to 1947. It is awarded for Courage, gallantry or dist ...
in honour of his wartime service.
The IAF also claims two additional PAF Starfighter kills that same day including Squadron Leader Rashid Bhatti's Starfighter. However the PAF said he returned without damage to Masroor AFB.Davies 2014, pp. 85–87.
1967 Taiwan Strait Conflict
On 13 January 1967, four ROCAF F-104G aircraft engaged a formation of J-6/ MiG-19s of the People's Liberation Army Air Force over the disputed island of
Kinmen
Kinmen, alternatively known as Quemoy, is a group of islands governed as a county by the Republic of China (Taiwan), off the southeastern coast of mainland China. It lies roughly east of the city of Xiamen in Fujian, from which it is separate ...
(Quemoy). Major Hu Shih-lin and Captain Shih Bei-puo each shot down one MiG-19. One F-104 did not return to base and its pilot was listed as
missing in action
Missing in action (MIA) is a casualty classification assigned to combatants, military chaplains, combat medics, and prisoners of war who are reported missing during wartime or ceasefire. They may have been killed, wounded, captured, ex ...
.Bowman 2000, p. 165.Davies 2014, p. 88.
F-104 designer Kelly Johnson stated that this particular battle illustrated the relative strengths and weaknesses of the Starfighter in aerial combat. "We had them on acceleration and we had them on steady-state altitude, but we could not turn with them," said Johnson, who at the time was working on the larger-winged, more-maneuverable
CL-1200 Lancer
The Lockheed CL-1200 Lancer was a late 1960s company-funded proposal for a fighter aircraft based on the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter. The CL-1200 was conceived and marketed mainly for and to non-US military services, as an export product. As such ...
derivative of the F-104.
Other international service
At the same time that the F-104 was falling out of U.S. favor, the West German Air Force was looking for a multi-role combat aircraft to operate in support of a missile defense system. In response, Lockheed reworked the Starfighter from a fair-weather fighter into an all-weather ground-attack, reconnaissance, and interceptor aircraft, and presented it as the F-104G. The redesigned aircraft was chosen over the
English Electric P.1
The English Electric Lightning is a British fighter aircraft that served as an interceptor during the 1960s, the 1970s and into the late 1980s. It was capable of a top speed of above Mach 2. The Lightning was designed, developed, and manufac ...
(later the Lightning),
Grumman F11F-1F Super Tiger
The Grumman F11F-1F Super Tiger (company designation G-98J) is a single-seat fighter aircraft originally developed for the United States Navy (USN). Based on the USN's F-11 Tiger, the F11F-1F did not proceed beyond the two F11F-1F prototypes.
D ...
, Chance Vought F-8U Crusader and Republic F-105 Thunderchief. Ten other aircraft types, including the F-102, F-106,
Saunders-Roe SR.177
The Saunders-Roe SR.177 was a 1950s project to develop a combined jet- and rocket-powered interceptor aircraft for the Royal Air Force (RAF) and Royal Navy. It was an enlarged derivative of the Saunders-Roe SR.53, which was itself an experi ...
, and the
Saab 35 Draken
The Saab 35 Draken (; 'The Kite' or 'The Dragon') is a Swedish fighter-interceptor developed and manufactured by Svenska Aeroplan Aktiebolaget (SAAB) between 1955 and 1974. Development of the Saab 35 Draken started in 1948 as the Swedish air fo ...
, were also considered but discarded earlier in the process.Jackson 1976, p. 19. The F-104G was ultimately chosen because the other two finalists were still in the development phase while the F-104 was about to be introduced into USAF service; although the American version lacked all-weather capability, Lockheed promised they could deliver this, and favorable reports by the German Ministry of Defence delegation sent in December 1957 to flight-test the F-104 tipped the scales in the Starfighter's favor.Kropf 2002, pp. 16–17.
The Starfighter found a new market with other
NATO countries
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) is an international military alliance that consists of 30 member states from Europe and North America. It was established at the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty on 4 April 1949. Article 5 of th ...
as well, and eventually more than 2,000 of all variants of the F-104 were built for international air forces.Davies 2014, p. 20. Several countries received their aircraft under the U.S. government-funded Military Aid Program (MAP).Donald 2003, p. 149. The American engine was retained but built under license in Europe, Canada, and Japan.Pace 1992, p. 140. The Lockheed ejector seats were retained initially but were replaced in some countries by the safer Martin-Baker seat.Cacutt 1988, p. 166.
The so-called "Deal of the Century" produced substantial income for Lockheed, but the resulting
bribery scandals
Bribery is the offering, giving, receiving, or soliciting of any item of value to influence the actions of an official, or other person, in charge of a public or legal duty. With regard to governmental operations, essentially, bribery is "Corru ...
caused considerable political controversy in Europe and Japan. In 1976, a
United States Senate
The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress, with the House of Representatives being the lower chamber. Together they compose the national bicameral legislature of the United States.
The composition and pow ...
investigating committee led by Senator Frank Church determined that Lockheed had paid US$22 million in bribes to foreign officials during the negotiation processes for the sale of its aircraft, including the F-104 Starfighter. In Germany, Minister of Defence
Franz Josef Strauss
Franz Josef Strauss ( ; 6 September 1915 – 3 October 1988) was a German politician. He was the long-time chairman of the Christian Social Union in Bavaria (CSU) from 1961 until 1988, member of the federal cabinet in different positions betwee ...
was accused of having received at least US$10 million for West Germany's purchase of the F-104 in 1961. On 26 August 1976, Prince-consort Bernhard of the Netherlands was forced to resign as Inspector-General of the Dutch Armed Forces after being accused of accepting approximately US$1.1 million in bribes.Dobrzyński 2015, p. 29.
In the Netherlands, the F-104 was used to aid in the ending of the 1977 Dutch train hijacking. On 11 June 1977, almost three weeks after the start of a hijacking of a train by Moluccan separatists, six F-104 jet fighters of the Royal Netherlands Air Force overflew the train three times at low altitude, using their afterburners to disorient the hijackers as a precursor to an armed attack by Dutch marines. None of the Starfighters used its weapons.
The international service of the F-104 began to wind down in the late 1970s, being replaced in many cases by the
General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon
The General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon is a single-engine Multirole combat aircraft, multirole fighter aircraft originally developed by General Dynamics for the United States Air Force (USAF). Designed as an air superiority day fighter, it ...
, but it remained in service with some air forces for another two decades. The last operational Starfighters served with the Italian Air Force, which retired them on 31 October 2004.
NASA
The Starfighter served with
NASA
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA ) is an independent agency of the US federal government responsible for the civil space program, aeronautics research, and space research.
NASA was established in 1958, succeeding t ...
from 1956 until 1994. A total of 12 F-104A, F-104B, F-104N, and TF-104G aircraft performed high-speed and altitude flight research at
Dryden Flight Research Center
The NASA Neil A. Armstrong Flight Research Center (AFRC) is an aeronautical research center operated by NASA. Its primary campus is located inside Edwards Air Force Base in California and is considered NASA's premier site for aeronautical rese ...
. The F-104 also performed many safety chase missions in support of advanced research aircraft, and provided a launch platform for sounding rockets.Dobrzyński 2015, p. 90.
In August 1956, the USAF transferred YF-104A serial number 55–2961 to the
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) was a United States federal agency founded on March 3, 1915, to undertake, promote, and institutionalize aeronautical research. On October 1, 1958, the agency was dissolved and its assets ...
(NACA, the predecessor of NASA), designating it NF-104A. In preparation for the
X-15
The North American X-15 is a hypersonic rocket-powered aircraft. It was operated by the United States Air Force and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration as part of the X-plane series of experimental aircraft. The X-15 set spee ...
test program of the late 1950s, it was fitted with the reaction control system (RCS) consisting of hydrogen peroxide-powered thrusters mounted in the aircraft's nose and wingtips. This system provided valuable experience for future X-15 pilots and astronauts in spacecraft control and maneuverability. The trials began in 1959 and concluded in 1961, after which the aircraft was used for other NASA purposes until it was retired in November 1975.
An F-104B, originally USAF 57-1303 later received civil registry as N819NA, NASA 819. It became the longest-serving NASA F-104 in both calendar time (1958–1978) and flight hours. Its credits include being the first aircraft in history to perform manned testing of a ballute at supersonic speed. It was also the first to test piloted landings of vehicles such as the X-15 and lifting bodies with the pilot using only stereo periscopic vision. It was used extensively for biomedical research, evaluation of new full pressure suits, and general utility duties for NASA research. One notable case was its service as the final chase plane for the official FAI world altitude record flight of the #3 X-15.
Between August and October 1963, Lockheed delivered three single-seat F-104G Starfighters to NASA, designated F-104N, for use as high-speed chase aircraft. These were the only Starfighters built by Lockheed specifically for NASA; all other NASA aircraft were transferred from the USAF. The third of these F-104Ns, number 013, was destroyed on 8 June 1966 in a mid-air collision with a
North American XB-70
The North American Aviation XB-70 Valkyrie was the prototype version of the planned B-70 nuclear-armed, deep-penetration supersonic strategic bomber for the United States Air Force Strategic Air Command. Designed in the late 1950s by Nort ...
during a publicity photo flight for
General Electric
General Electric Company (GE) is an American multinational conglomerate founded in 1892, and incorporated in New York state and headquartered in Boston. The company operated in sectors including healthcare, aviation, power, renewable energ ...
.
One NASA F-104G, registration N826NA, was equipped with a flight test fixture (FTF) consisting of a pylon mounted on the fuselage centerline. The FTF contained instruments to record and transmit research data in real-time to engineers in mission control at Dryden. One application of the FTF was testing heat-resistant tiles for use on the
Space Shuttle
The Space Shuttle is a retired, partially reusable low Earth orbital spacecraft system operated from 1981 to 2011 by the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) as part of the Space Shuttle program. Its official program na ...
, ensuring their bonding was sufficient at high speeds and evaluating their performance when exposed to moisture. The last of these missions flew on 31 January 1994, bringing the F-104's service with NASA to a close after more than 18,000 flights.
Starfighters Inc
Starfighters Inc is a civilian organization that uses F-104 Starfighters for contract testing and flight simulations.
History
Starfighters Inc, based in Clearwater, Florida, began as a private venture founded in 1995 to restore and fly three f ...
(a private F-104 operator) began working together on a project to launch suborbital sounding rockets from F-104s flying out of
Kennedy Space Center
The John F. Kennedy Space Center (KSC, originally known as the NASA Launch Operations Center), located on Merritt Island, Florida, is one of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA) ten field centers. Since December 1968 ...
. First launches were expected to occur in 2012.
In early 2016, another venture, CubeCab, was working on a rocket system that would launch
CubeSat
A CubeSat is a class of miniaturized satellite based around a form factor consisting of cubes. CubeSats have a mass of no more than per unit, and often use commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) components for their electronics and structure. CubeSats ...
s from F-104s. The company said it planned to begin providing launch services "in early 2020".
Flying characteristics
The Starfighter was the first combat aircraft capable of sustained Mach 2 flight, and its speed and climb performance remained impressive more than thirty years after its first flight.Kropf 2002, p. 9. Equipped with razor-edge thin-blade supersonic wings (visible from the cockpit only in the mirrors),Bashow 1990, p. 84. it was designed for optimum performance above Mach 1.2.Spitzmiller 2011, p. 145. If used appropriately, with high-speed surprise attacks and good use of its exceptional thrust-to-weight ratio, it could be a formidable opponent.Davies 2014, pp. 16–17. It was exceptionally stable at high speed, i.e., , at very low level, making it a potent tactical nuclear strike-fighter. However, in a low-speed turning contest with conventional subsonic opponents (as Pakistani pilots were with Indian Mystères in 1965),Donald 2003, p. 144. the fighter was vulnerable.Bashow 1990, p. 60. The F-104's large turn radius was due to the high speeds required for maneuvering, and its high-alpha stalling and
pitch-up
In aerodynamics, pitch-up is an uncommanded nose-upwards rotation of an aircraft. It is an undesirable characteristic that has been observed mostly in experimental swept-wing aircraft at high subsonic Mach numbers or high angle of attack.
History
...
behavior required attentiveness from its pilot.Yeager and Janos 1985, pp. 278–279. In reference to the F-104's low-speed turn performance, a humorous colloquialism was coined by a pilot in the skies over Edwards Air Force Base: "Banking with intent to turn."
Takeoff
Takeoff is the phase of flight in which an aerospace vehicle leaves the ground and becomes airborne. For aircraft traveling vertically, this is known as liftoff.
For aircraft that take off horizontally, this usually involves starting with a t ...
speeds were between , with the pilot needing to swiftly raise the landing gear to avoid exceeding the maximum landing gear operating speed of . Climb and cruise performance were outstanding; occasionally a "slow" light would illuminate on the instrument panel at around Mach 2 to indicate that the engine compressor was nearing its limiting temperature and the pilot needed to throttle back. Landings were also performed at high speed: the downwind leg of the circuit was typically flown at approximately with flaps in landing configuration, with the long, flat
final approach
In aeronautics, the final approach (also called the final leg and final approach leg) is the last leg in an aircraft's approach to landing, when the aircraft is lined up with the runway and descending for landing.Crane, Dale: ''Dictionary of ...
flown at around and touchdown at . Extra fuel, crosswinds or gusts, external stores, and other considerations could add up to to these speeds. Unlike most aircraft, the F-104 was landed with the engine at high power, as the boundary layer control system lost effectiveness below approximately 82 percent engine rpm. Pilots were instructed not to cut the throttle while the plane was still airborne, as doing so would cause an abrupt (and generally uneven) loss of lift. To limit the Starfighter's landing roll, or distance traveled while decelerating from touchdown to taxi speed, powerful brakes were combined with a
drag chute
A drogue parachute is a parachute designed for deployment from a rapidly-moving object. It can be used for various purposes, such as to decrease speed, to provide control and stability, or as a pilot parachute to deploy a larger parachute. V ...
.Bowman 2000, pp. 40, 43, 122.Dobrzyński 2015, p. 114.
Early problems
The F-104 series all had a very high
wing loading
In aerodynamics, wing loading is the total mass of an aircraft or flying animal divided by the area of its wing. The stalling speed of an aircraft in straight, level flight is partly determined by its wing loading. An aircraft or animal with a ...
(made even higher when carrying external stores). During the early stall tests, the aircraft demonstrated the tendency to suddenly "pitch up" once it reached an angle of attack of approximately 15 degrees. This "pitch up" would result in a rapid increase in angle of attack to approximately 60 degrees, accompanied by lateral and directional oscillation, and followed by sudden uncontrolled yaw and roll. At this point the aircraft would be essentially tumbling, descending at a rate of .Upton 2003, p. 39. To combat this, an automatic pitch control (APC) was added, which initiated corrective action at the proper time to prevent reaching an angle of attack high enough to cause pitch-up under any operating condition. The high angle of attack area of flight was protected by a
stick shaker
A stick shaker is a mechanical device designed to rapidly and noisily vibrate the control yoke (the "stick") of an aircraft, warning the flight crew that an imminent aerodynamic stall has been detected. It is typically present on the majority of ...
system to warn the pilot of an approaching stall, and if this was ignored, a
stick pusher
A stick pusher is a device installed in some fixed-wing aircraft to prevent the aircraft from entering an aerodynamic stall. Some large fixed-wing aircraft display poor post-stall handling characteristics or are vulnerable to deep stall. To preven ...
system would pitch the aircraft's nose down to a safer angle of attack; this was often overridden by the pilot despite flight manual warnings against this practice.Bashow 1986, p. 20.
Another serious design issue that the aircraft encountered was T-tail flutter; Dick Heppe, who served as the initial project aerodynamics engineer for the F-104 program, recalled that "without question, the single most difficult technical challenge encountered in the XF-104 and F-104A development programs was the catastrophic flutter problem of the unique T-tailed empennage configuration." Because the horizontal tail's center of gravity was well aft of both the bending and torsional axes of the vertical tail to which it was attached, it was highly vulnerable to flutter at transonic speeds. During a test flight of the F-104A, the surviving XF-104 was flying chase to observe, and encountered violent T-tail flutter that caused the tail to separate from the aircraft. The test pilot of the XF-104 successfully ejected. This behavior was remedied by increasing the thickness of the stainless steel box covers used in the tail assembly.Upton 2003, p. 45.
The J79 was a brand-new engine, with development continuing throughout the YF-104A test phase and during service with the F-104A. The engine featured variable incidence compressor stator blades, a design feature that altered the angle of the stator blades automatically with altitude and temperature. A condition known as "T-2 reset", a normal function that made large stator blade angle changes, caused several engine failures on takeoff. It was discovered that large and sudden temperature changes (e.g., from being parked in the sun prior to becoming airborne) were falsely causing the engine stator blades to close and choke the compressor. The dangers presented by these engine failures were compounded by the downward ejection seat, which gave the pilot little chance of a safe exit at low level. The engine systems were subsequently modified and the ejection seat changed to the more conventional upward type.Pace 1992, pp. 66, 68.Spitzmiller 2011, p. 153.
Uncontrolled
oscillation
Oscillation is the repetitive or periodic variation, typically in time, of some measure about a central value (often a point of equilibrium) or between two or more different states. Familiar examples of oscillation include a swinging pendulum ...
s of its wingtip-mounted fuel tank sheared one wing off of an F-104B; this problem was apparent during testing of the XF-104 prototype and was eventually resolved by filling the tank compartments in a specific order.Drendel 1976, p. 22.
Early F-104s also lacked modulated afterburning, and as a result combat operations could only be performed at one of only two settings, either maximum military power or full afterburner. Effectively this gave the pilot the choice of two level-flight speeds: Mach 1 or Mach 2.2.
Later problems
A further engine problem was that of uncommanded opening of the variable thrust nozzle (usually through loss of engine oil pressure, as the nozzles were actuated using engine oil as hydraulic fluid); although the engine would be running normally at high power, the opening of the nozzle resulted in a drastic loss of thrust to below that required to maintain level flight. At low altitudes this was unrecoverable, and it caused the loss of at least seven F-104s during testing. A modification program installed a manual nozzle closure control that reduced the problem, but according to designer Kelly Johnson, this took nine years to resolve satisfactorily.Kropf 2002, p. 7.Donald 2003, p. 142.
The engine was also known to suffer from
afterburner
An afterburner (or reheat in British English) is an additional combustion component used on some jet engines, mostly those on military supersonic aircraft. Its purpose is to increase thrust, usually for supersonic flight, takeoff, and comba ...
blowout on takeoff, or even non-ignition, resulting in a major loss of thrust that could be detected by the pilot—the recommended action was to abandon the takeoff. The first fatal accident in German service was caused by this phenomenon. Some pilots experienced uncommanded "stick kicker" activation at low altitudes while flying straight and level, so F-104 crews were often directed to deactivate it for flight operations.Kropf 2002, p. 116. Asymmetric or "split" flap deployment was another frequent cause of accidents.Dobrzyński 2015, p. 28. Many pilots also experienced severe nose wheel "
shimmy
A shimmy is a dance move in which the body is held still, except for the shoulders, which are quickly alternated back and forth. When the right shoulder goes back, the left one comes forward.
History
In 1917, a dance-song titled "Shim-Me-Sha ...
" on landing, which usually resulted in the aircraft leaving the runway and in some cases even flipping over onto its back.Kropf 2002, p. 115.
West German service
The introduction of a highly technical aircraft type to a newly reformed air force was fraught with problems. Many pilots and ground crew had settled into civilian jobs after World War II and had not kept pace with developments, with pilots being sent on short "refresher" courses in slow and benign-handling first-generation jet aircraft. Ground crew were similarly employed with minimal training and experience, which was one consequence of a conscripted military with high turnover of service personnel. Operating in the poor weather conditions of northwest Europe (unlike the fair weather training conditions at
Luke AFB
Luke Air Force Base is a United States Air Force base in Maricopa County, Arizona, United States., effective 20 December 2007 It is located west of the central business district of Glendale, and west of Phoenix.
Luke AFB is a major trainin ...
in
Arizona
Arizona ( ; nv, Hoozdo Hahoodzo ; ood, Alĭ ṣonak ) is a state in the Southwestern United States. It is the 6th largest and the 14th most populous of the 50 states. Its capital and largest city is Phoenix. Arizona is part of the Fou ...
) and flying low at high speed over hilly terrain, many accidents were attributed to
controlled flight into terrain
In aviation, a controlled flight into terrain (CFIT; usually ) is an accident in which an airworthy aircraft, under pilot control, is unintentionally flown into the ground, a mountain, a body of water or an obstacle. In a typical CFIT scenario, ...
(CFIT). A total of 116 pilots were lost in West German F-104 accidents, including 1 ground crew passenger and 8 USAF instructors.Kropf 2002, p. 164.
One contributing factor to this was the operational assignment of the F-104 in West German service: it was mainly used as a low-level fighter-bomber, as opposed to the original design of a high-speed, high-altitude fighter/interceptor. Furthermore, the installation of additional avionic equipment in the F-104G version, such as the
inertial navigation system
An inertial navigation system (INS) is a navigation device that uses motion sensors (accelerometers), rotation sensors ( gyroscopes) and a computer to continuously calculate by dead reckoning the position, the orientation, and the velocity (dire ...
, added distraction for the pilot as well as extra weight that further hampered the flying capabilities of the plane. In contemporary West German magazine articles highlighting the Starfighter safety problems, the aircraft was portrayed as "overburdened" with technology, which was considered a latent overstrain on the aircrews.
In 1966
Johannes Steinhoff
Johannes "Macky" Steinhoff (15 September 1913 – 21 February 1994) was a Luftwaffe fighter ace during World War II, German general, and NATO official. He was one of very few Luftwaffe pilots who survived to fly operationally through the whole ...
took over command of the ''Luftwaffe'' and grounded the entire ''Luftwaffe'' and ''Bundesmarine'' F-104 fleet until he was satisfied that problems had been resolved or at least reduced. In later years, the safety record improved, although a new problem of structural failure of the wings emerged. Original fatigue calculations had not taken into account the high number of g-force loading cycles that the F-104 fleet was experiencing, and many airframes were returned to the depot for wing replacement or outright retirement. Towards the end of ''Luftwaffe'' service, some aircraft were modified to carry a
flight data recorder
A flight recorder is an electronic recording device placed in an aircraft for the purpose of facilitating the investigation of aviation accidents and incidents. The device may often be referred to as a "black box", an outdated name which has ...
or "black box" which could give an indication of the probable cause of an accident.Reed 1981, p. 46.
Erich Hartmann
Erich Alfred Hartmann (19 April 1922 – 20 September 1993) was a German fighter pilot during World War II and the most successful flying ace, fighter ace in the history of aerial warfare. He flew 1,404 combat missions and participated in ...
, the world's top-scoring
fighter ace
A flying ace, fighter ace or air ace is a military aviator credited with shooting down five or more enemy aircraft during aerial combat. The exact number of aerial victories required to officially qualify as an ace is varied, but is usually co ...
, commanded one of West Germany's first post-war jet fighter-equipped
wings
A wing is a type of fin that produces lift while moving through air or some other fluid. Accordingly, wings have streamlined cross-sections that are subject to aerodynamic forces and act as airfoils. A wing's aerodynamic efficiency is expresse ...
Weal 1995, p. 164. and deemed the F-104 to be an unsafe aircraft with poor handling characteristics for aerial combat. In
Navy
A navy, naval force, or maritime force is the branch of a nation's armed forces principally designated for naval warfare, naval and amphibious warfare; namely, lake-borne, riverine, littoral zone, littoral, or ocean-borne combat operations and ...
service it lacked the safety margin of a twin engine design such as the Blackburn Buccaneer. To the dismay of his superiors, Hartmann judged the fighter unfit for ''Luftwaffe'' use even before its introduction.Toliver and Constable 1985, pp. 285–286.Eric Brown described the Starfighter as a hot ship, that "has to be flown every inch of the way." The USAF required Starfighter pilots to have at least 1,500 flight hours of experience prior to flying the F-104. West German pilots had around 400 hours.Wings on my Sleeve, p. 264 Brown recommended the Blackburn Buccaneer instead.
Normal operating hazards
The causes of a large number of aircraft losses were the same as for any other similar type. They included:
bird strike
A bird strike—sometimes called birdstrike, bird ingestion (for an engine), bird hit, or bird aircraft strike hazard (BASH)—is a collision between an airborne animal (usually a bird or bat) and a moving vehicle, usually an aircraft. The term ...
s and other foreign object damage (particularly to the engine), lightning strikes, pilot spatial disorientation, and
mid-air collision
In aviation, a mid-air collision is an accident in which two or more aircraft come into unplanned contact during flight. Owing to the relatively high velocities involved and the likelihood of subsequent impact with the ground or sea, very sever ...
s with other aircraft.Kropf 2002, pp. 165–163. One such accident occurred on 19 June 1962 when a formation of four F-104F aircraft, practicing for the type's introduction-into-service ceremony the following day, crashed together after descending through a cloud bank. The pilot of the lead aircraft lost spatial orientation and was at too steep a nose-down angle to recover. Three German pilots and one American pilot were killed, and the four aircraft destroyed. As a result, formation aerobatic teams were immediately banned by the ''Luftwaffe''.Kropf 2002, pp. 133–135.
Safety record
The safety record of the F-104 Starfighter became high-profile news in the mid-1960s, especially in West Germany.Kropf 2002, p. 43. West Germany initially ordered 309 F-104s, and over time another 607.Kropf 2002, p. 18. Deliveries of Lockheed-built aircraft started in August 1961, and domestically produced airframes began to roll off the assembly lines in December.Kropf 2002, p. 21. That same month, the first of an eventual total of 292 West German F-104s had crashed.Kropf 2002, p. 117. In October 1975, Lockheed agreed to pay a total of 3 million Deutsche Marks (US$1.2 million) to approximately 60 widows and dependents of 32 ''Luftwaffe'' pilots killed during flight operations, though the company declined to admit liability.Jackson 1976, p. 23. While announcing the settlement, the plaintiffs' attorney acknowledged he had been seeking US$10 million and noted that there were more instances of pilot error than he had expected.
Some operators lost a large proportion of their aircraft through accidents, although the accident rate varied widely depending on the user and operating conditions. The German Air Force and Federal German Navy, the largest combined user of the F-104 and operator of over 35% of all airframes built, lost approximately 32% of its Starfighters in accidents over the aircraft's 31-year career.Paloque 2012, p. 43. The Belgian Air Force, on the other hand, lost 41 of its 100 airframes between February 1963 and September 1983,Paloque 2012, p. 36. and Italy, the final Starfighter operator, lost 138 of 368 (37%) by 1992.Paloque 2012, p. 56. Canada's accident rate with the F-104 ultimately exceeded 46% (110 of 238) over its 25-year service history,Bashow 1990, pp. 210–219. though the Canadian jets tended to be flown for a greater number of hours than those of other air forces (three times that of the German F-104s, for example).Paloque 2012, p. 40. However, some operators had substantially lower accident rates: Denmark's attrition rate for the F-104 was 24%, with Japan losing just 15%Paloque 2012, p. 62. and Norway 14% (6 of 43) Paloque 2012, p. 70. of their respective Starfighter fleets. The best accident rate was achieved by the Spanish Air Force, which ended its Starfighter era with a perfect safety record: the Ejército del Aire lost none of its 18 F-104Gs and 3 TF-104Gs over a total of seven years and 17,500 flight hours.Paloque 2012, p. 74.
The cumulative destroyed rate of the F-104 Starfighter in USAF service as of 31 December 1983 was 25.2 aircraft destroyed per 100,000 flight hours. This is the highest accident rate of any of the USAF Century Series fighters. By comparison, the cumulative destroyed rates for the other Century Series aircraft in USAF service over the same time period were 16.2 for the North American F-100 Super Sabre, 9.7 for the McDonnell F-101 Voodoo, 15.6 for the Republic F-105 Thunderchief, and 7.3 for the Convair F-106 Delta Dart. By comparison, the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) experienced an overall loss rate of 11.96 per 100,000 flying hours with the Dassault Mirage III, losing 40 of 116 aircraft to accidents over its 25-year career from 1965 to 1989.Susans 1990, p. viii. The Royal Air Force lost over 50 of 280 English Electric Lightnings, at one point experiencing twelve losses in the seventeen months between January 1970 and May 1971; the loss rate per 100,000 hours from the introduction of the Lightning in 1961 to May 1971 was 17.3, higher than the lifetime West German Starfighter loss rate of 15.08.Caygill 2012, pp. 178–181.
Notable USAF pilots who died in F-104 accidents include Robert Henry Lawrence, Jr., Major Robert H. Lawrence Jr. and Iven C. Kincheloe Jr., Captain Iven Kincheloe. Civilian (former USAAF) pilot Joseph A. Walker, Joe Walker died in a midair collision with an XB-70 Valkyrie while flying an F-104. Chuck Yeager was nearly killed in December 1963 when he Lockheed NF-104A#Third NF-104A, lost control of an NF-104A during a high-altitude record-breaking attempt; he lost the tips of two fingers and was hospitalized for a long period with severe burns after ejecting from the aircraft.Yeager and Janos 1985, pp. 278–284.
World records
The F-104 was the first aircraft to simultaneously hold the world speed and altitude records. On 7 May 1958, USAF Major Howard C. Johnson, flying YF-104A 55–2957, broke the world altitude record for jet aircraft by flying to over Edwards AFB.Bowman 2000, p. 45. On 16 May 1958, USAF Captain Walter W. Irwin, flying YF-104A 55–2969, set a world flight airspeed record of over a course long at Edwards AFB. Flying F-104A 56–0762 over NAS Point Mugu, California, USAF Lieutenants William T. Smith and Einar Enevoldson set several time-to-climb records on 13 and 14 December 1958:
On 14 December 1959, USAF Captain "Joe" B. Jordan, flying F-104C 56–0885 at Edwards AFB, set a new world altitude record of , in the process becoming the first aircraft to take off under its own power and cross both the 30,000-meter and 100,000-foot thresholds. He also set a time-to-climb record of 904.92 seconds. USAF Major Robert W. Smith, flying NF-104A 56–0756, set an unofficial world altitude record of on 15 November 1963, and on 6 December 1963 he flew the same aircraft to another unofficial altitude record of .Bowman 2000, p. 172.Pace 1992, p. 142.
Jacqueline Cochran, a lieutenant colonel in the United States Air Force Reserve, flew TF-104G N104L to set three women's world's speed records: On 11 May 1964, she averaged over a course, on 1 June she flew at an average speed of over a closed-circuit course, and on 3 June she recorded an average speed of over a closed-circuit course.
Lockheed test pilot Darryl Greenamyer built an F-104 out of parts he had collected. The aircraft, N104RB Red Baron, N104RB, first flew in 1976. On 2 October of that year, trying to set a new low-altitude speed record, Greenamyer averaged at Mud Lake near Tonopah, Nevada. A tracking camera malfunction eliminated the necessary proof for the official record. On 24 October 1977, Greenamyer flew a official FAI record flight of .
On 26 February 1978, Greenamyer made a practice run for a world altitude record attempt. At the conclusion of the practice run, he was unable to get an indication that the right landing gear was down and locked even after a number of attempts to cycle the gear. Low on fuel and faced with a landing situation that was not considered survivable, Greenamyer successfully ejected, and the N104RB crashed in the desert.Donald 2003, p. 165.Upton 2003, p. 98.
Variants
;XF-104: This was the prototype aircraft; two examples were built and powered by Wright J65 engines (the J79 was not yet ready). The second prototype was equipped with the M61 cannon as an armament test bed. Both aircraft were destroyed in crashes.Bowman 2000, p. 35.
;YF-104A: The YF-104A was a pre-production aircraft used for engine, equipment, and flight testing; 17 were built, with the first flight taking place on 17 February 1956 and reaching Mach 2 for the first time on 27 April.Bowman 2000, p. 75.
;F-104A: This aircraft was the initial production single-seat interceptor version, very similar to the YF-104A.Bowman 2000, p. 76. A total of 153 were built. The F-104A was in USAF service from 1958 through 1960, then transferred to the Air National Guard until 1963. At that time they were recalled by the USAF Air Defense Command for the 319th and 331st Fighter Interceptor Squadrons. Some were released for export to
Jordan
Jordan ( ar, الأردن; tr. ' ), officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan,; tr. ' is a country in Western Asia. It is situated at the crossroads of Asia, Africa, and Europe, within the Levant region, on the East Bank of the Jordan Rive ...
, Pakistan, and Taiwan, each of which used it in combat. The 319th F-104As and Bs had their engines replaced in 1967 with the J79-GE-19, which provided of thrust in afterburner; the service ceiling with this engine was in excess of . In 1969, all the F-104A/Bs in ADC service were retired. On 16 May 1958, an F-104A flown by USAF Captain Walter W. Irwin set a world flight airspeed record of .
;NF-104A: The NF-104A was used for three demilitarized versions with an additional Rocketdyne LR121/AR-2-NA-1 rocket engine, used for astronaut training at altitudes up to .
;QF-104A: A total of 24 F-104As (4 YF-104As, 20 early F-104As) were converted into radio-controlled Unmanned aerial vehicle, drones and test aircraft. These target drones were able to be flown by onboard pilots as well as remotely controlled by pilots using radio-control equipment either on the ground or flying in other aircraft.Bowman 2000, p. 76.
;F-104B: The F-104B was a tandem two-seat, dual-control Trainer (aircraft), trainer version of the F-104A. A total of 26 built, the F-104B had an enlarged rudder and ventral fin, no cannon, and reduced internal fuel, but was otherwise combat-capable.Pace 1992, pp. 40–41. A few were supplied to Jordan, Pakistan, and Taiwan.Bowman 2000, p. 77.Davies 2014, p. 73.
;F-104C: A fighter-bomber for USAF Tactical Air Command, the F-104C had improved fire-control radar (AN/ASG-14T-2), one centerline and two pylons under each wing (for a total of five), and the ability to carry one B28 nuclear bomb, Mk 28 or B43 nuclear bomb, Mk 43 nuclear weapon on the centerline pylon. The F-104C also had in-flight refueling capability. Seventy-seven F-104Cs were built.Davies 2014, pp. 18–19. On 14 December 1959, an F-104C set a world altitude record of .Bowman 2000, pp. 45, 79.
;F-104D: The F-104D designation was a dual-control trainer version of the F-104C. Twenty-one examples were built.
;F-104DJ: This aircraft was a dual-control trainer version of the F-104J for the Japanese Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF). Lockheed built 20 F-104DJs, assembling the first at their Burbank facility, and shipping the remaining 19 to Japan for assembly by Mitsubishi and Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Kawasaki. After their retirement in Japan, the United States delivered some these F-104J/DJs to the Taiwanese Air Force.Bowman 2000, pp. 79, 155.
;F-104F: The F-104F designation was given to a dual-control trainer based on the F-104D, but using the upgraded engine of the F-104G. It had no radar, and was not combat-capable. The F-104F was produced as an interim trainer for the German Air Force. All 30 F-104F aircraft were retired by 1972.Donald 2003, pp. 154, 155.Paloque 2012, p. 20.
;F-104G: The F-104G was the most-produced version of the F-104 family, a multi-role fighter-bomber with a total of 1,127 aircraft built. They were manufactured by Lockheed, as well as under license by Canadair and a consortium of European companies that included
Messerschmitt
Messerschmitt AG () was a German share-ownership limited, aircraft manufacturing corporation named after its chief designer Willy Messerschmitt from mid-July 1938 onwards, and known primarily for its World War II fighter aircraft, in partic ...
/Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm, MBB, Fiat,
Fokker
Fokker was a Dutch aircraft manufacturer named after its founder, Anthony Fokker. The company operated under several different names. It was founded in 1912 in Berlin, Germany, and became famous for its fighter aircraft in World War I. In 1919 ...
, and SABCA. The type featured a strengthened fuselage, wing, and empennage structures; the larger vertical fin with fully powered rudder as used on the two-seat versions; fully powered brakes, a new anti-skid system, and larger tires; revised flaps for improved combat maneuvering; and a larger braking chute. Upgraded avionics included the Autonetics NASARR F15A-41B radar with air-to-air, ground-mapping, contour-mapping, and terrain-avoidance modes, as well as the Litton
LN-3 inertial navigation system
The LN-3 inertial navigation system is an inertial navigation system (INS) that was developed in the 1960s by Litton Industries. It equipped the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter versions used as strike aircraft in European forces. An inertial navigatio ...
(the first on a production fighter).Upton 2003, pp. 32–33.Pace 1992, p. 81.Donald 2003, pp. 156–157.Cacutt 1988, p. 165.
;RF-104G: The RF-104G was a tactical
reconnaissance
In military operations, reconnaissance or scouting is the exploration of an area by military forces to obtain information about enemy forces, terrain, and other activities.
Examples of reconnaissance include patrolling by troops (skirmisher ...
model based on the F-104G, usually with three KS-67A cameras mounted in the forward fuselage in place of the internal cannon. Many of the 189 built were subsequently reconfigured to the F-104G standard.Bowman 2000, pp. 85–86.
;TF-104G: A combat-capable trainer version of the F-104G, the TF-104G had no cannon or centerline pylon, and reduced internal fuel.Bowman 2000, pp. 89–90. One of the 220 aircraft produced was used by Lockheed as a demonstrator with the civil registration number N104L, and was flown by Jacqueline Cochran, Jackie Cochran to set three women's world speed records in 1964. This aircraft later served in the Netherlands.Bowman 2000, p. 84. A pair of two-seat TF-104Gs joined the Armstrong Flight Research Center, NASA Dryden inventory in July 1975 along with a Fokker-built former RF-104G.Bowman 2000, p. 176.
;F-104H: The F-104H was a projected export version based on the F-104G with an optical gunsight and simplified equipment. It was canceled prior to construction.Paloque 2012, p. 21.
;F-104J: The F-104J was a specialized interceptor version of the F-104G for the Japanese ASDF, built under license by Mitsubishi for the air-superiority role; it was armed with cannon and four Sidewinders, but had no strike capability. Some were converted to UF-104J radio-controlled target drones and destroyed. A total of 210 were built, three by Lockheed, 29 by Mitsubishi from Lockheed-sourced components, and 178 by Mitsubishi. After being retired in Japan, the U.S. delivered some of these 104J/DJs to the air force of Taiwan.
;F-104N: Three unarmed and lighter F-104Gs were delivered to
NASA
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA ) is an independent agency of the US federal government responsible for the civil space program, aeronautics research, and space research.
NASA was established in 1958, succeeding t ...
in 1963 for use as high-speed chase aircraft and given the designation F-104N. One, piloted by Joe Walker, collided with an XB-70 on 8 June 1966.Bowman 2000, pp. 93, 175.
;F-104S: FIAT built 246 of the final production version, the F-104S (one of these aircraft crashed prior to delivery and is often not included in the total number produced). Forty of these aircraft were delivered to the Turkish Air Force and the rest to the Italian Air Force (''Aeronautica Militare Italiana'').Matricardi 2006, p. 130. The F-104S was upgraded for the interception role, adding the NASARR R-21G/H radar with moving-target indicator and continuous-wave illuminator for semi-active radar homing missiles (initially the AIM-7 Sparrow), two additional wing and two underbelly hardpoints (increasing the total to nine), the more powerful J79-GE-19 engine, and two additional ventral fins to increase stability. The M61 cannon was sacrificed to make room for the missile avionics in the interceptor version, but was retained for the fighter-bomber variant. Typically two Sparrow and two (and sometimes four or six) Sidewinder missiles were carried on all the hardpoints except the central (underbelly), or up to seven bombs (normally two to four bombs). The F-104S was cleared for a higher maximum takeoff weight, allowing it to carry up to of stores; other Starfighters had a maximum external load of . Its combat radius was up to with four external fuel tanks.Bowman 2000, p. 108.
;F-104S-ASA (''Aggiornamento Sistemi d'Arma'' – "Weapon Systems Update"): This was an upgraded F-104S equipped with the Fiat R21G/M1 radar with
frequency hopping
Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) is a method of transmitting radio signals by rapidly changing the carrier frequency among many distinct frequencies occupying a large spectral band. The changes are controlled by a code known to both tra ...
and a look-down/shoot-down capability, new Identification friend or foe, IFF system and weapon delivery computer, and provision for the AIM-9L all-aspect Sidewinder and Selenia Aspide missiles. A total of 150 were built, with the first flight in 1985.
;F-104S-ASA/M (''Aggiornamento Sistemi d'Arma/Modificato'' – "Weapon Systems Update/Modified"): Forty-nine airframes were upgraded from 1995 to 1997 to ASA/M standard with GPS, new TACAN, and Litton LN-30A2 INS, a refurbished airframe, and improved cockpit displays. All strike-related equipment was removed. The last Starfighters in combat service, the F-104S-ASA/M was withdrawn in October 2004 and temporarily replaced by the F-16 Fighting Falcon, while awaiting Eurofighter Typhoon deliveries.Paloque 2012, pp. 18, 21.
;CF-104: CF-104 was the designation applied to 200 Canadian-built versions, built under license by Canadair. Optimized for nuclear strike, the CF-104 NASARR R-24A radar with air-to-air modes was removed and the cannon deleted (both were restored after 1972). It had an additional internal fuel cell, and a license-built Orenda Engines J79-OEL-7 turbojet with / thrust.Donald 2003, p. 148.
;CF-104D: The CF-104D was a dual-control trainer version of the CF-104, built by Lockheed, but with Canadian J79-OEL-7 engines. Thirty-eight were built, with some later being transferred to Denmark, Norway, and Turkey.Bowman 2000, pp. 100, 115, 117–118.
Production summary table and costs
Operators
The F-104 was operated by the militaries of the following nations:Donald 2003, pp. 178–180.
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
the FAA registry listed 12 privately owned F-104s in the United States.
Starfighters Inc, a civilian demonstration team in Florida, operates several former Italian Air Force F-104 Starfighters. Another, 5303 (104633), civil registry N104JR, is owned and operated by a private collector in Arizona.
Specifications (F-104G)
Nicknames
The Starfighter was marketed by Lockheed as the "missile with a man in it", and the press dubbed the F-104 the "Widowmaker" due to its high accident rate, but neither were used in service. The term "Super Starfighter" was used by Lockheed to describe the F-104G in its marketing campaigns, but quickly fell into disuse.Donald 2003, p. 157.
In service, it earned a host of nicknames among its users:
*American pilots initially called it the "Oh-Four", but when the F-100 Super Sabre began to be referred to as the "Zip-Zilch" (for "zero-zero"), the Starfighter acquired the similar nickname "Zip-Four"; this was eventually shortened to "Zipper" or "Zip".Davies 2014, p. 21. Over time this nickname came to be associated with the aircraft's impressive speed and acceleration.Spitzmiller 2011, p. 156.
*The Japan Air Self-Defense Force called it (Kanji: , "glory").Bowman 2000, p. 155.
*Although German pilots often referred to the F-104 as the "Zipper" or (specifically the G models) "Gustav",Kropf 2002, p. 8. it earned several less-charitable names from the German public due to its high accident rate, common ones being ("widowmaker") or ("flying coffin"). It was also called ("ground nail"), the official military term for a tent peg.Bashow 1986, p. 16.
*Prior to the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, the reputation of the Pakistani F-104 was such that the
Indian Air Force
The Indian Air Force (IAF) is the air arm of the Indian Armed Forces. Its complement of personnel and aircraft assets ranks third amongst the air forces of the world. Its primary mission is to secure Indian airspace and to conduct aerial w ...
referred to it as ''Badmash'' ("hooligan"), "Scoundrel", and "Wicked One".Bowman 2000, p. 159.
*Among Italian pilots its spiky design earned it the nickname ("hatpin").Davies 2014, p. 91.
*Among the Norwegian public and Royal Norwegian Air Force it was affectionately known as ("the Vestfjord bull"), due to the immense roar of the aircraft based in Bodø, at the southern end of Vestfjorden.Helge Andreasse "Nå kan Starfighteren få luft under vingene igjen" (in Norwegian) /ref>
*In the Canadian Forces, the aircraft was sometimes referred to as the "Lawn Dart" and the "Aluminium Death Tube" due to its high operational losses, and "Flying Phallus" due to its shape. It was affectionately called the "Silver Sliver", "Zipper", or "Zip", but most often the "Starfighter" or simply the "104" (one-oh-four).Bashow 1990, pp. 92, 93.
*NASA's F-104B Starfighter N819NA acquired the nickname "Howling Howland" due to the unique howling sound of its engine at certain throttle settings.
See also
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
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* Bashow, David L. "Starwarrior: A First Hand Look at Lockheed's F-104, One of the Most Ambitious Fighters ever Designed!" ''Wings'', Vol. 16, no. 3, June 1986.
* Bowman, Martin W. ''Lockheed F-104 Starfighter''. Ramsbury, Marlborough, Wiltshire, UK: Crowood Press Ltd., 2000. .
* Cacutt, Len. ''The World's Greatest Aircraft''. New York, NY: Exeter Books, 1988. .
* Caygill, Peter. ''Lightning Eject: The Dubious Safety Record of Britain's Only Supersonic Fighter.'' Barnsley, South Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Books Ltd., 2012. .
* Davies, Peter E. ''F-104 Starfighter Units in Combat''. New York, NY: Osprey Publishing Limited, 2014. .
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* Upton, Jim. ''Warbird Tech – Lockheed F-104 Starfighter''. North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press, 2003. .
* ''USAF Class A mishap rates through the end of 2007''. Kirtland AFB, New Mexico: USAF Safety and Inspection Center, 2007.
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* Yeager, Chuck and Leo Janos. ''Yeager, An Autobiography''. New York: Bantam Books, 1985. .
* Windle, Dave and Bowman, Martin. ''Profiles of Flight, Lockheed F-104 Starfighter, Interceptor/Strike/Reconnaissance Fighter.'' (2011) Pen and Sword, Great Britain. .
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