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Devotion, a central practice in
Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religions, Indian religion or Indian philosophy#Buddhist philosophy, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha. ...
, refers to commitment to religious observances or to an object or person, and may be translated with
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
or
Pāli Pali () is a Middle Indo-Aryan liturgical language native to the Indian subcontinent. It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist ''Pāli Canon'' or '' Tipiṭaka'' as well as the sacred language of ''Theravāda'' Buddhi ...
terms like ''saddhā'', ''gārava'' or ''pūjā''. Central to Buddhist devotion is the practice of '' Buddhānussati'', the recollection of the inspiring qualities of the Buddha. Although ''buddhānussati'' was an important aspect of practice since Buddhism's early period, its importance was amplified with the arising of
Mahāyāna Buddhism ''Mahāyāna'' (; "Great Vehicle") is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India (c. 1st century BCE onwards) and is considered one of the three main existing bra ...
. Specifically, with
Pure Land Buddhism Pure Land Buddhism (; ja, 浄土仏教, translit=Jōdo bukkyō; , also referred to as Amidism in English,) is a broad branch of Mahayana Buddhism focused on achieving rebirth in a Buddha's Buddha-field or Pure Land. It is one of the most wid ...
, many forms of devotion were developed to recollect and connect with the celestial Buddhas, especially Amitābha. Most Buddhists use ritual in pursuit of their spiritual aspirations. Common devotional practices are receiving a blessing, making merit, making a resolution, prostrating, making offerings, chanting traditional texts and
pilgrimage A pilgrimage is a journey, often into an unknown or foreign place, where a person goes in search of new or expanded meaning about their self, others, nature, or a higher good, through the experience. It can lead to a personal transformation, aft ...
. Moreover, many types of visualizations, recollections and mantras are used in
Buddhist meditation Buddhist meditation is the practice of meditation in Buddhism. The closest words for meditation in the classical languages of Buddhism are ''bhāvanā'' ("mental development") and '' jhāna/dhyāna'' (mental training resulting in a calm and ...
in different traditions to devote oneself to a Buddha or a teacher. The often politically motivated practice of
self-immolation The term self-immolation broadly refers to acts of altruistic suicide, otherwise the giving up of one's body in an act of sacrifice. However, it most often refers specifically to autocremation, the act of sacrificing oneself by setting oneself ...
is a less common aspect of devotion in some Buddhist communities. Buddhist devotional practices can be performed at home or in a temple, in which images of Buddhas, '' Bodhisattvas'' and enlightened disciples are located. Buddhist devotion is practiced more intensively on the ''
uposatha The Uposatha ( sa, Upavasatha) is a Buddhist day of observance, in existence from the Buddha's time (600 BCE), and still being kept today by Buddhist practitioners. The Buddha taught that the Uposatha day is for "the cleansing of the defiled mind ...
'' observation days and on yearly festivals, which are different depending on region and tradition.


Definition

The term ''devotion ''in the context of Buddhism is defined by Sri Lankan scholar Indumathie Karunaratna as "the fact or quality of being devoted to religious observances or a solemn dedication to an object or a person". It is covered in the
Pali language Pali () is a Middle Indo-Aryan liturgical language native to the Indian subcontinent. It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist ''Pāli Canon'' or '' Tipiṭaka'' as well as the sacred language of ''Theravāda'' Buddhis ...
by terms such as ''pema'' (affection), ''
saddhā In Buddhism, faith ( pi, saddhā, italic=yes, sa, śraddhā, italic=yes) refers to a serene commitment to the practice of the Buddha's teaching and trust in enlightened or highly developed beings, such as Buddhas or ''bodhisattvas'' (those ...
'' (faith or belief), ''pasāda'' (serene confidence), ''bhatti'' (faith) and ''gārava'' (respect). ''Pema'' is often used in the initial attraction a student feels for his spiritual teacher; ''saddhā'' is deeper, although still considered an initial step on the spiritual path. ''Saddhā'' and ''gārava'' might inspire a layperson to ordain as a monk, whereas ''saddhā'' and ''pema'' may help a devotee to attain a good afterlife destination. ''Bhatti'' in
early Buddhism The term Early Buddhism can refer to at least two distinct periods in the History of Buddhism, mostly in the History of Buddhism in India: * Pre-sectarian Buddhism, which refers to the teachings and monastic organization and structure, founded by G ...
has the meaning of 'faithful adherence to the uddhistreligion', but in later texts, it develops the meaning of an advanced form of devotion. Apart from these terms, the term ''pūjā'' is also used for expressions of "honor, worship and devotional attention". ''Pūjā'' is derived from the Vedic root ''pūj''-, meaning 'to revere, to honor'. According to the Pāli Studies scholar M.M.J Marasinghe, in the Theravāda Pāli Canon, it did not have the meaning of ritual offering yet. It did include honoring through physical, verbal and mental ways. The term ''pūjā'' originated with Dravidian culture, in which it may have been used for a ritual or an element of ritual procedure, and these ritual connotations may have affected Buddhism at a later period. According to anthropologist William Tuladhar-Douglas, however, the root ''pūj''- had a ritual meaning from the early Buddhist period. Although in traditional texts devotional acts are sometimes not considered part of the path to enlightenment itself, they are considered a way to prepare oneself for the development of this path. Devotion is expressed through the three doors of action (body, speech and mind). It is regarded as a form of giving, which is done for both one's own benefit and that of the other. In many Buddhist societies, devotional practices are engaged in because of this-life benefits (healing, exorcism of malevolent spirits), because of karmic pursuits (accumulating good karma for the next lives to come) and because the devotee would like to attain Nirvana.


History

In early Buddhism, it was a common practice to recollect the qualities of the Buddha, known as '' buddhānussati''. In the period of the arising of
Mahāyāna ''Mahāyāna'' (; "Great Vehicle") is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India (c. 1st century BCE onwards) and is considered one of the three main existing br ...
Buddhism, there was a growing sense of loss in Buddhist communities with regard to the passing away of the Buddha, and a growing desire to be able to meet him again. These developments led to the arising of faith-based forms of Buddhism such as
Pure Land Buddhism Pure Land Buddhism (; ja, 浄土仏教, translit=Jōdo bukkyō; , also referred to as Amidism in English,) is a broad branch of Mahayana Buddhism focused on achieving rebirth in a Buddha's Buddha-field or Pure Land. It is one of the most wid ...
, in which the practice of ''buddhānussati'' involved celestial Buddhas such as the Amitābha Buddha. Devotional practices became commonplace, as new techniques were developed to recollect the qualities and magnificence of the celestial Buddhas, such as visualization and chants. In Buddhist devotion the
Triple Gem In Buddhism, refuge or taking refuge refers to a religious practice, which often includes a prayer or recitation performed at the beginning of the day or of a practice session. Since the period of Early Buddhism until present time, all Theravad ...
, that is the Buddha, his teaching ('' sa, Dharma'', '' pi, Dhamma''), and his
community A community is a social unit (a group of living things) with commonality such as place, norms, religion, values, customs, or identity. Communities may share a sense of place situated in a given geographical area (e.g. a country, village, ...
('' sa, Saṃgha'', '' pi, Saṇgha'') are mostly honored. However, this does not mean that deities have no role in Buddhist devotion: they do, but are usually put on a subordinate level with the Buddha at the top of the spiritual hierarchy. In some Buddhist societies, the devotional life has significantly been influenced by pre-Buddhist devotion to deities and spirits. In modern times, Buddhist devotion has changed in many ways. Traditional days of observance can no longer be maintained in the same way due to the introduction of a seven-day workweek, and chants and other practices have been abridged or standardized to adapt to modern society. Goods offered in devotion have been commercialized. Nevertheless, devotional practices still continue to exist and evolve. Today, most Buddhists use ritual in pursuit of their spiritual aspirations.


Symbols

Devotion to the Triple Gem is mostly expressed toward the Buddha image. However, other symbols have also been used throughout Buddhist history, including the
lotus flower ''Nelumbo nucifera'', also known as sacred lotus, Laxmi lotus, Indian lotus, or simply lotus, is one of two extant species of aquatic plant in the family Nelumbonaceae. It is sometimes colloquially called a water lily, though this more often re ...
, the Wheel of the Dhamma, the Bodhi Tree and the stupa. Sometimes, devotees also pay honor to foot prints believed to have been left behind by
Gautama Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in Lu ...
or a previous Buddha.


Practices

Buddhism regards inner devotion as more important than outer ritual. However, devotion does have an important place in Buddhism. Devotion is developed through several practices, expressed through physical movement, speech, and mind. Buddhist devotion is not only direct to the Buddha, but also to the Buddha's teaching ('' sa, Dharma; pi, Dhamma'') and inanimate objects considered sacred such as '' stūpas'' (hemispherical structures containing relics) or Buddhist texts ('' sa, sūtra; pi, sutta''). ''Sutras'' are Buddhist texts seen as the body of the Dharma or the body of the Buddha. An important idea in Buddhist devotional practice is that good qualities of mind can be developed by association with someone or something linked to high spiritual attainment. In Burmese Buddhism, devotion to the Buddha is seen to bear fruits, not because the Buddha is seen to respond to the devotion, but rather because of the spiritual power inherent in his words or relics, and because of the
merit Merit may refer to: Religion * Merit (Christianity) * Merit (Buddhism) * Punya (Hinduism) * Imputed righteousness in Reformed Christianity Companies and brands * Merit (cigarette), a brand of cigarettes made by Altria * Merit Energy Company, ...
of the worship itself. In Theravāda Buddhism, devotional ceremonies can be classified as ceremonies for making merit (doing good deeds, e.g. offerings to monks), ceremonies to ward off danger (e.g. chanting certain Buddhist texts) and ceremonies adapted from
folk religion In religious studies and folkloristics, folk religion, popular religion, traditional religion or vernacular religion comprises various forms and expressions of religion that are distinct from the official doctrines and practices of organized re ...
. Almost all lay practices are focused on making merit, and gaining a personal spiritual benefit is, therefore, an important part of Buddhist devotion. In Mahāyāna Buddhism, it is common to combine several devotional practices in one three-fold or seven-fold ceremony. In the threefold ceremony, practitioners will confess their wrongdoings and rejoice in the goodness that others have done. Thirdly, either merits are dedicated to other living beings, or the Buddhas are requested to keep on teaching for the benefit of the world. In the seven-fold series, all four of these practices are also engaged in, plus an obeisance and an offering are given, and the Buddhas are requested to not yet leave the world to go to final Nirvana. These ceremonies, whether three- or sevenfold, often precede a meditation session. Several elevenfold series are also known, which also include going for refuge, upholding the five ethical precepts and reminding oneself of the aim of enlightenment for all living beings. The ceremonies are described in several Mahāyāna ''sūtras'', among which the Avataṃsaka Sūtra and the Gandavyūha.


Blessing

In Buddhism, ceremonies are meant to provide a blessing. A Buddhist practitioner may engage in devotional practices to ask for blessings from a Buddha or enlightened being. Monks and nuns are also believed to be able to convey spiritual power by giving a blessing ('' sa, adhiṣṭhāna'', '' pi, adhiṭṭhāna'') through chanting, a blessed object or some other means. The spiritual power of monastics is considered to come from their ordination lineage and virtue. In expressing faith and devotion to a Buddha or other spiritually advanced being, devotees may also ask for repentance to help free themselves from the retribution of bad karma or as an exercise for self-improvement. Sometimes a distinction is made between the direct, visible help a Buddha gave to a disciple, for example, by giving encouragement, and the hidden powers that a Buddha had and still has, which he also uses to help living beings. These hidden powers can refer to psychic powers, or it can also refer to the power gained when a practitioner invokes the Buddha's name.


Merit-making and resolve

Merit is an energy that can be accumulated through merit-making practices, often performed with people who are considered to have the spiritual power to give blessings, like monastics. This energy can also be directed at a goal chosen, through a resolve ('' sa, praṇidhāna'', '' pi, paṇidhāna'') often made. Such a resolve may be focused on this-worldly goals such as health, intelligence, protection from harm, but also goals that are less mundane, such as rebirth in heaven, rebirth in a Pure Land, and enlightenment. Throughout history, these resolves have often been recorded on materials like stone. It is also believed that merit can be transferred to other living beings to help them, or transferred to a deity, who is expected to help in return. Finally, it is believed merit can help to weaken the effects of bad karma.


Prostration

In Buddhism, prostration is performed in several situations. Buddhists may prostrate for images of
Gotama Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in Lu ...
, and in Mahāyāna Buddhism also to other Buddhas and ''bodhisattvas''. Devotion towards ''bodhisattvas'' is focused on their compassion, their skill and extraordinary powers. Apart from that, lay devotees may prostrate for a ''stūpa'' or a Bodhi Tree (a tree of the same type that the Buddha became enlightened under), but also to a monastic, or sometimes a religious teacher of some kind. They may also prostrate to their parents or to their elders. Monastics will prostrate for a monk ordained earlier, but female monastics are expected to prostrate to all male monastics, regardless of date of ordination. Prostration is done as an expression of humility and an acknowledgement of the other's spiritual experience. It is usually done three times, to pay respect to the Buddha, the Dharma and the Saṁgha. The prostration is done by holding the hands in front of the chest and bringing them to the different parts of the upper body, to indicate paying respect by the three gates of action, or to indicate the spiritual realization of the truth by a Buddha, realized through body, speech and mind. After that, one either bows with the elbows and head onto the ground, or by fully outstretching one's entire body. Apart from such threefold prostrations, prostrations may also be done continuously as a form of repentance, or as part of the ritual of
circumambulating Circumambulation (from Latin ''circum'' around and ''ambulātus ''to walk) is the act of moving around a sacred object or idol. Circumambulation of temples or deity images is an integral part of Hindu and Buddhist devotional practice (known in S ...
(walking around) a ''stūpa'' or other holy place . Finally, sometimes a pilgrimage is completely or partly done by prostrating oneself forward. At a more basic level, respect may be shown by a gesture of clasped hands held against the chest (') and raising the hands to one's head or chin, depending on the position and level of respect at which the other person is.


Offering

Another important practice is the giving of offerings () out of respect and humility to a Buddha image or other artifact. This is often combined with
chanting A chant (from French ', from Latin ', "to sing") is the iterative speaking or singing of words or sounds, often primarily on one or two main pitches called reciting tones. Chants may range from a simple melody involving a limited set of n ...
. Buddhists may offer flowers as a symbol of growth, or incense to remind themselves of the "odor of sanctity" of the Buddha. Candles and lights may also be offered, symbolizing the dispelling of the darkness of ignorance. In Mahāyāna Buddhism, a set of seven offerings is often given, in which the first two offerings represent hospitality, and the other five the senses. Such an offering indicates respect through one's entire being, as represented by the five senses. When an offering is given in a temple, the devotees will normally take off their shoes, wash the object to be offered, approach the image or ''stūpa'' holding their hands in ''añjali'' and perform the actual offering, after which they prostrate. The offering of flowers and other offerings and care that is given to a holy place are not only signs of respect, but they also are meant to change the environment of the devotee in a place where the Buddha would be at home. Offerings given to the monastic community are also considered a form of devotion, and offerings of food are often given to the Buddha image first, after which offerings are given to the monks for their breakfast or mid-day meal.


Recitation

Recitation of traditional texts is encouraged in many Buddhist traditions. A very basic form that is very important is the recitation of Three Refuges, of which every phrase is repeated three times. This is called ''taking refuge'', and it is done by a naming the Buddha, the Dharma and the Saṃgha as refuges. The ''
anussati ( Pāli; sa, Anusmriti, italic=yes; ; ) means "recollection," "contemplation," "remembrance," "meditation", and " mindfulness". It refers to specific Buddhist meditational or devotional practices, such as recollecting the sublime qualities of ...
s'' or recollections can also be chanted, as well as a review of the five precepts. Protective chantings ('' pi, paritta'') are also widespread. Many forms of protective chanting exist in Buddhism, among which the well-known '' Karaṇīyamettā Sutta''. Whereas some of these chants are used to ward of specific dangers, such as that during childbirth, or meant for specific occasions, such as weddings, others are considered to be beneficial in a more general sense. They are believed to affect only the life of the practitioner who recites them with a mind of faith. They are considered to bring benefits to mental health and well-being, and are a form of practicing loving-kindness in thought. Moreover, they are considered to speed up the fruits of good
karma Karma (; sa, कर्म}, ; pi, kamma, italic=yes) in Sanskrit means an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptivel ...
, please the '' devas (deities)'' and are expressions of the truth of the Buddha's teachings. In Mahāyāna Buddhism mantras and '' dhāraṇīs'' are also used, which include the Heart Sutra and the mantra '' Om Maṇi Padme Hum''. ''Dharanis'' are often summaries of teachings that function like mnemonic aids. Besides these, there are also chantings in homage to Amitābha in Pure Land Buddhism, chantings in homage to the
Lotus Sutra The ''Lotus Sūtra'' ( zh, 妙法蓮華經; sa, सद्धर्मपुण्डरीकसूत्रम्, translit=Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtram, lit=Sūtra on the White Lotus of the True Dharma, italic=) is one of the most influ ...
in
Nichiren Buddhism Nichiren Buddhism ( ja, 日蓮仏教), also known as Hokkeshū ( ja, 法華宗, meaning ''Lotus Sect'') is a branch of Mahayana Buddhism based on the teachings of the 13th-century Japanese Buddhist priest Nichiren (1222–1282) and is one o ...
and chantings in homage of the ''Bodhisattva''
Avalokiteśvara In Buddhism, Avalokiteśvara (Sanskrit: अवलोकितेश्वर, IPA: ) is a bodhisattva who embodies the compassion of all Buddhas. He has 108 avatars, one notable avatar being Padmapāṇi (lotus bearer). He is variably depicted, ...
in East Asian and Tibetan Mahāyāna Buddhism. In Nichiren Buddhism, the Lotus Sūtra is honored through a seven-syllable mantra, the title of the ''sūtra'', which is engraved on a plaque called the ''
gohonzon is a generic term for a venerated religious object in Japanese Buddhism. It may take the form of a scroll or statuary. The term typically refers to the mainstream use of venerated objects within Nichiren Buddhism, referring to the calligr ...
''. This plaque is the central focus of Nichiren devotion, and chanting the mantra in honor of the ''sūtra'' is considered of great benefit to the practitioner. In Tibetan and other forms of Mahāyāna Buddhism, the name of Avalokiteśvara is called upon through the ''Om Maṇi Padme Hum'' mantra, which is done by using praying wheels, by printing the mantra on prayer flags and carving it on stones and other materials. But this mantra is not the only form of chanting which is preserved in ritual ways: other mantras and Buddhist verses are also kept in the form of tiny scrolls kept in ornaments, amulets and even tattoos. Chanting of Buddhist texts is the most widespread mental cultivation practice for lay people. It is believed to help overcome hindrances and negative emotions in the mind and cultivate positive ones. Buddhist chants are reflections on the good spiritual qualities of the Three Refuges or an enlightened teacher, and aspirations of spiritual perfection. Furthermore, chanting texts is considered a way to manifest the healing power of the Buddhist teaching in the world, and to benefit and protect the nation and the world. In early Buddhism, recitation of texts was done mainly for its mnemonic purpose, in a time period when religious texts were not written down. Later on, even though writing became widespread, recitation was still continued out of devotion and to commit the teachings to memory out of respect. Some elements of chanting in Buddhism, such as the monotonous style, still indicate its original mnemonic nature. Although much chanting is done in ancient ritual languages such as Sanskrit or
Pali Pali () is a Middle Indo-Aryan liturgical language native to the Indian subcontinent. It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist ''Pāli Canon'' or '' Tipiṭaka'' as well as the sacred language of '' Theravāda'' Buddh ...
, chants in vernacular languages also exist. A common Pali chant starts with ''Namo tassa...'', and is often chanted to introduce a ceremony. In many Buddhist traditions, prayer beads are used during the chanting. Apart from being a tool to count the number of recitations chanted, in some traditions, the beads are a symbol of the Buddhist faith. Moreover, in Pure Land Buddhism, the beads are a reminder of the Buddha Amitābha's greatness and one's own limited capacities compared to him. Apart from chanting, in some traditions, offerings of
music Music is generally defined as the art of arranging sound to create some combination of form, harmony, melody, rhythm or otherwise expressive content. Exact definitions of music vary considerably around the world, though it is an aspe ...
are given in honor of the Triple Gem, consisting of traditional music performed by specialists, or just the ritual music that accompanies the chanting. Recitation of texts need not always be in the form of ritual chanting: in Tibet, it is considered meritorious to invite monks to read from Buddhist texts, sometimes for days on end. Devotion can also be expressed in lofty forms of everyday speech, as in the verbs used when talking about a Buddha image in some Southeast Asian languages.


Meditation

In many Buddhist traditions, faith is attributed an important role in the preparation process for meditation practice. Faith is often mentioned hand-in-hand with moral discipline, which practitioners require to improve their mindfulness and energy. This mindfulness and energy will then help practitioners move forward in meditation practice, culminating in wisdom and understanding. More specifically, in the Theravāda meditation manual called the
Visuddhimagga The ''Visuddhimagga'' (Pali; English: ''The Path of Purification''), is the 'great treatise' on Buddhist practice and Theravāda Abhidhamma written by Buddhaghosa approximately in the 5th century in Sri Lanka. It is a manual condensing and sys ...
, several personality types are distinguished, among them the faith type. Each personality type requires its own approach in meditation practice. People of the faith type have some similarities with the greedy personality type, but differ in that they cling to what is beneficial and wholesome. For this type, several ''
anussati ( Pāli; sa, Anusmriti, italic=yes; ; ) means "recollection," "contemplation," "remembrance," "meditation", and " mindfulness". It refers to specific Buddhist meditational or devotional practices, such as recollecting the sublime qualities of ...
'' are recommended, which means 'recollection of'. Examples are the recollection of the qualities of the Triple Gem, recollection of the benefits of moral discipline or giving, or reflection on the good qualities of ''devas''. In texts such as the Visuddhimagga, devotion to the Triple Gem was developed into several forms of meditation: ''buddhānussati'', ''dhammānusati'' and ''saṅghānusati'', respectively. In these recollections, practitioners reflect on the attributes of the Triple Gem following the stock formulas found in many places in the Tipiṭaka, the early Pali scriptures. The recollection is believed to lead the practitioner to joy, inner peace and concentration. Sometimes practitioners internalize a Buddha image as a mental image used in meditation. In Mahāyāna Buddhism, especially in Pure Land Buddhism, faith-based meditations can also be found: five recollections are used to remind oneself of the goodness of Amitābha Buddha. The first three represent body, speech and mind: practitioners honor Amitābha Buddha through physical action, e.g. by prostrating; through speech, by chanting in praise of him; and by resolving to be reborn with him in the Pure Land. The fourth recollection is a series of visualizations, similar to the faith-based meditations from the Visuddhimagga and descriptions in the Pāli Canon. In these visualizations, practitioners imagine Amitābha Buddha, the Pure Land, and after that, themselves being reborn there. The fifth "recollection" is the practice of skillful means to help others to achieve rebirth in the Pure Land as well. Apart from these visualizations, the chant in honor of Amitābha Buddha can also be recited in a meditative way, silently in one's mind or through the rhythm of one's breath. Pure Land meditations were also practiced in
Tibetan Buddhism Tibetan Buddhism (also referred to as Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Lamaism, Lamaistic Buddhism, Himalayan Buddhism, and Northern Buddhism) is the form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet and Bhutan, where it is the dominant religion. It is also in majo ...
. Although there was less focus on Amitābha Buddha, some Nyingma masters did teach Amitābha visualizations. Furthermore, in Kagyu tradition a technique was taught which was believed to help cross over to a Pure Land at the time of death, called '''pho ba''. There are also devotional visualization meditations in Tantric Buddhism, as can be found in Tibetan, Chinese,
Korean Korean may refer to: People and culture * Koreans, ethnic group originating in the Korean Peninsula * Korean cuisine * Korean culture * Korean language **Korean alphabet, known as Hangul or Chosŏn'gŭl **Korean dialects and the Jeju language ** ...
and
Japanese Buddhism Buddhism has been practiced in Japan since about the 6th century CE. Japanese Buddhism () created many new Buddhist schools, and some schools are original to Japan and some are derived from Chinese Buddhist schools. Japanese Buddhism has had ...
. These practices differ from the Pure Land visualizations in that, apart from a Buddha, the teacher (''
guru Guru ( sa, गुरु, IAST: ''guru;'' Pali'': garu'') is a Sanskrit term for a "mentor, guide, expert, or master" of certain knowledge or field. In pan-Indian traditions, a guru is more than a teacher: traditionally, the guru is a reverential ...
'') is very important in the process, and a form of meditation directed towards the ''guru'' is also taught. Practitioners often take refuge in their spiritual teacher, who symbolizes the Triple Gem. Furthermore, they often take refuge in a '' yidam'' (Tibetan), which Buddhist Studies scholar Peter Harvey translates as 'tutelary deity'. This can be a Buddha, a ''bodhisattva'' or a deity. By focusing on the exemplary aspects of one's teacher, who is also visualized in meditation, one develops faith in the practice. Furthermore, the practitioner needs to go through an initiation ritual, in which the ''guru'' transmits the knowledge on a particular ''yidam'', and a mantra, visualization practice and sometimes ritual gestures that are appropriate for that deity. Unlike Pure Land visualizations, there are many deities to choose from. The mantra is regarded to express the nature of the ''yidam'', and the gestures are considered to evoke the appropriate states of mind. Moreover, visualization techniques and mantra syllables are believed to actually evoke the deity recalled and incorporate the deity in one's being. Using these practices, the devotee is believed to be guided by the ''yidam'' to transform his faults, for example anger, to a "parallel kind of wisdom" (Harvey). When incorporating the ''yidam'' into one's being, the devotee is actively imitating the activities associated with that ''yidam'', and this is believed to speed up the attainment of
Buddhahood In Buddhism, Buddha (; Pali, Sanskrit: 𑀩𑀼𑀤𑁆𑀥, बुद्ध), "awakened one", is a title for those who are awake, and have attained nirvana and Buddhahood through their own efforts and insight, without a teacher to point ...
. There are several other tantric devotional meditation forms, including visualizing one's lineage of teachers and prostrating for them, and imagining one's teacher as a Buddha. In
Shingon Buddhism Shingon monks at Mount Koya is one of the major schools of Buddhism in Japan and one of the few surviving Vajrayana lineages in East Asia, originally spread from India to China through traveling monks such as Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra. Kn ...
, a visualization meditation is often practiced called ''Ajikan''. In this practice, done by both monastics and lay people, devotees invite the Mahāvairocana Buddha to attend the meditation, and visualize a letter A, as a mystical symbol of voidness and the origin of all existence. Devotion can also be expressed through
walking meditation Walking meditation, sometimes known as kinhin (Chinese language, Chinese: 經行; Pinyin: ''jīngxíng''; Romanization of Japanese, Romaji: ''kinhin'' or ''kyōgyō''; Korean language, Korean: ''gyeonghyaeng''; Vietnamese language, Vietnamese: '' ...
, which is very clearly seen in the Pure Land tradition. Pure Land devotees may practice walking meditation continuously for ninety days on end. Devotees walk around an image of Amitābha Buddha, visualizing him and chanting his name: breaks are only taken for bodily functions. The practice was first proposed by the Chinese writer Shandao.


Pilgrimage

Pilgrimage has been described by scholars as the summit of all devotional practices in Buddhism. According to early texts, it is advocated by the Buddha himself. He suggests to pay respect to four places, that is, the place where he is born (
Lumbini Lumbinī ( ne, लुम्बिनी, IPA=ˈlumbini , "the lovely") is a Buddhist pilgrimage site in the Rupandehi District of Lumbini Province in Nepal. It is the place where, according to Buddhist tradition, Queen Mahamayadevi gave birth ...
), the place where he has first attained enlightenment ( Bodh Gaya), the place where he preached his first teaching (
Sarnath Sarnath (Hindustani pronunciation: aːɾnaːtʰ also referred to as Sarangnath, Isipatana, Rishipattana, Migadaya, or Mrigadava) is a place located northeast of Varanasi, near the confluence of the Ganges and the Varuna rivers in Uttar Pr ...
), and finally, the place where he attained his Final Nibbāna ( Kusinara). Indeed, to dispel any doubt about the usefulness of such pilgrimage, the Buddha states that he accepts in advance all gifts presented to memorial places such as '' cetiyas'' or ''stūpas'', and places of
pilgrimage A pilgrimage is a journey, often into an unknown or foreign place, where a person goes in search of new or expanded meaning about their self, others, nature, or a higher good, through the experience. It can lead to a personal transformation, aft ...
. Such offerings and pilgrimage are therefore considered just as fruitful after he has died, as when he was still alive. Pilgrimage to these four sites in India, especially to Bodh Gaya, has been popular in ancient times, and is now popular again, though on a much larger scale than before. Among the four sites, Bodh Gaya is considered by many to be the most important. The Buddha is believed to have realized the truth there that lies at the foundation of Buddhism. Other places were later added, particularly in other countries, where pilgrimage to the original sites would be daunting. In traditional Buddhist countries such as Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Thailand, Bodhi trees, ancient relics and other holy places (like the ''cetiya'') are also visited as part of pilgrimages. In 11th-century Japan, an institutional system was developed called
Shugendō is a highly syncretic religion, a body of ascetic practices that originated in the Nara Period of Japan having evolved during the 7th century from an amalgamation of beliefs, philosophies, doctrines and ritual systems drawn from local f ...
, in which various parts of Japan's geography came to be regarded as symbols of the Buddhist teaching, or to stand for certain ''bodhisattvas'' or important historical figures in Japanese Buddhism. Numerous pilgrimage routes were developed to honor these sites, as narratives about them were written down and monasteries and shrines were established on them. In Tibetan Buddhism, many pilgrimage guides have been written with practical instructions for the pilgrim, but also to describe the mystical vision which accompanies the pilgrimage. Buddhists might go on pilgrimage for several reasons: to gain merit, to remind themselves of the Buddha's life, to suffuse themselves with the spiritual power of the pilgrimage places and its artifacts, as a promise made to a ''bodhisatta'' in exchange for favors, to gain protection from ''devas'' that protect the pilgrimage places, or to bring harmony to their family. Furthermore, pilgrims might want to dedicate the good karma of the trip to their ill or deceased relatives. But often the pilgrimage is simply done to enjoy the nature or cultural settings, to escape city life, or out of nostalgia for the past. Just like pilgrimages in any other religion, the pilgrimage gives devotees the chance to remove themselves from their everyday social-economic position in society, and to become part of another kind of community, characterized by a new ambiguous status. In some Buddhist countries, pilgrimages must be done on foot. Sometimes, pilgrims also perform ascetic or devotional practices such as having a cold bath as part of the visits, or prostrating along the path. Pilgrimages are sometimes done in certain periods, such as in Sri Lanka on days of observance or in certain seasons, and in Tibetan Buddhism as scheduled by a twelve-year cycle. Furthermore, in modern times, Buddhist pilgrimage has often been done as a political statement against certain regimes. Examples of well-known pilgrimage sites are the
Temple of the Tooth The Temple of the Sacred Tooth Relic or Sri Dalada Maligawa, ( si, ශ්‍රී දළදා මාළිගාව) is a Buddhist temple in Kandy, Sri Lanka. It is located in the royal palace complex of the former Kingdom of Kandy, which hou ...
in Sri Lanka, the Shwe Dagon temple in Myanmar, Mount Wutai and
Mount Tai Mount Tai () is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located north of the city of Tai'an. It is the highest point in Shandong province, China. The tallest peak is the '' Jade Emperor Peak'' (), which is commonly reported as being ...
in China, the Kumano Shrine in Japan, and the Bodnath Stūpa in Nepal.


Other practices

Another form of devotional respect is to circumambulate three times around a Buddha image or holy place, keeping it to the right. Traditionally, it is recommended to do this clockwise, with the right shoulder facing the image or place, and if possible, bared. The holy place which is circumambulated can be a temple, a monastery, a mountain or a city. This custom is also symbolic for the sun moving around the central, cosmic mountain, and is practiced in groups at yearly festivals, as well as at
funerals A funeral is a ceremony connected with the final disposition of a corpse, such as a burial or cremation, with the attendant observances. Funerary customs comprise the complex of beliefs and practices used by a culture to remember and respect th ...
. It is usually performed on foot, but sometimes in a vehicle. One practice that has been more controversial than most devotional practices in Buddhism, is the practice of
self-immolation The term self-immolation broadly refers to acts of altruistic suicide, otherwise the giving up of one's body in an act of sacrifice. However, it most often refers specifically to autocremation, the act of sacrificing oneself by setting oneself ...
. In Buddhist teaching, the human body is regarded as without intrinsic value, but becomes valuable depending on how it is used. The practice of self-immolation is based on this idea, according to which "abandoning the body" in doing good deeds is regarded as a form of heroism. Although the practice seems to go against the Buddhist concept of the Middle Way, Buddhist teaching does emphasize dealing with the natural urges of the body.The practice became more common in China during the fourth until the tenth century CE, with Japan following suit, in the
Kamakura Period The is a period of Japanese history that marks the governance by the Kamakura shogunate, officially established in 1192 in Kamakura by the first ''shōgun'' Minamoto no Yoritomo after the conclusion of the Genpei War, which saw the struggle bet ...
. The practice was first described in the twenty-third chapter of the Lotus Sūtra, in which the ''bodhisattva'' Bhaiṣajyarāja set his own body on fire as a supreme offering to a Buddha. Apart from these Indian origins, the practice may have been preceded by indigenous practices to conjure up rain. Regarded by some as a highly developed form of doing good ('), devotees burnt parts of their body, such as an arm or a finger, in honor of the ''sūtra'', or hoping to be reborn in a Pure Land. Burning oneself fully as an act of devotion, also known as ', was a highly respected practice in China at the time, and was often organized as a public event, attended by emperors and officials. During the
Vietnam War The Vietnam War (also known by other names) was a conflict in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. It was the second of the Indochina Wars and was officially fought between North Vietnam a ...
, Buddhist monks used self-immolation as a way to express political dissent. When the monk
Thich Quang Duc Thích is a name that Vietnamese monks and nuns take as their Buddhist surname to show affinity with the Buddha. Notable Vietnamese monks with the name include: * Thích Huyền Quang (1919–2008), dissident and activist * Thích Quảng Độ ( ...
performed self-immolation in 1963, this was widely featured in international press reports. This contributed to the US government eventually withdrawing from supporting
President Diem Ngô Đình Diệm ( or ; ; 3 January 1901 – 2 November 1963) was a South Vietnamese politician. He was the final prime minister of the State of Vietnam (1954–1955), and then served as the first president of South Vietnam ( Republic of ...
, who suppressed Buddhism. Self-immolation became more and more subject of criticism from the eight century CE onward, from Confucianists, state officials and also from Buddhist monks themselves. In the 21st century CE, the practice has become uncommon. Nevertheless, up until the 1990s and 2000s, Vietnamese monks were still reported to practice self-immolation, and Chinese and Korean monks still offered their fingers, burning them.


Places

Although almost all devotional practices can be done in one's own home, it is custom to meet in the local temple on
festivals A festival is an event ordinarily celebrated by a community and centering on some characteristic aspect or aspects of that community and its religion or cultures. It is often marked as a local or national holiday, mela, or eid. A festival c ...
and days of observance. Buddhist temples often contain dormitories for monastics, who meditate and study there, and lead devotional practices at the temple. Theravāda, Chan and
Zen Zen ( zh, t=禪, p=Chán; ja, text= 禅, translit=zen; ko, text=선, translit=Seon; vi, text=Thiền) is a school of Mahayana Buddhism that originated in China during the Tang dynasty, known as the Chan School (''Chánzong'' 禪宗), and ...
Buddhist temples usually only have an image of Gautama Buddha in the main room, perhaps combined with images of his close disciples Śāriputra and
Maudgalyāyana Maudgalyāyana ( pi, Moggallāna), also known as Mahāmaudgalyāyana or by his birth name Kolita, was one of the Buddha's closest disciples. Described as a contemporary of disciples such as Subhuti, Śāriputra ('), and Mahākāśyapa ( pi, M ...
. In Mahāyāna Buddhist temples, more diversity can be found, including different heavenly Buddhas, ''Bodhisattvas'' and sometimes a series of ''
arahant In Buddhism, an ''arhat'' (Sanskrit: अर्हत्) or ''arahant'' (Pali: अरहन्त्, 𑀅𑀭𑀳𑀦𑁆𑀢𑁆) is one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved ''Nirvana'' and liberated ...
'' disciples (disciples that have achieved personal enlightenment). The Buddhist temple usually contains a room for meetings, meditations or preaching, and may contain a ''stūpa'' with
relics In religion, a relic is an object or article of religious significance from the past. It usually consists of the physical remains of a saint or the personal effects of the saint or venerated person preserved for purposes of veneration as a tang ...
or Buddhist texts, or a Bodhi tree. This type of room in a temple is called the ''buddhavasa'', or the 'Buddha's dwelling place', whereas the dormitories for monastics are called ''sanghavasa'', or the 'Sangha's dwelling place'. In Chinese, Japanese and Korean temples, the room with ''stūpas'' and relics is often a separate hall from the teaching hall, and there is usually a separate hall with Buddha images as well. In modern Mahāyāna temples in the West, however, the temple's structure is often simplified. Last of all, in Vajrayāna temples, iconic devotional paintings called ''
thanka A ''thangka'', variously spelled as ''thangka'', ''tangka'', ''thanka'', or ''tanka'' (; Tibetan: ཐང་ཀ་; Nepal Bhasa: पौभा), is a Tibetan Buddhist painting on cotton, silk appliqué, usually depicting a Buddhist deity, scene, ...
s'' can be found, as well as ''
mandalas A mandala ( sa, मण्डल, maṇḍala, circle, ) is a geometric configuration of symbols. In various spiritual traditions, mandalas may be employed for focusing attention of practitioners and adepts, as a spiritual guidance tool, for e ...
'', which picture Vajrayāna cosmology. ''Stūpas'' and Buddha images may be donated by a single supporter, or by a community of devotees, motivated by merit-making motives. In most Buddhist traditions, Buddha images are regarded as more than just representations, but as actually imbued with a spiritual power connected to the Three Refuges and the faith of the devotee, as reflected in consecration ceremonies and legendary accounts. Similarly, relics are also widely honored, because they are seen as an embodiment of the Buddha. Believed by some scholars to be a Buddhist invention, devotion to relics brings Buddhism from a distant age and place closer to home. Also, some Buddhists believe the relics have supernatural abilities, such as the ability to reproduce themselves. Temples with well-known relics such as the Temple of the Tooth in Sri Lanka are worshipped by thousands of people per day, and well-known relics often provide both the religion as the region with a cultural identity. The ''stūpas'' that contain the relics are not just honored for the relics, however; by some Buddhists they are also seen as symbolizing the state of enlightenment. Buddhist temples may be built in a place deemed sacred following the principles of the country's sacred geography,
geomancy Geomancy ( Greek: γεωμαντεία, "earth divination") is a method of divination that interprets markings on the ground or the patterns formed by tossed handfuls of soil, rocks, or sand. The most prevalent form of divinatory geomancy in ...
or because of a pilgrimage route. It is common in Buddhist temples to take off one's shoes or change them. In ancient times, shoes were a status symbol and taking them off was, therefore, an expression of humility. It might also have been done to keep the temple grounds clean. Another custom is to put the Buddha image on the highest spot in the room, and devotees will prevent raising their head higher than the image or point their feet at the image.


Festivals and observance days

All Buddhist traditions have festivals, during which devotion is practiced. Many of these are Buddhist in origin, others are a response to pre-Buddhist cultural traditions, the agricultural year cycle, certain national deities, or important events in the local history. In many Theravāda countries, the traditional New Year is celebrated mid-year, during which certain Buddhist customs are observed. This includes ceremonies for reflection on misdeeds and resolving to do good, and release of animals. Other important festivals are
Vesak Vesak (Pali: ''Vesākha''; sa, Vaiśākha), also known as Buddha Jayanti, Buddha Purnima and Buddha Day, is a holiday traditionally observed by Buddhists in South Asia and Southeast Asia as well as Tibet and Mongolia. The festival commemora ...
,
Asalha Puja Asalha Puja (also known as Asadha Puja or Asanha Bucha in Thailand, th, อาสาฬหบูชา) is a Theravada Buddhist festival which typically takes place in July, on the full moon of the month of Āsādha. It is celebrated in Indone ...
, the Pavāraṇa Day and Kaṭhina. Vesak is the day that celebrates the birth, enlightenment and final enlightenment (after death) of the Buddha Gautama. In some countries, however, these three events are celebrated as separate days. In East Asian countries, many of these festivals are also celebrated, but other festivals with pre-Buddhist origins are held as well, combined with Buddhist elements. An example of this is the
Ghost Festival The Ghost Festival, also known as the Zhongyuan Festival (traditional Chinese: 中元節; simplified Chinese: ) in Taoism and Yulanpen Festival () in Buddhism, is a traditional Taoist and Buddhist festival held in certain East Asian countrie ...
, on which is recollected that Maudgalyāyana Sthavira dedicated good karma to his deceased mother, out of gratitude to her. This festival was a response to Confucian ideals of
filial piety In Confucianism, Chinese Buddhism, and Daoist ethics, filial piety (, ''xiào'') (Latin: pietas) is a virtue of respect for one's parents, elders, and ancestors. The Confucian '' Classic of Filial Piety'', thought to be written around the lat ...
. Some Buddhist festivals honor a certain Dharma text. For example, the Thai festival of Thet Mahachat is dedicated to the recitation of the Vessantara Jātaka, a story about kingship and merit-making. Apart from festivals, in Theravāda Buddhism, there are also observance days ('' pi, uposatha'') following the ancient Indian lunar calendar. ''
Uposatha The Uposatha ( sa, Upavasatha) is a Buddhist day of observance, in existence from the Buddha's time (600 BCE), and still being kept today by Buddhist practitioners. The Buddha taught that the Uposatha day is for "the cleansing of the defiled mind ...
'' days are observed by the more strict devotees, who will go to their local temple to give food, take upon themselves the five or eight precepts, listen to teachings and meditate. In other traditions, there are also monthly or bimonthly, weekly or daily observances. Moreover, the monastic rains retreat (
vassa The ''Vassa'' ( pi, vassa-, script=Latn, sa, varṣa-, script=Latn, both "rain") is the three-month annual retreat observed by Theravada practitioners. Taking place during the wet season, Vassa lasts for three lunar months, usually from July ...
) is for many devotees a time to focus more on chanting and meditation.


See also

* ''
Ratana Sutta The Ratana Sutta ( my, ရတနာသုတ်) ( si, රතන සූත්‍රය) is a Buddhist discourse ( Pali:'' sutta'') found in the Pali Canon's Sutta Nipata (Snp 2.1) and Khuddakapatha (Khp 7); with a parallel in the Mahavastu. In t ...
'' *
Awgatha An ''Awgatha'' (ဩကာသ; from Pali: ''okāsa''), sometimes known as the ''common Buddhist prayer'' is a formulaic Burmese Buddhist prayer that is recited to initiate acts of Buddhist devotion, including obeisance to the Buddha and Buddhist ...
- Burmese Buddhist Devotion * Sacca-kiriya * Buddhist liturgy * Sādhu


Notes


Citations


References

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *


External links

* Ajahn Sucitto & Ajahn Candasiri -
Buddhist Rituals and Observances
* Chamgon Khentin Tai Situpa -
Devotion , SamyeLing.org
* Dalai Lama -

* Lama Yeshe -
Chapter 9. The Importance of Guru Devotion

BBC Documentary about the nature of Buddhist devotion in traditional Buddhist countries, with comments from notable scholars

Documentary about devotional practices
with special focus on Bodh Gaya *
Cyber vihara for daily puja

Bhavana Vandana,book of devotion PDF

Vandana – The Album of Pali Devotional Chanting and Hymns PDF
* * Powerful_Pujas
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Powerful Pujas
{{Buddhism topics Buddhist devotion"> Worship Bowing