Ground spiders comprise Gnaphosidae, the seventh largest spider family with over 2,000 described
species
In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriat ...
in over 100
genera
Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nomenclat ...
distributed worldwide. There are 105 species known to central
Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...
, and common genera include ''
Gnaphosa'', ''
Drassodes'', ''
Micaria'', ''
Cesonia
''Cesonia'' is a genus of ground spiders that was first described by Eugène Simon in 1893.
Species
it contains thirty-one species:
*'' Cesonia aspida'' Chatzaki, 2002 – Greece (Crete), Turkey
*'' Cesonia bilineata'' (Hentz, 1847) ( type) � ...
'', ''
Zelotes'' and many others. They are closely related to
Clubionidae
The sac spiders of the family Clubionidae have a very confusing taxonomic history. Once, this family was a large catch-all taxon for a disparate collection of spiders, similar only in that they had eight eyes arranged in two rows and conical anter ...
.
At present, no ground spiders are known to be seriously venomous to humans.
Description
Generally, ground spiders are characterized by having barrel-shaped anterior spinnerets that are one spinneret diameter apart. The main exception to this rule is found in the
ant-mimicking genus ''Micaria''. Another characteristic is an indentation in the endites (paired mouthparts anterior and lateral to the labium, or lip). All ground spiders lack a prey-capture web and generally run prey down on the surface. They hunt at night and spend the day in a silken retreat.
[ The genitalia are diverse and are a good model for studying the evolution of genitalia because of their peculiar copulatory mechanism. The thick-walled egg sacs are guarded by the mother until the spiderlings hatch.][
]
Hunting behavior
Ground spiders hunt by active foraging, chasing down and subduing individual prey items. They are adapted to hunting large and potentially dangerous prey, including other spiders, which they subdue by using their silk. When hunting, ground spiders produce thick, gluey silk from their enlarged spinnerets and attempt to use it to entangle their prey in swathing attacks, often applying their webbing to their prey's legs and mouths. By immobilizing potential prey in this manner, ground spiders can subdue proportionally large creatures while reducing risk of injury to themselves from their prey's attempts to fight back.
Genera
, the World Spider Catalog
The World Spider Catalog (WSC) is an online searchable database concerned with spider taxonomy. It aims to list all accepted families, genera and species, as well as provide access to the related taxonomic literature. The WSC began as a series of ...
accepts the following genera:
*'' Allomicythus'' Ono, 2009 — Vietnam
*'' Allozelotes'' Yin & Peng, 1998 — China
*'' Almafuerte'' Grismado & Carrión, 2017 — Bolivia, Argentina, Uruguay
*'' Amazoromus'' Brescovit & Höfer, 1994 — Brazil
*'' Ammoxenus'' Simon, 1893
*'' Amusia'' Tullgren, 1910 — South Africa, East Africa
*'' Anagraphis'' Simon, 1893 — Africa, Asia, Europe
*''Anagrina
''Anagrina'' is a genus of African long-spinneret ground spiders that was first described by Lucien Berland
Lucien Berland (14 May 1888 in Ay, Marne – 18 August 1962 in Versailles)Jean-Jacques Amigo, « Berland (Lucien) », in Nouveau Dic ...
'' Berland, 1920 — Niger
*''Aneplasa
''Aneplasa'' is a genus of African ground spiders that was first described by R. W. E. Tucker in 1923, but might actually be a junior synonym
The Botanical and Zoological Codes of nomenclature treat the concept of synonymy differently.
* In ...
'' Tucker, 1923 — South Africa, Angola
*'' Anzacia'' Dalmas, 1919 — Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea
*'' Aphantaulax'' Simon, 1878 — Asia, Africa, Australia, France
*''Apodrassodes
''Apodrassodes'' is a genus of ground spiders that was first described by J. Vellard in 1924.
Species
it contains ten species:
*'' Apodrassodes araucanius'' (Chamberlin, 1916) – Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, Chile
*'' Apodrassodes chula'' Bresc ...
'' Vellard, 1924 — South America, Mexico, India
*''Apodrassus
''Apodrassus'' is a monotypic genus of South American ground spiders containing the single species, ''Apodrassus andinus''. It was first described by R. V. Chamberlin in 1916, and has only been found in Peru
, image_flag = F ...
'' Chamberlin, 1916 — Peru
*'' Aponetius'' Kamura, 2020 — Ryukyu Is.
*''Apopyllus
''Apopyllus'' is a genus of ground spiders that was first described by Norman I. Platnick
Norman Ira Platnick (December 30, 1951 – April 8, 2020) was an American biological systematist and arachnologist. At the time of his death, he was a ...
'' Platnick & Shadab, 1984 — South America, Mexico
*''Arauchemus
''Arauchemus'' is a genus of South American ground spiders that was first described by R. Ott & Antônio Brescovit
Antônio Domingos Brescovit (born 1959) is a Brazilian arachnologist. His first name, Antônio (the spelling used in Brazil) ma ...
'' Ott & Brescovit, 2012 — Brazil
*'' Asemesthes'' Simon, 1887 — Africa
*'' Asiabadus'' Roewer, 1961 — Afghanistan
*'' Australoechemus'' Schmidt & Piepho, 1994 — Cape Verde Is.
*'' Austrammo'' Platnick, 2002
*'' Avstroneulanda'' Zakharov & Ovtsharenko, 2022
*'' Barrowammo'' Platnick, 2002
*'' Benoitodes'' Platnick, 1993 — St. Helena
*'' Berinda'' Roewer, 1928 — Greece, Turkey, Cyprus
*'' Berlandina'' Dalmas, 1922 — Asia, Africa, Europe
*'' Cabanadrassus'' Mello-Leitão, 1941 — Argentina
*'' Callilepis'' Westring, 1874 — Asia, North America, Europe
*'' Callipelis'' Zamani & Marusik, 2017 — Iran
*'' Camillina'' Berland, 1919 — Asia, Central America, South America, Africa, North America, Italy, Caribbean
*'' Canariognapha'' Wunderlich, 2011 — Canary Is.
*'' Ceryerda'' Simon, 1909 — Australia
*''Cesonia
''Cesonia'' is a genus of ground spiders that was first described by Eugène Simon in 1893.
Species
it contains thirty-one species:
*'' Cesonia aspida'' Chatzaki, 2002 – Greece (Crete), Turkey
*'' Cesonia bilineata'' (Hentz, 1847) ( type) � ...
'' Simon, 1893 — Greece, Turkey, North America, Central America, Caribbean
*'' Chatzakia'' Lissner & Bosmans, 2016 — Spain
*'' Civizelotes'' Senglet, 2012 — Asia, Morocco, Europe
*'' Cladothela'' Kishida, 1928 — Japan, China, Korea
*'' Coillina'' Yin & Peng, 1998 — China
*'' Coreodrassus'' Paik, 1984 — Asia
*'' Cryptodrassus'' Miller, 1943 — Europe, Asia
*'' Cryptoerithus'' Rainbow, 1915 — Australia
*'' Cubanopyllus'' Alayón & Platnick, 1993 — Cuba
*'' Diaphractus'' Purcell, 1907 — South Africa, Namibia
*'' Drassodes'' Westring, 1851 — Africa, South America, Asia, Europe, North America
*'' Drassodex'' Murphy, 2007 — Spain, France, Switzerland
*'' Drassyllus'' Chamberlin, 1922 — North America, Asia, Europe
*'' Echemella'' Strand, 1906 — Congo, Ethiopia
*'' Echemographis'' Caporiacco, 1955 — Venezuela
*'' Echemoides'' Mello-Leitão, 1938 — South America
*'' Echemus'' Simon, 1878 — Sweden, Asia, Australia, Africa, Brazil
*'' Eilica'' Keyserling, 1891 — Australia, South America, United States, Central America, Caribbean, Africa, India
*'' Encoptarthria'' Main, 1954 — Australia
*'' Epicharitus'' Rainbow, 1916 — Australia
*'' Fedotovia'' Charitonov, 1946 — Mongolia, Iran, Afghanistan
*'' Gaviphosa'' Sankaran, 2021 — India
*'' Gertschosa'' Platnick & Shadab, 1981 — North America, Panama, Jamaica
*'' Gnaphosa'' Latreille, 1804 — Asia, Europe, Africa, North America, Guatemala, Cuba
*'' Haplodrassus'' Chamberlin, 1922 — Europe, Asia, North America, Africa
*'' Herpyllus'' Hentz, 1832 — Argentina, North America, Asia
*'' Heser'' Tuneva, 2004 — Asia, Spain, Africa, North America
*'' Hitobia'' Kamura, 1992 — Asia
*'' Homoeothele'' Simon, 1908 — Australia
*'' Hongkongia'' Song & Zhu, 1998 — Indonesia, China, Hong Kong
*'' Hypodrassodes'' Dalmas, 1919 — New Zealand, Australia
*'' Ibala'' Fitzpatrick, 2009 — Africa
*'' Intruda'' Forster, 1979 — Australia, New Zealand
*'' Iranotricha'' Zamani & Marusik, 2018 — Iran
*'' Kaitawa'' Forster, 1979 — New Zealand
*''Kikongo
Kongo or Kikongo is one of the Bantu languages spoken by the Kongo people living in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Republic of the Congo, Gabon and Angola. It is a tonal language. It was spoken by many of those who were taken from th ...
'' Rodrigues & Rheims, 2020 — D.R. Congo, Kenya
*'' Kishidaia'' Yaginuma, 1960 — Asia, Italy
*'' Kituba'' Rodrigues & Rheims, 2020 — D.R. Congo
*'' Ladissa'' Simon, 1907 — Sierra Leone, India, Benin
*'' Laronius'' Platnick & Deeleman-Reinhold, 2001 — Thailand, Indonesia
*'' Lasophorus'' Chatzaki, 2018 — Greece
*'' Latica'' da Silva, Guerrero, Bidegaray-Batista & Simó, 2020 — Uruguay, Argentina
*'' Latonigena'' Simon, 1893 — South America
*'' Leptodrassex'' Murphy, 2007 — Africa, Europe, Asia
*'' Leptodrassus'' Simon, 1878 — Europe, Asia, Africa, Mexico
*'' Leptopilos'' Levy, 2009 — Greece, Asia, Libya
*'' Litopyllus'' Chamberlin, 1922 — United States, Cuba, Mexico
*'' Macarophaeus'' Wunderlich, 2011 — Canary Is., Madeira
*'' Marinarozelotes'' Ponomarev, 2020 — Asia, Europe, Africa, North America, South America
*'' Marjanus'' Chatzaki, 2018
*'' Matua'' Forster, 1979 — New Zealand
*'' Megamyrmaekion'' Reuss, 1834 — Africa, Asia, Australia
*'' Micaria'' Westring, 1851 — Asia, North America, Africa, Europe, Australia
*'' Microdrassus'' Dalmas, 1919 — Seychelles
*'' Microsa'' Platnick & Shadab, 1977 — Cuba
*'' Micythus'' Thorell, 1897 — Thailand, Myanmar, Indonesia
*'' Minosia'' Dalmas, 1921 — Africa, Asia, Europe
*'' Minosiella'' Dalmas, 1921 — Asia, Africa
*'' Molycria'' Simon, 1887 — Australia
*'' Montebello'' Hogg, 1914 — Australia
*'' Myandra'' Simon, 1887 — Australia
*'' Nauhea'' Forster, 1979 — New Zealand
*'' Neodrassex'' Ott, 2012 — Brazil, Argentina
*'' Nodocion'' Chamberlin, 1922 — North America, India
*'' Nomindra'' Platnick & Baehr, 2006 — Australia
*'' Nomisia'' Dalmas, 1921 — Asia, Africa, Europe
*'' Notiodrassus'' Bryant, 1935 — New Zealand
*'' Odontodrassus'' Jézéquel, 1965 — Africa, Asia, Jamaica
*'' Orodrassus'' Chamberlin, 1922 — United States, Canada
*'' Parabonna'' Mello-Leitão, 1947 — Brazil
*'' Parasyrisca'' Schenkel, 1963 — Europe, Asia, North America
*'' Phaeocedus'' Simon, 1893 — Asia, Europe
*''Poecilochroa
''Poecilochroa'' is a genus of ground spiders that was first described by Niklas Westring in 1874.
Description
As Gnaphosidae, ''Poecilochroa'' have large cylindrical spinnerets. They are nocturnal, spending the day in silken retreats and g ...
'' Westring, 1874 — Asia, Africa, South America, Europe
*'' Pseudodrassus'' Caporiacco, 1935 — China, Libya, Turkey
*'' Pterotricha'' Kulczyński, 1903 — Africa, Asia, Europe
*'' Pterotrichina'' Dalmas, 1921 — Algeria
*'' Rastellus'' Platnick & Griffin, 1990
*'' Sanitubius'' Kamura, 2001 — China, Korea, Japan
*''Scopoides
''Scopoides'' is a genus of ground spiders that was first described by Norman I. Platnick
Norman Ira Platnick (December 30, 1951 – April 8, 2020) was an American biological systematist and arachnologist. At the time of his death, he was a ...
'' Platnick, 1989 — North America, Asia
*'' Scotocesonia'' Caporiacco, 1947 — Guyana
*'' Scotognapha'' Dalmas, 1920 — Canary Islands
*'' Scotophaeus'' Simon, 1893 — Europe, Africa, Asia, South America, New Zealand
*'' Sergiolus'' Simon, 1892 — North America, Caribbean, Asia
*'' Sernokorba'' Kamura, 1992 — Asia, Europe
*'' Setaphis'' Simon, 1893 — Spain, Africa, Asia
*''Shaitan
' (; ''devils'' or ''demons''), singular: (شَيْطَان) are evil spirits in Islam, inciting humans (and jinn) to sin by "whispering" (وَسْوَسَة, “waswasah”) to their qalb, hearts (قَلْب ''qalb''). Folklore suggests that t ...
'' Kovblyuk, Kastrygina & Marusik, 2013
*'' Shiragaia'' Paik, 1992 — Korea
*'' Sidydrassus'' Esyunin & Tuneva, 2002 — Asia
*'' Smionia'' Dalmas, 1920 — South Africa
*'' Solitudes'' Lin & Li, 2020 — China
*'' Sosticus'' Chamberlin, 1922 — North America, Asia
*'' Symphanodes'' Rainbow, 1916 — Australia
*'' Synaphosus'' Platnick & Shadab, 1980 — Asia, Africa, North America, Greece
*'' Talanites'' Simon, 1893 — Asia, North America, Ukraine
*'' Talanitoides'' Levy, 2009 — Israel
*''Titus
Titus Caesar Vespasianus ( ; 30 December 39 – 13 September 81 AD) was Roman emperor from 79 to 81. A member of the Flavian dynasty, Titus succeeded his father Vespasian upon his death.
Before becoming emperor, Titus gained renown as a mili ...
'' O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1901 — Zimbabwe
*'' Trachyzelotes'' Lohmander, 1944 — Europe, Asia, North America, Africa, South America, Samoa
*''Trephopoda
''Trephopoda'' is a genus of southern African ground spiders first described by R. W. E. Tucker in 1923. They have only been found in Namibia and South Africa.
Species
it contains six species:
*'' T. aplanita'' (Tucker, 1923) – South Afric ...
'' Tucker, 1923 — South Africa, Namibia
*'' Trichothyse'' Tucker, 1923 — South Africa, Namibia
*'' Turkozelotes'' Kovblyuk & Seyyar, 2009 — Greece, Asia
*'' Urozelotes'' Mello-Leitão, 1938 — Zambia, Europe, Asia
*'' Verita'' Ramírez & Grismado, 2016 — Argentina
*'' Wesmaldra'' Platnick & Baehr, 2006 — Australia
*'' Wydundra'' Platnick & Baehr, 2006 — Australia, Malaysia
*'' Xerophaeus'' Purcell, 1907 — Africa, Yemen
*'' Xizangiana'' Song, Zhu & Zhang, 2004 — China
*''Yoruba
The Yoruba people (, , ) are a West African ethnic group that mainly inhabit parts of Nigeria, Benin, and Togo. The areas of these countries primarily inhabited by Yoruba are often collectively referred to as Yorubaland. The Yoruba constitute ...
'' Rodrigues & Rheims, 2020 — Nigeria, Ivory Coast
*'' Zagrotes'' Zamani, Chatzaki, Esyunin & Marusik, 2021 — Iran
*'' Zelanda'' Özdikmen, 2009 — New Zealand
*'' Zelominor'' Snazell & Murphy, 1997 — Portugal, Spain, Algeria
*'' Zelotes'' Gistel, 1848 — Asia, North America, Europe, Africa, South America, Australia, Caribbean
*'' Zelotibia'' Russell-Smith & Murphy, 2005 — Africa
*'' Zelowan'' Murphy & Russell-Smith, 2010 — Congo, Burundi, Namibia
*'' Zimiromus'' Banks, 1914 — Central America, South America, Caribbean, Mexico
Gallery
File:Ground-spider-frontal-mze.jpg, Unidentified species.
File:Spinnerets.jpg, Spinnerets of an Eastern parson spider (''Herpyllus ecclesiasticus'') in the family Gnaphosidae.
File:SpiderEnditesAndLabium.jpg, Endites and labium (also fangs and sternum) of an Eastern parson spider.
See also
* List of Gnaphosidae species
References
* (1983): A revision of the American spiders of the genus ''Zelotes'' (Araneae, Gnaphosidae). ''Bulletin of the AMNH'' 174: 99-191
PDF (29Mb)
Abstract
External links
Pictures of ''Herpyllus ecclesiastus''
(free for noncommercial use)
* AMNH
A video of Sergiolus, a ground spider in Texas
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ground Spider
*