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In
logic Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It includes both formal and informal logic. Formal logic is the science of deductively valid inferences or of logical truths. It is a formal science investigating how conclusions follow from premise ...
and
computer science Computer science is the study of computation, automation, and information. Computer science spans theoretical disciplines (such as algorithms, theory of computation, information theory, and automation) to practical disciplines (includi ...
, the Boolean satisfiability problem (sometimes called propositional satisfiability problem and abbreviated SATISFIABILITY, SAT or B-SAT) is the problem of determining if there exists an interpretation that satisfies a given Boolean formula. In other words, it asks whether the variables of a given Boolean formula can be consistently replaced by the values TRUE or FALSE in such a way that the formula evaluates to TRUE. If this is the case, the formula is called ''satisfiable''. On the other hand, if no such assignment exists, the function expressed by the formula is FALSE for all possible variable assignments and the formula is ''unsatisfiable''. For example, the formula "''a'' AND NOT ''b''" is satisfiable because one can find the values ''a'' = TRUE and ''b'' = FALSE, which make (''a'' AND NOT ''b'') = TRUE. In contrast, "''a'' AND NOT ''a''" is unsatisfiable. SAT is the first problem that was proved to be
NP-complete In computational complexity theory, a problem is NP-complete when: # it is a problem for which the correctness of each solution can be verified quickly (namely, in polynomial time) and a brute-force search algorithm can find a solution by trying ...
; see
Cook–Levin theorem In computational complexity theory, the Cook–Levin theorem, also known as Cook's theorem, states that the Boolean satisfiability problem is NP-complete. That is, it is in NP, and any problem in NP can be reduced in polynomial time by a determi ...
. This means that all problems in the complexity class NP, which includes a wide range of natural decision and optimization problems, are at most as difficult to solve as SAT. There is no known algorithm that efficiently solves each SAT problem, and it is generally believed that no such algorithm exists; yet this belief has not been proved mathematically, and resolving the question of whether SAT has a polynomial-time algorithm is equivalent to the
P versus NP problem The P versus NP problem is a major unsolved problem in theoretical computer science. In informal terms, it asks whether every problem whose solution can be quickly verified can also be quickly solved. The informal term ''quickly'', used above ...
, which is a famous open problem in the theory of computing. Nevertheless, as of 2007, heuristic SAT-algorithms are able to solve problem instances involving tens of thousands of variables and formulas consisting of millions of symbols, which is sufficient for many practical SAT problems from, e.g.,
artificial intelligence Artificial intelligence (AI) is intelligence—perceiving, synthesizing, and inferring information—demonstrated by machines, as opposed to intelligence displayed by animals and humans. Example tasks in which this is done include speech r ...
, circuit design, and automatic theorem proving.


Definitions

A ''
propositional logic Propositional calculus is a branch of logic. It is also called propositional logic, statement logic, sentential calculus, sentential logic, or sometimes zeroth-order logic. It deals with propositions (which can be true or false) and relations b ...
formula'', also called ''Boolean expression'', is built from variables, operators AND (
conjunction Conjunction may refer to: * Conjunction (grammar), a part of speech * Logical conjunction, a mathematical operator ** Conjunction introduction, a rule of inference of propositional logic * Conjunction (astronomy), in which two astronomical bodies ...
, also denoted by ∧), OR (
disjunction In logic, disjunction is a logical connective typically notated as \lor and read aloud as "or". For instance, the English language sentence "it is raining or it is snowing" can be represented in logic using the disjunctive formula R \lor S ...
, ∨), NOT ( negation, ¬), and parentheses. A formula is said to be ''satisfiable'' if it can be made TRUE by assigning appropriate
logical value In logic and mathematics, a truth value, sometimes called a logical value, is a value indicating the relation of a proposition to truth, which in classical logic has only two possible values (''true'' or '' false''). Computing In some progra ...
s (i.e. TRUE, FALSE) to its variables. The ''Boolean satisfiability problem'' (SAT) is, given a formula, to check whether it is satisfiable. This
decision problem In computability theory and computational complexity theory, a decision problem is a computational problem that can be posed as a yes–no question of the input values. An example of a decision problem is deciding by means of an algorithm wheth ...
is of central importance in many areas of
computer science Computer science is the study of computation, automation, and information. Computer science spans theoretical disciplines (such as algorithms, theory of computation, information theory, and automation) to practical disciplines (includi ...
, including
theoretical computer science computer science (TCS) is a subset of general computer science and mathematics that focuses on mathematical aspects of computer science such as the theory of computation, lambda calculus, and type theory. It is difficult to circumscribe the ...
, complexity theory,
algorithmics Algorithmics is the systematic study of the design and analysis of algorithms. It is fundamental and one of the oldest fields of computer science. It includes algorithm design, the art of building a procedure which can solve efficiently a specific ...
,
cryptography Cryptography, or cryptology (from grc, , translit=kryptós "hidden, secret"; and ''graphein'', "to write", or ''-logia'', "study", respectively), is the practice and study of techniques for secure communication in the presence of adver ...
and
artificial intelligence Artificial intelligence (AI) is intelligence—perceiving, synthesizing, and inferring information—demonstrated by machines, as opposed to intelligence displayed by animals and humans. Example tasks in which this is done include speech r ...
.


Conjunctive normal form

A ''literal'' is either a variable (in which case it is called a ''positive literal'') or the negation of a variable (called a ''negative literal''). A ''clause'' is a disjunction of literals (or a single literal). A clause is called a ''
Horn clause In mathematical logic and logic programming, a Horn clause is a logical formula of a particular rule-like form which gives it useful properties for use in logic programming, formal specification, and model theory. Horn clauses are named for the log ...
'' if it contains at most one positive literal. A formula is in ''
conjunctive normal form In Boolean logic, a formula is in conjunctive normal form (CNF) or clausal normal form if it is a conjunction of one or more clauses, where a clause is a disjunction of literals; otherwise put, it is a product of sums or an AND of ORs. As a cano ...
'' (CNF) if it is a conjunction of clauses (or a single clause). For example, is a positive literal, is a negative literal, is a clause. The formula is in conjunctive normal form; its first and third clauses are Horn clauses, but its second clause is not. The formula is satisfiable, by choosing ''x''1 = FALSE, ''x''2 = FALSE, and ''x''3 arbitrarily, since (FALSE ∨ ¬FALSE) ∧ (¬FALSE ∨ FALSE ∨ ''x''3) ∧ ¬FALSE evaluates to (FALSE ∨ TRUE) ∧ (TRUE ∨ FALSE ∨ ''x''3) ∧ TRUE, and in turn to TRUE ∧ TRUE ∧ TRUE (i.e. to TRUE). In contrast, the CNF formula ''a'' ∧ ¬''a'', consisting of two clauses of one literal, is unsatisfiable, since for ''a''=TRUE or ''a''=FALSE it evaluates to TRUE ∧ ¬TRUE (i.e., FALSE) or FALSE ∧ ¬FALSE (i.e., again FALSE), respectively. For some versions of the SAT problem, it is useful to define the notion of a ''generalized conjunctive normal form'' formula, viz. as a conjunction of arbitrarily many ''generalized clauses'', the latter being of the form for some
Boolean function In mathematics, a Boolean function is a function whose arguments and result assume values from a two-element set (usually , or ). Alternative names are switching function, used especially in older computer science literature, and truth function ...
''R'' and (ordinary) literals . Different sets of allowed boolean functions lead to different problem versions. As an example, ''R''(¬''x'',''a'',''b'') is a generalized clause, and ''R''(¬''x'',''a'',''b'') ∧ ''R''(''b'',''y'',''c'') ∧ ''R''(''c'',''d'',¬''z'') is a generalized conjunctive normal form. This formula is used below, with ''R'' being the ternary operator that is TRUE just when exactly one of its arguments is. Using the laws of
Boolean algebra In mathematics and mathematical logic, Boolean algebra is a branch of algebra. It differs from elementary algebra in two ways. First, the values of the variables are the truth values ''true'' and ''false'', usually denoted 1 and 0, whereas i ...
, every propositional logic formula can be transformed into an equivalent conjunctive normal form, which may, however, be exponentially longer. For example, transforming the formula (''x''1∧''y''1) ∨ (''x''2∧''y''2) ∨ ... ∨ (''x''''n''∧''y''''n'') into conjunctive normal form yields : : : : : : : :; while the former is a disjunction of ''n'' conjunctions of 2 variables, the latter consists of 2''n'' clauses of ''n'' variables. However, with use of the
Tseytin transformation The Tseytin transformation, alternatively written Tseitin transformation, takes as input an arbitrary combinatorial logic circuit and produces a boolean formula in conjunctive normal form (CNF), which can be solved by a CNF-SAT solver. The leng ...
, we may find an equisatisfiable conjunctive normal form formula with length linear in the size of the original propositional logic formula.


Complexity

SAT was the first known
NP-complete In computational complexity theory, a problem is NP-complete when: # it is a problem for which the correctness of each solution can be verified quickly (namely, in polynomial time) and a brute-force search algorithm can find a solution by trying ...
problem, as proved by
Stephen Cook Stephen Arthur Cook (born December 14, 1939) is an American-Canadian computer scientist and mathematician who has made significant contributions to the fields of complexity theory and proof complexity. He is a university professor at the Unive ...
at the
University of Toronto The University of Toronto (UToronto or U of T) is a public university, public research university in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, located on the grounds that surround Queen's Park (Toronto), Queen's Park. It was founded by royal charter in 1827 ...
in 1971 and independently by
Leonid Levin Leonid Anatolievich Levin ( ; russian: Леони́д Анато́льевич Ле́вин; uk, Леоні́д Анато́лійович Ле́він; born November 2, 1948) is a Soviet-American mathematician and computer scientist. He is kn ...
at the
Russian Academy of Sciences The Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS; russian: Росси́йская акаде́мия нау́к (РАН) ''Rossíyskaya akadémiya naúk'') consists of the national academy of Russia; a network of scientific research institutes from across ...
in 1973. Until that time, the concept of an NP-complete problem did not even exist. The proof shows how every decision problem in the
complexity class In computational complexity theory, a complexity class is a set (mathematics), set of computational problems of related resource-based computational complexity, complexity. The two most commonly analyzed resources are time complexity, time and spa ...
NP can be reduced to the SAT problem for CNFThe SAT problem for ''arbitrary'' formulas is NP-complete, too, since it is easily shown to be in NP, and it cannot be easier than SAT for CNF formulas. formulas, sometimes called CNFSAT. A useful property of Cook's reduction is that it preserves the number of accepting answers. For example, deciding whether a given
graph Graph may refer to: Mathematics *Graph (discrete mathematics), a structure made of vertices and edges **Graph theory, the study of such graphs and their properties *Graph (topology), a topological space resembling a graph in the sense of discre ...
has a 3-coloring is another problem in NP; if a graph has 17 valid 3-colorings, the SAT formula produced by the Cook–Levin reduction will have 17 satisfying assignments. NP-completeness only refers to the run-time of the worst case instances. Many of the instances that occur in practical applications can be solved much more quickly. See Algorithms for solving SAT below.


3-satisfiability

Like the satisfiability problem for arbitrary formulas, determining the satisfiability of a formula in conjunctive normal form where each clause is limited to at most three literals is NP-complete also; this problem is called 3-SAT, 3CNFSAT, or 3-satisfiability. To reduce the unrestricted SAT problem to 3-SAT, transform each clause to a conjunction of clauses : : : : : where are fresh variables not occurring elsewhere. Although the two formulas are not
logically equivalent Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It includes both formal and informal logic. Formal logic is the science of deductively valid inferences or of logical truths. It is a formal science investigating how conclusions follow from premise ...
, they are
equisatisfiable In Mathematical logic (a subtopic within the field of formal logic), two formulae are equisatisfiable if the first formula is satisfiable whenever the second is and vice versa; in other words, either both formulae are satisfiable or both are not. E ...
. The formula resulting from transforming all clauses is at most 3 times as long as its original, i.e. the length growth is polynomial. 3-SAT is one of
Karp's 21 NP-complete problems In computational complexity theory, Karp's 21 NP-complete problems are a set of computational problems which are NP-complete. In his 1972 paper, "Reducibility Among Combinatorial Problems", Richard Karp used Stephen Cook's 1971 theorem that the b ...
, and it is used as a starting point for proving that other problems are also NP-hard.i.e. at least as hard as every other problem in NP. A decision problem is NP-complete if and only if it is in NP and is NP-hard. This is done by
polynomial-time reduction In computational complexity theory, a polynomial-time reduction is a method for solving one problem using another. One shows that if a hypothetical subroutine solving the second problem exists, then the first problem can be solved by transforming ...
from 3-SAT to the other problem. An example of a problem where this method has been used is the
clique problem In computer science, the clique problem is the computational problem of finding cliques (subsets of vertices, all adjacent to each other, also called complete subgraphs) in a graph. It has several different formulations depending on which cli ...
: given a CNF formula consisting of ''c'' clauses, the corresponding
graph Graph may refer to: Mathematics *Graph (discrete mathematics), a structure made of vertices and edges **Graph theory, the study of such graphs and their properties *Graph (topology), a topological space resembling a graph in the sense of discre ...
consists of a vertex for each literal, and an edge between each two non-contradictingi.e. such that one literal is not the negation of the other literals from different clauses, cf. picture. The graph has a ''c''-clique if and only if the formula is satisfiable. There is a simple randomized algorithm due to Schöning (1999) that runs in time (4/3)''n'' where ''n'' is the number of variables in the 3-SAT proposition, and succeeds with high probability to correctly decide 3-SAT. The
exponential time hypothesis In computational complexity theory, the exponential time hypothesis is an unproven computational hardness assumption that was formulated by . It states that satisfiability of 3-CNF Boolean formulas cannot be solved more quickly than exponential t ...
asserts that no algorithm can solve 3-SAT (or indeed ''k''-SAT for any ) in time (i.e., fundamentally faster than exponential in ''n''). Selman, Mitchell, and Levesque (1996) give empirical data on the difficulty of randomly generated 3-SAT formulas, depending on their size parameters. Difficulty is measured in number recursive calls made by a
DPLL algorithm In logic and computer science, the Davis–Putnam–Logemann–Loveland (DPLL) algorithm is a complete, backtracking-based search algorithm for deciding the satisfiability of propositional logic formulae in conjunctive normal form, i.e. for solvi ...
. 3-satisfiability can be generalized to k-satisfiability (k-SAT, also k-CNF-SAT), when formulas in CNF are considered with each clause containing up to ''k'' literals. However, since for any ''k'' ≥ 3, this problem can neither be easier than 3-SAT nor harder than SAT, and the latter two are NP-complete, so must be k-SAT. Some authors restrict k-SAT to CNF formulas with exactly k literals. This doesn't lead to a different complexity class either, as each clause with ''j'' < ''k'' literals can be padded with fixed dummy variables to . After padding all clauses, 2''k''-1 extra clausesviz. all maxterms that can be built with , except have to be appended to ensure that only can lead to a satisfying assignment. Since ''k'' doesn't depend on the formula length, the extra clauses lead to a constant increase in length. For the same reason, it does not matter whether duplicate literals are allowed in clauses, as in .


Special cases of SAT


Conjunctive normal form

Conjunctive normal form (in particular with 3 literals per clause) is often considered the canonical representation for SAT formulas. As shown above, the general SAT problem reduces to 3-SAT, the problem of determining satisfiability for formulas in this form.


Disjunctive normal form

SAT is trivial if the formulas are restricted to those in
disjunctive normal form In boolean logic, a disjunctive normal form (DNF) is a canonical normal form of a logical formula consisting of a disjunction of conjunctions; it can also be described as an OR of ANDs, a sum of products, or (in philosophical logic) a ''cluster c ...
, that is, they are a disjunction of conjunctions of literals. Such a formula is indeed satisfiable if and only if at least one of its conjunctions is satisfiable, and a conjunction is satisfiable if and only if it does not contain both ''x'' and NOT ''x'' for some variable ''x''. This can be checked in linear time. Furthermore, if they are restricted to being in full disjunctive normal form, in which every variable appears exactly once in every conjunction, they can be checked in constant time (each conjunction represents one satisfying assignment). But it can take exponential time and space to convert a general SAT problem to disjunctive normal form; for an example exchange "∧" and "∨" in the above exponential blow-up example for conjunctive normal forms.


Exactly-1 3-satisfiability

A variant of the 3-satisfiability problem is the one-in-three 3-SAT (also known variously as 1-in-3-SAT and exactly-1 3-SAT). Given a conjunctive normal form with three literals per clause, the problem is to determine whether there exists a truth assignment to the variables so that each clause has ''exactly'' one TRUE literal (and thus exactly two FALSE literals). In contrast, ordinary 3-SAT requires that every clause has ''at least'' one TRUE literal. Formally, a one-in-three 3-SAT problem is given as a generalized conjunctive normal form with all generalized clauses using a ternary operator ''R'' that is TRUE just if exactly one of its arguments is. When all literals of a one-in-three 3-SAT formula are positive, the satisfiability problem is called one-in-three positive 3-SAT. One-in-three 3-SAT, together with its positive case, is listed as NP-complete problem "LO4" in the standard reference, ''Computers and Intractability: A Guide to the Theory of NP-Completeness'' by Michael R. Garey and
David S. Johnson David Stifler Johnson (December 9, 1945 – March 8, 2016) was an American computer scientist specializing in algorithms and optimization. He was the head of the Algorithms and Optimization Department of AT&T Labs Research from 1988 to 2013, an ...
. One-in-three 3-SAT was proved to be NP-complete by Thomas Jerome Schaefer as a special case of
Schaefer's dichotomy theorem In computational complexity theory, a branch of computer science, Schaefer's dichotomy theorem states necessary and sufficient conditions under which a finite set ''S'' of relations over the Boolean domain yields polynomial-time or NP-complete prob ...
, which asserts that any problem generalizing Boolean satisfiability in a certain way is either in the class P or is NP-complete. Schaefer gives a construction allowing an easy polynomial-time reduction from 3-SAT to one-in-three 3-SAT. Let "(''x'' or ''y'' or ''z'')" be a clause in a 3CNF formula. Add six fresh boolean variables ''a'', ''b'', ''c'', ''d'', ''e'', and ''f'', to be used to simulate this clause and no other. Then the formula ''R''(''x'',''a'',''d'') ∧ ''R''(''y'',''b'',''d'') ∧ ''R''(''a'',''b'',''e'') ∧ ''R''(''c'',''d'',''f'') ∧ ''R''(''z'',''c'',FALSE) is satisfiable by some setting of the fresh variables if and only if at least one of ''x'', ''y'', or ''z'' is TRUE, see picture (left). Thus any 3-SAT instance with ''m'' clauses and ''n'' variables may be converted into an
equisatisfiable In Mathematical logic (a subtopic within the field of formal logic), two formulae are equisatisfiable if the first formula is satisfiable whenever the second is and vice versa; in other words, either both formulae are satisfiable or both are not. E ...
one-in-three 3-SAT instance with 5''m'' clauses and ''n''+6''m'' variables. Another reduction involves only four fresh variables and three clauses: ''R''(¬''x'',''a'',''b'') ∧ ''R''(''b'',''y'',''c'') ∧ R(''c'',''d'',¬''z''), see picture (right).


Not-all-equal 3-satisfiability

Another variant is the not-all-equal 3-satisfiability problem (also called NAE3SAT). Given a conjunctive normal form with three literals per clause, the problem is to determine if an assignment to the variables exists such that in no clause all three literals have the same truth value. This problem is NP-complete, too, even if no negation symbols are admitted, by Schaefer's dichotomy theorem.


Linear SAT

A 3-SAT formula is ''Linear SAT'' (''LSAT'') if each clause (viewed as a set of literals) intersects at most one other clause, and, moreover, if two clauses intersect, then they have exactly one literal in common. An LSAT formula can be depicted as a set of disjoint semi-closed intervals on a line. Deciding whether an LSAT formula is satisfiable is NP-complete.


2-satisfiability

SAT is easier if the number of literals in a clause is limited to at most 2, in which case the problem is called
2-SAT In computer science, 2-satisfiability, 2-SAT or just 2SAT is a computational problem of assigning values to variables, each of which has two possible values, in order to satisfy a system of constraints on pairs of variables. It is a special case ...
. This problem can be solved in polynomial time, and in fact is complete for the complexity class NL. If additionally all OR operations in literals are changed to XOR operations, the result is called exclusive-or 2-satisfiability, which is a problem complete for the complexity class SL = L.


Horn-satisfiability

The problem of deciding the satisfiability of a given conjunction of
Horn clause In mathematical logic and logic programming, a Horn clause is a logical formula of a particular rule-like form which gives it useful properties for use in logic programming, formal specification, and model theory. Horn clauses are named for the log ...
s is called Horn-satisfiability, or HORN-SAT. It can be solved in polynomial time by a single step of the
Unit propagation Unit propagation (UP) or Boolean Constraint propagation (BCP) or the one-literal rule (OLR) is a Algorithm, procedure of automated theorem proving that can simplify a set of (usually propositional logic, propositional) Clause (logic), clauses. Def ...
algorithm, which produces the single minimal model of the set of Horn clauses (w.r.t. the set of literals assigned to TRUE). Horn-satisfiability is
P-complete In computational complexity theory, a decision problem is P-complete (complete for the complexity class P) if it is in P and every problem in P can be reduced to it by an appropriate reduction. The notion of P-complete decision problems is usef ...
. It can be seen as P's version of the Boolean satisfiability problem. Also, deciding the truth of quantified Horn formulas can be done in polynomial time. Horn clauses are of interest because they are able to express implication of one variable from a set of other variables. Indeed, one such clause ¬''x''1 ∨ ... ∨ ¬''x''''n'' ∨ ''y'' can be rewritten as ''x''1 ∧ ... ∧ ''x''''n'' → ''y'', that is, if ''x''1,...,''x''''n'' are all TRUE, then ''y'' needs to be TRUE as well. A generalization of the class of Horn formulae is that of renameable-Horn formulae, which is the set of formulae that can be placed in Horn form by replacing some variables with their respective negation. For example, (''x''1 ∨ ¬''x''2) ∧ (¬''x''1 ∨ ''x''2 ∨ ''x''3) ∧ ¬''x''1 is not a Horn formula, but can be renamed to the Horn formula (''x''1 ∨ ¬''x''2) ∧ (¬''x''1 ∨ ''x''2 ∨ ¬''y''3) ∧ ¬''x''1 by introducing ''y''3 as negation of ''x''3. In contrast, no renaming of (''x''1 ∨ ¬''x''2 ∨ ¬''x''3) ∧ (¬''x''1 ∨ ''x''2 ∨ ''x''3) ∧ ¬''x''1 leads to a Horn formula. Checking the existence of such a replacement can be done in linear time; therefore, the satisfiability of such formulae is in P as it can be solved by first performing this replacement and then checking the satisfiability of the resulting Horn formula.


XOR-satisfiability

Another special case is the class of problems where each clause contains XOR (i.e.
exclusive or Exclusive or or exclusive disjunction is a logical operation that is true if and only if its arguments differ (one is true, the other is false). It is symbolized by the prefix operator J and by the infix operators XOR ( or ), EOR, EXOR, , ...
) rather than (plain) OR operators.Formally, generalized conjunctive normal forms with a ternary boolean function ''R'' are employed, which is TRUE just if 1 or 3 of its arguments is. An input clause with more than 3 literals can be transformed into an equisatisfiable conjunction of clauses á 3 literals similar to above; i.e. XOR-SAT can be reduced to XOR-3-SAT. This is in P, since an XOR-SAT formula can also be viewed as a system of linear equations mod 2, and can be solved in cubic time by Gaussian elimination; see the box for an example. This recast is based on the kinship between Boolean algebras and Boolean rings, and the fact that arithmetic modulo two forms a
finite field In mathematics, a finite field or Galois field (so-named in honor of Évariste Galois) is a field that contains a finite number of elements. As with any field, a finite field is a set on which the operations of multiplication, addition, subtr ...
. Since ''a'' XOR ''b'' XOR ''c'' evaluates to TRUE if and only if exactly 1 or 3 members of are TRUE, each solution of the 1-in-3-SAT problem for a given CNF formula is also a solution of the XOR-3-SAT problem, and in turn each solution of XOR-3-SAT is a solution of 3-SAT, cf. picture. As a consequence, for each CNF formula, it is possible to solve the XOR-3-SAT problem defined by the formula, and based on the result infer either that the 3-SAT problem is solvable or that the 1-in-3-SAT problem is unsolvable. Provided that the complexity classes P and NP are not equal, neither 2-, nor Horn-, nor XOR-satisfiability is NP-complete, unlike SAT.


Schaefer's dichotomy theorem

The restrictions above (CNF, 2CNF, 3CNF, Horn, XOR-SAT) bound the considered formulae to be conjunctions of subformulae; each restriction states a specific form for all subformulae: for example, only binary clauses can be subformulae in 2CNF. Schaefer's dichotomy theorem states that, for any restriction to Boolean functions that can be used to form these subformulae, the corresponding satisfiability problem is in P or NP-complete. The membership in P of the satisfiability of 2CNF, Horn, and XOR-SAT formulae are special cases of this theorem. The following table summarizes some common variants of SAT.


Extensions of SAT

An extension that has gained significant popularity since 2003 is
satisfiability modulo theories In computer science and mathematical logic, satisfiability modulo theories (SMT) is the problem of determining whether a mathematical formula is satisfiable. It generalizes the Boolean satisfiability problem (SAT) to more complex formulas involvi ...
(SMT) that can enrich CNF formulas with linear constraints, arrays, all-different constraints, uninterpreted functions,R. E. Bryant, S. M. German, and M. N. Velev
Microprocessor Verification Using Efficient Decision Procedures for a Logic of Equality with Uninterpreted Functions
in Analytic Tableaux and Related Methods, pp. 1–13, 1999.
''etc.'' Such extensions typically remain NP-complete, but very efficient solvers are now available that can handle many such kinds of constraints. The satisfiability problem becomes more difficult if both "for all" ( ) and "there exists" ( ) quantifiers are allowed to bind the Boolean variables. An example of such an expression would be ; it is valid, since for all values of ''x'' and ''y'', an appropriate value of ''z'' can be found, viz. ''z''=TRUE if both ''x'' and ''y'' are FALSE, and ''z''=FALSE else. SAT itself (tacitly) uses only ∃ quantifiers. If only ∀ quantifiers are allowed instead, the so-called tautology problem is obtained, which is
co-NP-complete In complexity theory, computational problems that are co-NP-complete are those that are the hardest problems in co-NP, in the sense that any problem in co-NP can be reformulated as a special case of any co-NP-complete problem with only polynomial ...
. If both quantifiers are allowed, the problem is called the quantified Boolean formula problem (QBF), which can be shown to be
PSPACE-complete In computational complexity theory, a decision problem is PSPACE-complete if it can be solved using an amount of memory that is polynomial in the input length (polynomial space) and if every other problem that can be solved in polynomial space can b ...
. It is widely believed that PSPACE-complete problems are strictly harder than any problem in NP, although this has not yet been proved. Using highly parallel '' P systems'', QBF-SAT problems can be solved in linear time. Ordinary SAT asks if there is at least one variable assignment that makes the formula true. A variety of variants deal with the number of such assignments: * MAJ-SAT asks if the majority of all assignments make the formula TRUE. It is known to be complete for PP, a probabilistic class. * #SAT, the problem of counting how many variable assignments satisfy a formula, is a counting problem, not a decision problem, and is #P-complete. * UNIQUE SAT is the problem of determining whether a formula has exactly one assignment. It is complete for US, the
complexity class In computational complexity theory, a complexity class is a set (mathematics), set of computational problems of related resource-based computational complexity, complexity. The two most commonly analyzed resources are time complexity, time and spa ...
describing problems solvable by a non-deterministic polynomial time
Turing machine A Turing machine is a mathematical model of computation describing an abstract machine that manipulates symbols on a strip of tape according to a table of rules. Despite the model's simplicity, it is capable of implementing any computer algori ...
that accepts when there is exactly one nondeterministic accepting path and rejects otherwise. *UNAMBIGUOUS-SAT is the name given to the satisfiability problem when the input is restricted to formulas having at most one satisfying assignment. The problem is also called USAT. A solving algorithm for UNAMBIGUOUS-SAT is allowed to exhibit any behavior, including endless looping, on a formula having several satisfying assignments. Although this problem seems easier, Valiant and Vazirani have shown that if there is a practical (i.e. randomized polynomial-time) algorithm to solve it, then all problems in NP can be solved just as easily. * MAX-SAT, the maximum satisfiability problem, is an FNP generalization of SAT. It asks for the maximum number of clauses which can be satisfied by any assignment. It has efficient approximation algorithms, but is NP-hard to solve exactly. Worse still, it is
APX In computational complexity theory, the class APX (an abbreviation of "approximable") is the set of NP optimization problems that allow polynomial-time approximation algorithms with approximation ratio bounded by a constant (or constant-factor ap ...
-complete, meaning there is no
polynomial-time approximation scheme In computer science (particularly algorithmics), a polynomial-time approximation scheme (PTAS) is a type of approximation algorithm for optimization problems (most often, NP-hard optimization problems). A PTAS is an algorithm which takes an insta ...
(PTAS) for this problem unless P=NP. *WMSAT is the problem of finding an assignment of minimum weight that satisfy a monotone Boolean formula (i.e. a formula without any negation). Weights of propositional variables are given in the input of the problem. The weight of an assignment is the sum of weights of true variables. That problem is NP-complete (see Th. 1 of ). Other generalizations include satisfiability for
first First or 1st is the ordinal form of the number one (#1). First or 1st may also refer to: *World record, specifically the first instance of a particular achievement Arts and media Music * 1$T, American rapper, singer-songwriter, DJ, and rec ...
- and
second-order logic In logic and mathematics, second-order logic is an extension of first-order logic, which itself is an extension of propositional logic. Second-order logic is in turn extended by higher-order logic and type theory. First-order logic quantifies on ...
,
constraint satisfaction problem Constraint satisfaction problems (CSPs) are mathematical questions defined as a set of objects whose state must satisfy a number of constraints or limitations. CSPs represent the entities in a problem as a homogeneous collection of finite constr ...
s, 0-1 integer programming.


Finding a satisfying assignment

While SAT is a
decision problem In computability theory and computational complexity theory, a decision problem is a computational problem that can be posed as a yes–no question of the input values. An example of a decision problem is deciding by means of an algorithm wheth ...
, the
search problem In computational complexity theory and computability theory, a search problem is a type of computational problem represented by a binary relation. If ''R'' is a binary relation such that field(''R'') ⊆ Γ+ and ''T'' is a Turing machine, then '' ...
of finding a satisfying assignment reduces to SAT. That is, each algorithm which correctly answers if an instance of SAT is solvable can be used to find a satisfying assignment. First, the question is asked on the given formula Φ. If the answer is "no", the formula is unsatisfiable. Otherwise, the question is asked on the partly instantiated formula Φ , i.e. Φ with the first variable ''x''1 replaced by TRUE, and simplified accordingly. If the answer is "yes", then ''x''1=TRUE, otherwise ''x''1=FALSE. Values of other variables can be found subsequently in the same way. In total, ''n''+1 runs of the algorithm are required, where ''n'' is the number of distinct variables in Φ. This property is used in several theorems in complexity theory: : NP
P/poly In computational complexity theory, P/poly is a complexity class representing problems that can be solved by small circuits. More precisely, it is the set of formal languages that have polynomial-size circuit families. It can also be defined equiva ...
PH = Σ2   (
Karp–Lipton theorem In complexity theory, the Karp–Lipton theorem states that if the Boolean satisfiability problem (SAT) can be solved by Boolean circuits with a polynomial number of logic gates, then :\Pi_2 = \Sigma_2 \, and therefore \mathrm = \Sigma_2. \, ...
) : NP
BPP BPP may refer to: Education * BPP Holdings, a holding company based in the United Kingdom * BPP Law School, a law school based in the United Kingdom and a constituent school of BPP University * BPP University, a private university based in the ...
NP = RP : P = NPFP = FNP


Algorithms for solving SAT

Since the SAT problem is NP-complete, only algorithms with exponential worst-case complexity are known for it. In spite of this, efficient and scalable algorithms for SAT were developed during the 2000s and have contributed to dramatic advances in our ability to automatically solve problem instances involving tens of thousands of variables and millions of constraints (i.e. clauses).. Examples of such problems in electronic design automation (EDA) include
formal equivalence checking Formal equivalence checking process is a part of electronic design automation (EDA), commonly used during the development of digital integrated circuits, to formally prove that two representations of a circuit design exhibit exactly the same b ...
, model checking,
formal verification In the context of hardware and software systems, formal verification is the act of proving or disproving the correctness of intended algorithms underlying a system with respect to a certain formal specification or property, using formal met ...
of pipelined microprocessors,
automatic test pattern generation ATPG (acronym for both Automatic Test Pattern Generation and Automatic Test Pattern Generator) is an electronic design automation method/technology used to find an input (or test) sequence that, when applied to a digital circuit, enables automatic t ...
, routing of FPGAs, planning, and scheduling problems, and so on. A SAT-solving engine is also considered to be an essential component in the electronic design automation toolbox. Major techniques used by modern SAT solvers include the
Davis–Putnam–Logemann–Loveland algorithm In logic and computer science, the Davis–Putnam–Logemann–Loveland (DPLL) algorithm is a complete, backtracking-based search algorithm for deciding the satisfiability of propositional logic formulae in conjunctive normal form, i.e. for solv ...
(or DPLL), conflict-driven clause learning (CDCL), and stochastic local search algorithms such as WalkSAT. Almost all SAT solvers include time-outs, so they will terminate in reasonable time even if they cannot find a solution. Different SAT solvers will find different instances easy or hard, and some excel at proving unsatisfiability, and others at finding solutions. Recent attempts have been made to learn an instance's satisfiability using deep learning techniques. SAT solvers are developed and compared in SAT-solving contests. Modern SAT solvers are also having significant impact on the fields of software verification, constraint solving in artificial intelligence, and operations research, among others.


See also

* Unsatisfiable core *
Satisfiability modulo theories In computer science and mathematical logic, satisfiability modulo theories (SMT) is the problem of determining whether a mathematical formula is satisfiable. It generalizes the Boolean satisfiability problem (SAT) to more complex formulas involvi ...
* Counting SAT *
Planar SAT In computer science, the planar 3-satisfiability problem (abbreviated PLANAR 3SAT or PL3SAT) is an extension of the classical Boolean 3-satisfiability problem to a planar incidence graph. In other words, it asks whether the variables of a give ...
*
Karloff–Zwick algorithm The Karloff–Zwick algorithm, in computational complexity theory, is a randomised approximation algorithm taking an instance of MAX-3SAT Boolean satisfiability problem as input. If the instance is satisfiable, then the expected weight of the ass ...
*
Circuit satisfiability In theoretical computer science, the circuit satisfiability problem (also known as CIRCUIT-SAT, CircuitSAT, CSAT, etc.) is the decision problem of determining whether a given Boolean circuit has an assignment of its inputs that makes the output tru ...


Notes


External links


SAT Game
try solving a Boolean satisfiability problem yourself
The international SAT competition website

International Conference on Theory and Applications of Satisfiability Testing

Journal on Satisfiability, Boolean Modeling and Computation

SAT Live, an aggregate website for research on the satisfiability problem

Yearly evaluation of MaxSAT solvers


References


Further reading

(by date of publication) * * * * * * * * ---- ''This article includes material from a column in the AC
SIGDA
b
Prof. Karem Sakallah

Original text is availabl

' {{DEFAULTSORT:Boolean Satisfiability Problem Boolean algebra Electronic design automation Formal methods Logic in computer science NP-complete problems Satisfiability problems