The Polish–Lithuanian War was an
undeclared war fought in the
aftermath of World War I
The aftermath of World War I saw far-reaching and wide-ranging cultural, economic, and social change across Europe, Asia, Africa, and in areas outside those that were directly involved. Four empires collapsed due to the war, old countries were a ...
between newly independent
Lithuania
Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania, is a country in the Baltic region of Europe. It is one of three Baltic states and lies on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea, bordered by Latvia to the north, Belarus to the east and south, P ...
and
Poland
Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It extends from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Sudetes and Carpathian Mountains in the south, bordered by Lithuania and Russia to the northeast, Belarus and Ukrai ...
, with fighting mainly in the
Vilnius
Vilnius ( , ) is the capital of and List of cities in Lithuania#Cities, largest city in Lithuania and the List of cities in the Baltic states by population, most-populous city in the Baltic states. The city's estimated January 2025 population w ...
and
Suwałki
Suwałki (; ; or סוּוואַלק) is a city in northeastern Poland with a population of 69,206 (2021). It is the capital of Suwałki County and one of the most important centers of commerce in the Podlaskie Voivodeship.
A relatively young ci ...
regions, which was part of the
Lithuanian Wars of Independence
The Lithuanian Wars of Independence, also known as the Freedom Struggles (), refer to three wars Lithuania fought defending its independence at the end of World War I: with Bolshevik forces (December 1918 – August 1919), Bermontians (October ...
and lasted from May 1919 to 29 November 1920. Since the spring of 1920, the conflict happened alongside the wider
Polish–Soviet War
The Polish–Soviet War (14 February 1919 – 18 March 1921) was fought primarily between the Second Polish Republic and the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, following World War I and the Russian Revolution.
After the collapse ...
and was affected by its progress. It was subject to unsuccessful international mediation at the
Conference of Ambassadors
A conference is a meeting, often lasting a few days, which is organized on a particular subject, or to bring together people who have a common interest. Conferences can be used as a form of group decision-making, although discussion, not always d ...
and the
League of Nations
The League of Nations (LN or LoN; , SdN) was the first worldwide intergovernmental organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. It was founded on 10 January 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920), Paris Peace ...
.
After World War I, the military and political situation in the region was chaotic, as multiple countries, notably Lithuania, Poland, and Soviet Russia, vied with each other over control of overlapping areas. The Polish–Lithuanian conflict was centered on
Vilnius
Vilnius ( , ) is the capital of and List of cities in Lithuania#Cities, largest city in Lithuania and the List of cities in the Baltic states by population, most-populous city in the Baltic states. The city's estimated January 2025 population w ...
, which the
Council of Lithuania
In the history of Lithuania, the Council of Lithuania (; ; ), after July 11, 1918, the State Council of Lithuania () was convened at the Vilnius Conference that took place between 18 and 23 September 1917. The twenty men who composed the c ...
declared the capital of the
restored Lithuanian state. Control of Vilnius was transferred from Germans to Poles on January 2, 1919, but the Polish paramilitary lost the city to the Bolsheviks on The Polish Army
seized Vilnius again on April 19, 1919 and came in contact with the
Lithuanian Army
The Lithuanian Armed Forces () are the military of Lithuania. The Lithuanian Armed Forces consist of the Lithuanian Land Forces, the Lithuanian Navy, the Lithuanian Air Force and the Lithuanian Special Operations Force. In wartime, the Lithuan ...
fighting in the
Lithuanian–Soviet War. Despite the antagonism over Vilnius, the Lithuanian and Polish armies sometimes cooperated when fighting against a common enemy, the Bolsheviks. As
Lithuanian–Polish relations worsened, the
Entente drew two demarcation lines in hopes to stall further hostilities. The lines did not please either side and were ignored. The first clashes between Polish and Lithuanian soldiers occurred on April 26 and May 8, 1919, near
Vievis
Vievis () is a small city in Elektrėnai municipality, Lithuania. It is located 14 km east of Elektrėnai, on Lake Vievis.
History
Its alternate names include Anastasevskaya, Jewie (Polish), Vevis, Viyevis, V’yevis, and Yev’ye.
Vievis ...
. With the
Polish coup against the Lithuanian government failing in August 1919, the front stabilized until the summer of 1920.
In July 1920, Polish forces retreated due to reverses in the Polish–Soviet War and the Lithuanians followed the retreating troops to secure their lands as delineated in the
Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty. However, the Red Army was the first to enter Vilnius. In August 1920, Poland won the
Battle of Warsaw and forced the Soviets to retreat. The Polish Army encountered Lithuanian opposition, defending their new borders, which the Polish government considered illegitimate. Thus, the Polish invaded Lithuanian-controlled territory during the
Battle of Sejny. Pressured by the League of Nations, Poland signed the
Suwałki Agreement on October 7, 1920. The agreement left the
Suwałki region
Suwałki Region ( ; ) is a historical region around the city of Suwałki in northeastern Poland near the border with Lithuania. It encompasses the powiats of Augustów, Suwałki, and Sejny, and roughly corresponds to the southern part of the for ...
on the Polish side and drew a new incomplete demarcation line, which left Vilnius vulnerable to a
flanking maneuver
In military tactics, a flanking maneuver is a movement of an armed force around an enemy force's side, or flank, to achieve an advantageous position over it. Flanking is useful because a force's fighting strength is typically concentrated ...
.
On October 8, 1920, Polish general
Lucjan Żeligowski staged a
mutiny
Mutiny is a revolt among a group of people (typically of a military or a crew) to oppose, change, or remove superiors or their orders. The term is commonly used for insubordination by members of the military against an officer or superior, ...
, secretly planned and authorized by the Polish chief of state
Józef Piłsudski
Józef Klemens Piłsudski (; 5 December 1867 – 12 May 1935) was a Polish statesman who served as the Chief of State (Poland), Chief of State (1918–1922) and first Marshal of Poland (from 1920). In the aftermath of World War I, he beca ...
. Żeligowski's forces marched on Vilnius and captured it one day before the
Suwałki Agreement was to formally come into effect. Żeligowski proclaimed the creation of the
Republic of Central Lithuania
The Republic of Central Lithuania (, ), commonly known as the Central Lithuania, and the Middle Lithuania (, , ), was an unrecognized short-lived puppet state of Poland, that existed from 1920 to 1922. It was founded on 12 October 1920, after ...
with its capital in Vilnius. Their
further offensive towards
Kaunas
Kaunas (; ) is the second-largest city in Lithuania after Vilnius, the fourth largest List of cities in the Baltic states by population, city in the Baltic States and an important centre of Lithuanian economic, academic, and cultural life. Kaun ...
, the
temporary capital of Lithuania
The temporary capital of Lithuania () was the official designation of the city of Kaunas in Lithuania during the interwar period. It was in contrast to the declared capital in Vilnius, which was the capital of the Republic of Central Lithuania ( ...
, was halted by the Lithuanians, who thus defended their independence. On November 29, 1920, a ceasefire was signed. Overall, from early 1919 to late 1920, Vilnius would switch rule as many as seven times between Lithuanians, Poles and the Bolsheviks. The Republic of Central Lithuania was incorporated into Poland as the
Wilno Voivodeship in 1922. The prolonged mediation by the League of Nations did not change the situation and the ''
status quo
is a Latin phrase meaning the existing state of affairs, particularly with regard to social, economic, legal, environmental, political, religious, scientific or military issues. In the sociological sense, the ''status quo'' refers to the curren ...
'' was accepted in 1923. In March 1923, the
Conference of Ambassadors
A conference is a meeting, often lasting a few days, which is organized on a particular subject, or to bring together people who have a common interest. Conferences can be used as a form of group decision-making, although discussion, not always d ...
recognized the armistice line as a
de jure
In law and government, ''de jure'' (; ; ) describes practices that are officially recognized by laws or other formal norms, regardless of whether the practice exists in reality. The phrase is often used in contrast with '' de facto'' ('from fa ...
Polish–Lithuanian border, awarding Vilnius to Poland. However, the
International Court of Justice
The International Court of Justice (ICJ; , CIJ), or colloquially the World Court, is the only international court that Adjudication, adjudicates general disputes between nations, and gives advisory opinions on International law, internation ...
in
The Hague
The Hague ( ) is the capital city of the South Holland province of the Netherlands. With a population of over half a million, it is the third-largest city in the Netherlands. Situated on the west coast facing the North Sea, The Hague is the c ...
arbitrated in 1931 that Poland broke international law by occupying Vilnius. Lithuania remained adamant regarding its claim to Vilnius as its constitutional capital throughout the whole interwar, and breaking all
diplomatic relations with Poland due to the latter's control of the city. Diplomatic relations were only restored as a result of the March
1938 Polish ultimatum to Lithuania. Vilnius was regained by Lithuania on 1939, following the
Soviet–Lithuanian Mutual Assistance Treaty, twenty years after losing its capital. However, Lithuania as a whole lost its independence less than a year later following the
Soviet ultimatum and
occupation of the Baltic states
The occupation of the Baltic states was a period of annexation of
Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania by the Soviet Union from 1940 until its Dissolution of the Soviet Union, dissolution in 1991. For a period of several years during World War II, Naz ...
.
Background
Demographic situation
According to the
1897 Russian census, the disputed city of Vilnius had a linguistic breakdown of 40% Jews, and 2% Lithuanian speaking;
however the percentage of Lithuanian speakers in the surrounding countryside was a few times higher than that of Polish speakers – the population was 35% Lithuanian and 12% Polish speaking in
Vilnius county
Vilnius County () is the largest of the 10 counties of Lithuania, located in the east of the country around the city Vilnius and is also known as Capital Region or Sostinės regionas by the State Data Agency, Lithuanian statistics department and ...
(if excluding its centre -
Vilnius
Vilnius ( , ) is the capital of and List of cities in Lithuania#Cities, largest city in Lithuania and the List of cities in the Baltic states by population, most-populous city in the Baltic states. The city's estimated January 2025 population w ...
city), while
Trakai county had 59% Lithuanian and 11% Polish speaking population. According to the 1916 German census, Poles were the most numerous among all local nationalities and constituted 53% or 53.67% of the city's population,
50% in the entire Vilnius census region and the vast majority in the Vilnius census district.
Military developments

World War I ended when Germany signed the
Armistice of 11 November 1918
The Armistice of 11 November 1918 was the armistice signed in a railroad car, in the Compiègne Forest near the town of Compiègne, that ended fighting on land, at sea, and in the air in World War I between the Entente and their las ...
. On November 13,
Soviet Russia renounced the
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was a separate peace treaty signed on 3 March 1918 between Soviet Russia and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria), by which Russia withdrew from World War I. The treaty, whi ...
[ and began the Soviet westward offensive of 1918–1919. The ]Bolsheviks
The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, were a radical Faction (political), faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split with the Mensheviks at the 2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, ...
followed retreating Imperial German Army
The Imperial German Army (1871–1919), officially referred to as the German Army (), was the unified ground and air force of the German Empire. It was established in 1871 with the political unification of Germany under the leadership of Kingdom o ...
troops and attacked Lithuania and Poland from the east trying to prevent their independence. They attempted to spread the global proletarian revolution, establish Soviet republics in the region, and join the German and the Hungarian Revolutions. The Soviet offensive sparked a series of local wars, including the Polish–Soviet War
The Polish–Soviet War (14 February 1919 – 18 March 1921) was fought primarily between the Second Polish Republic and the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, following World War I and the Russian Revolution.
After the collapse ...
and the Lithuanian–Soviet War.
At the end of 1918, four groups claiming authority existed in Vilnius: the occupational Ober Ost German government, which was preparing to leave the city; the Lithuanian government under Augustinas Voldemaras that had just begun creating the Lithuanian Army
The Lithuanian Armed Forces () are the military of Lithuania. The Lithuanian Armed Forces consist of the Lithuanian Land Forces, the Lithuanian Navy, the Lithuanian Air Force and the Lithuanian Special Operations Force. In wartime, the Lithuan ...
; the Polish Committee and the Polish Temporary National Council for Lithuania supported by armed units of the Self-Defence of Lithuania and Belarus; and Vilnius Soviet of Workers Deputies waiting for the Red Army
The Workers' and Peasants' Red Army, often shortened to the Red Army, was the army and air force of the Russian Soviet Republic and, from 1922, the Soviet Union. The army was established in January 1918 by a decree of the Council of People ...
. The Germans refused to provide weapons to Polish paramilitary units which intended to fight the approaching Red Army. The Ober Ost command also denied the Polish request to grant the Polish Land Forces
The Land Forces () are the land forces of the Polish Armed Forces. They currently contain some 110,000 active personnel and form many components of the European Union and NATO deployments around the world. Poland's recorded military history str ...
free passage to Vilnius. The Polish Self-Defence was formally absorbed into the Polish Army at the end of December. On 2 January 1919, Poles took over Vilnius from the retreating German troops and the fighting with the city's Bolshevik Worker's Soviet
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
(capturing around 1,000 weapons). Nonetheless, the last German soldiers left the city only on January 4. The Lithuanian government failed to organize a defense of Vilnius. Both the Polish and Lithuanian political leadership realized their inability to resist the invading Bolshevik forces. So, on , the Council of Lithuania
In the history of Lithuania, the Council of Lithuania (; ; ), after July 11, 1918, the State Council of Lithuania () was convened at the Vilnius Conference that took place between 18 and 23 September 1917. The twenty men who composed the c ...
evacuated from Vilnius to Kaunas
Kaunas (; ) is the second-largest city in Lithuania after Vilnius, the fourth largest List of cities in the Baltic states by population, city in the Baltic States and an important centre of Lithuanian economic, academic, and cultural life. Kaun ...
. After some fighting, the local Polish forces lost Vilnius to the Bolsheviks on January 5. Lithuanians relied on the aid of German troops to stop the Red Army offensive before it reached Kaunas.
At first, the Soviets were successful but this came to a halt in February 1919 due to failures at the battles of Jieznas, Kėdainiai
Kėdainiai () is one of the oldest List of cities in Lithuania, cities in Lithuania. It is located north of Lithuania's second largest city Kaunas on the banks of the Nevėžis River. Kėdainiai were first mentioned in the 1372 Livonian Chronicle ...
, and Alytus
Alytus () is a city with Town privileges, municipal rights in southern Lithuania. It is the List of cities in Lithuania, sixth-largest city in Lithuania and the List of cities in the Baltic states by population, 14th-largest city in the Baltic ...
. On February 5, Poland signed an agreement with Germany regulating the withdrawal of the German army from western Belarus and giving the Polish army the opportunity to march eastward. On February 14, 1919, Polish troops came into contact with the Bolshevik army near Vawkavysk. On April 16, 1919, the Polish Army launched a wide-ranging offensive against the Bolsheviks from Lida
Lida is a city in Grodno Region, western Belarus, located west of Minsk. It serves as the administrative center of Lida District. As of 2025, it has a population of 103,262.
Etymology
The name ''Lida'' arises from its Lithuanian name ''Ly ...
to Vilnius. On April 19, 1919, the Polish cavalry under Władysław Belina-Prażmowski captured Vilnius. On April 22, 1919, Józef Piłsudski issued the '' Proclamation to the inhabitants of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania'', in which he announced that the region's fate would be decided democratically. He also established the Civil Administration of the Eastern Lands, headed by . An important strategic success for the Polish side was the capture of Grodno
Grodno, or Hrodna, is a city in western Belarus. It is one of the oldest cities in Belarus. The city is located on the Neman, Neman River, from Minsk, about from the Belarus–Poland border, border with Poland, and from the Belarus–Lithua ...
on April 28, 1919, from which the Germans withdrew.
After that Polish troops advanced further west and northwest. The situation was utilized by the Lithuanian army, which entered Ukmergė on May 3, and started an offensive further south and southwest. Polish–Lithuanian relations at the time were not immediately hostile, both armies met in several points ( Merkinė, Vievis
Vievis () is a small city in Elektrėnai municipality, Lithuania. It is located 14 km east of Elektrėnai, on Lake Vievis.
History
Its alternate names include Anastasevskaya, Jewie (Polish), Vevis, Viyevis, V’yevis, and Yev’ye.
Vievis ...
and Širvintos), and even cooperated against the Bolsheviks in Giedraičiai area on May 11, 1919.
At first, both Poles and Lithuanians cooperated against the Soviets, but soon the cooperation gave way to increasing hostility. Lithuania claimed neutrality in the Polish–Soviet War. As the Polish Army forced its way further into Lithuania, the first clashes between Polish and Lithuanian soldiers occurred on April 26 and May 8, 1919, near Vievis
Vievis () is a small city in Elektrėnai municipality, Lithuania. It is located 14 km east of Elektrėnai, on Lake Vievis.
History
Its alternate names include Anastasevskaya, Jewie (Polish), Vevis, Viyevis, V’yevis, and Yev’ye.
Vievis ...
. Though there was no formal state of war and few casualties, by July newspapers reported increasing clashes between Poles and Lithuanians, primarily around the towns of Merkinė and Širvintos. Direct negotiations in Kaunas between May 28 and , 1919, collapsed as neither side agreed to compromise. Lithuania tried to avoid direct military conflict and submitted its case for mediation to the Conference of Ambassadors.
In the Suwałki region
Suwałki Region ( ; ) is a historical region around the city of Suwałki in northeastern Poland near the border with Lithuania. It encompasses the powiats of Augustów, Suwałki, and Sejny, and roughly corresponds to the southern part of the for ...
, Lithuanian troops, supported by German troops, were advancing in a southerly direction. The entire region was under the control of the German army, which allowed in the southern part to organize Polish administrations and to hold elections to the Polish Sejm in the counties of Augustów
Augustów is a town in north-eastern Poland. It lies on the Netta River and the Augustów Canal. It is the seat of Augustów County and of Gmina Augustów in the Podlaskie Voivodeship. Augustów has an area of , and as of June 2022 it has a popul ...
, Suwałki
Suwałki (; ; or סוּוואַלק) is a city in northeastern Poland with a population of 69,206 (2021). It is the capital of Suwałki County and one of the most important centers of commerce in the Podlaskie Voivodeship.
A relatively young ci ...
and Sejny. However, at the same time, they allowed the formation of Lithuanian administrations in the northern part. Lithuanians controlled Sejny from mid-1918, and entered Suwałki on May 8, 1919.
Diplomatic developments
While still World War I was still ongoing, under German tutelage, the two sides established diplomatic ties, signing an agreement in Berlin on 30 June 1918. Lithuania was represented by Augustinas Voldemaras and Konstantinas Olšauskas, while Poland was represented by Adam Ronikier. Both sides recognized each other's statehood. In the treaty, Lithuania guaranteed the rights of the Polish minority, while Poland promised to refrain from anti-Lithuanian propaganda. Voldemaras later maintained that Ronikier renounced Polish claims to Vilnius. However, Alfred E. Senn
Alfred Erich Senn (April 12, 1932 – March 8, 2016) was a professor of history at the University of Wisconsin–Madison.
Senn was born in Madison, Wisconsin, to Swiss philologist and lexicographer, . His father taught at the Vytautas Magnus ...
wrote that the issue of the border and the belonging of Vilnius was not addressed in the treaty, while according to Pranas Čepėnas and the signed agreement mentioned nothing regarding territorial questions. The treaty (published in full by ) was of interim nature and stated only that: "With regard to the frontier, a principle of a common frontier is accepted, which will be determined by a joint agreement based on ethnic, historic and economic principles". After the Germans had withdrawn, the Lithuanian side pressed for Poland's recognition of an independent Lithuania with its capital in Vilnius, which the Polish leadership consistently rejected.
Polish leader Józef Piłsudski hoped to revive the old Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, also referred to as Poland–Lithuania or the First Polish Republic (), was a federation, federative real union between the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania ...
(see the Intermarium federation) and campaigned for some kind of Polish–Lithuanian union in the Paris Peace Conference. Oppositional Endecja desired Lithuania's annexation to Poland, with granting Lithuanians territorial autonomy within ethnic boundaries. Poland also did not intend to make any territorial concessions and justified its actions not only as part of a military campaign against the Soviets but also as the right of self-determination of local Poles. Due to Polish–Lithuanian tensions, the Allied Powers withheld diplomatic recognition of Lithuania until 1922.
The Lithuanians claimed Vilnius as their historical capital and refused any federation with Poland, desiring an independent Lithuanian state. They regarded Polish federalism as a recreation of Polish cultural and political dominance. The Lithuanian government in Kaunas
Kaunas (; ) is the second-largest city in Lithuania after Vilnius, the fourth largest List of cities in the Baltic states by population, city in the Baltic States and an important centre of Lithuanian economic, academic, and cultural life. Kaun ...
, designated as the temporary capital
A temporary capital or a provisional capital is a city or town chosen by a government as an interim base of operations due to some difficulty in retaining or establishing control of a different metropolitan area. The most common circumstances leadi ...
, deemed the Polish presence in Vilnius as an illegal occupation. In addition to the Vilnius Region, the Suwałki Region was also disputed. It had a mixed Polish and Lithuanian population.
At the time the international situations of newly independent Poland and Lithuania were unequal. Poland, much larger in territory and population, was dedicated point #13 in Woodrow Wilson
Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28, 1856February 3, 1924) was the 28th president of the United States, serving from 1913 to 1921. He was the only History of the Democratic Party (United States), Democrat to serve as president during the Prog ...
's Fourteen Points
The Fourteen Points was a statement of principles for peace that was to be used for peace negotiations in order to end World War I. The principles were outlined in a January 8, 1918 speech on war aims and peace terms to the United States Congress ...
. It was recognized by all nations of the Entente, officially invited to the Paris Peace Conference, and became one of the founding members of the League of Nations
The League of Nations (LN or LoN; , SdN) was the first worldwide intergovernmental organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. It was founded on 10 January 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920), Paris Peace ...
. Poland also enjoyed a close alliance with France.
Lithuania did not receive international recognition (it was first recognized ''de jure'' in July 1920 by Soviet Russia as part of the peace treaty) as the Entente hoped to revive the Russian Empire within its former territory, which included Lithuania. Lithuania was looking for support in Germany
Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...
and Russia. In Paris, Voldemaras made contact with Russian delegates to the Paris Conference, who resented an independent Poland and were also interested in limiting its influence in the east and blocking a Polish-Lithuanian agreement. However, they had no real power in Russia, besides that they themselves considered Lithuania part of Russia, so no agreement was reached. Contacts with the Germans were much more fruitful. Germany realized that France was interested in a strong Polish ally east of Germany. So, for their part, they supported the building of Lithuania, which would be unfriendly to Poland. Threatened from both sides, the Lithuanian government turned to Germany for military and financial assistance. German troops remained in Kaunas in early 1919, and the government was supported by German loans. The military presence in Lithuania also gave Germany cover for East Prussia and the ability to control the situation in Russia.
The Lithuanian delegation was also present at the Paris Peace Conference, where its leader Augustinas Voldemaras focused on receiving recognition of independent Lithuania and its borders. Voldemaras demanded 125,000 square kilometers for Lithuania, not only with Vilnius but also Suwałki
Suwałki (; ; or סוּוואַלק) is a city in northeastern Poland with a population of 69,206 (2021). It is the capital of Suwałki County and one of the most important centers of commerce in the Podlaskie Voivodeship.
A relatively young ci ...
and Białystok
Białystok is the largest city in northeastern Poland and the capital of the Podlaskie Voivodeship. It is the List of cities and towns in Poland, tenth-largest city in Poland, second in terms of population density, and thirteenth in area.
Biał ...
. He also accused Poland of being partitionist, and portrayed Poland as an anti-Semitic state that was a threat to Lithuanian Jews
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar , Population
Litvaks ({{Langx, yi, ליטװאַקעס) or Lita'im ({{Langx, he, לִיטָאִים) are Jews who historically resided in the territory of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania (covering present-day Lithuan ...
. On the other hand, Voldemaras battled negative propaganda that the Council of Lithuania
In the history of Lithuania, the Council of Lithuania (; ; ), after July 11, 1918, the State Council of Lithuania () was convened at the Vilnius Conference that took place between 18 and 23 September 1917. The twenty men who composed the c ...
was a German puppet, that Lithuanians harboured pro-Bolshevik attitudes, or that Lithuania was too small and weak to survive without a union with Poland. Under article 87 of the Versailles Treaty
The Treaty of Versailles was a peace treaty signed on 28 June 1919. As the most important treaty of World War I, it ended the state of war between Germany and most of the Allied Powers. It was signed in the Palace of Versailles, exactl ...
, the Principal Allied Powers reserved to themselves the right to determine Poland's eastern frontier.
The war situation and the unstable political situation in both countries did not facilitate contacts between the two governments. Lithuanians protested the presence of Polish troops on Lithuanian territory in early January 1919, but the information reached Warsaw when Vilnius was already in Bolshevik hands. The Poles responded on February 12 by rejecting Lithuanian demands for lands they considered their own, but offered to open direct diplomatic talks. The Lithuanian delegation reached Warsaw on April 18, a day before the entrance of Polish troops to Vilnius.
Meanwhile, Michal Römer, a Lithuanian patriot and veteran of Polish Legions under Piłsudski, went to Kaunas on a mission, and was expected to convince Lithuanian politicians of federation. However, he only found understanding among Lithuanians of Polish culture. On April 17, Lithuanian politicians categorically rejected the federation's proposals.
The Lithuanian delegation, led by Jurgis Šaulys, held talks with Polish Prime Minister Ignacy Jan Paderewski
Ignacy Jan Paderewski (; r 1859– 29 June 1941) was a Polish pianist, composer and statesman who was a spokesman for Polish independence. In 1919, he was the nation's Prime Minister of Poland, prime minister and foreign minister durin ...
on May 13 and 23, and with Polish Head of State Józef Piłsudski
Józef Klemens Piłsudski (; 5 December 1867 – 12 May 1935) was a Polish statesman who served as the Chief of State (Poland), Chief of State (1918–1922) and first Marshal of Poland (from 1920). In the aftermath of World War I, he beca ...
on May 21. The Polish side, strengthened by its possession of Vilnius, insisted on the establishment of a federation, with a common foreign policy, army command, railroad, treasury and post office, promising to establish borders favorable to Lithuania. The Lithuanian side, on the other hand, demanded recognition of an independent Lithuania with Vilnius as its capital. The talks failed, with the only result being the establishment of a Lithuanian consulate in Warsaw, headed by .
May–September 1919: rising tensions
Demarcation lines
The Conference of Ambassadors drew the first demarcation line
{{Refimprove, date=January 2008
A political demarcation line is a geopolitical border, often agreed upon as part of an armistice or ceasefire.
Africa
* Moroccan Wall, delimiting the Moroccan-controlled part of Western Sahara from the Sahraw ...
on June 18, 1919. The line, drawn about west of the Grodno–Vilnius–Daugavpils Railway, was based on the military situation on the ground rather than ethnic composition. Neither Poles nor Lithuanians were content with the line. The Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs rejected the line as it would require the Polish forces to retreat up to . The line also left the entire Suwałki region
Suwałki Region ( ; ) is a historical region around the city of Suwałki in northeastern Poland near the border with Lithuania. It encompasses the powiats of Augustów, Suwałki, and Sejny, and roughly corresponds to the southern part of the for ...
, with exception of Augustów
Augustów is a town in north-eastern Poland. It lies on the Netta River and the Augustów Canal. It is the seat of Augustów County and of Gmina Augustów in the Podlaskie Voivodeship. Augustów has an area of , and as of June 2022 it has a popul ...
, on the Lithuanian side. The Lithuanians protested leaving Vilnius and Grodno
Grodno, or Hrodna, is a city in western Belarus. It is one of the oldest cities in Belarus. The city is located on the Neman, Neman River, from Minsk, about from the Belarus–Poland border, border with Poland, and from the Belarus–Lithua ...
under Polish control. As German volunteers were departing from Lithuania and Lithuanian forces were preoccupied with battles against the Soviets in northern Lithuania, Poland ignored the demacration line and moved its forces on a wide front deeper eastward.
On July 18, Ferdinand Foch
Ferdinand Foch ( , ; 2 October 1851 – 20 March 1929) was a French general, Marshal of France and a member of the Académie Française and French Academy of Sciences, Académie des Sciences. He distinguished himself as Supreme Allied Commander ...
proposed the second demarcation line, known as the Foch Line.[ It was approved by the Entente on July 26. The Lithuanians were informed about the new line only on August 3. Two major modifications favorable to the Poles were made: the Suwałki Region was assigned to Poland and the entire line was moved about west. Again, both Poles and Lithuanians protested the line as it would require them to withdraw their armies from the Vilnius and Suwałki Regions respectively. The German administration, which had not yet retreated from the Suwałki Region, also opposed the Foch Line. The new line did not immediately halt the hostilities. After a couple of Polish attacks on July 29 and August 2, the front stabilized.
]
Sejny Uprising
The Lithuanians retreated from Suwałki on August 7, 1919. However, they stopped in ethnically mixed Sejny and formed a line on the Czarna Hańcza
The Czarna Hańcza, Chornaya Hancha () is the largest river of the Suwałki Region of north-eastern Poland and the Sapockin region of north-western Belarus. It is known for having large postglacial boulders. Originating near Lake Hańcza (the ...
River – Wigry Lake.[ They showed their intention to stay there permanently, which caused concern among the local Poles. On August 12, they organized a rally in Suwałki demanding incorporation into Poland.][ Lithuanians also held a rally in Kaunas on August 17 protesting the Foch line, and a similar rally was later held in Sejny, where Prime Minister ]Mykolas Sleževičius
Mykolas Sleževičius (21 February 1882 – 11 November 1939) was a Lithuanian lawyer, political and cultural figure, and journalist. One of the most influential figures in inter-war Lithuania, he served as the prime minister of Lithuania on thr ...
arrived.
The Sejny branch of Polish Military Organisation (PMO) began preparing for an uprising, scheduled for the night of August 22 to 23, 1919, right after German troops left the city. Between 900 and 1,200 partisans joined PMO forces. On August 23, the Poles captured Sejny and attacked Lazdijai and Kapčiamiestis, towns on the Lithuanian side of the Foch Line. The insurgents planned to march as far as Simnas. Lithuanians recaptured Sejny on August 25 for a few hours. On August 26, regular Polish forces – the – joined the PMO volunteers. On September 5, the Lithuanians agreed to withdraw behind the Foch Line by September 7. Poland secured Sejny and repressed Lithuanian cultural life: the Sejny Priest Seminary was expelled, Lithuanian schools and cultural organizations closed. After the uprising, the mistrust of Poles prompted Lithuanian intelligence to intensify its investigations of Polish activities in Lithuania. This helped to detect and prevent a planned coup d'état
A coup d'état (; ; ), or simply a coup
, is typically an illegal and overt attempt by a military organization or other government elites to unseat an incumbent leadership. A self-coup is said to take place when a leader, having come to powe ...
in Kaunas to overthrow the government of Lithuania.
Polish coup attempt
Sometime in mid-July 1919, PMO forces in Vilnius began planning a coup to replace the Lithuanian government with a pro-Polish cabinet, which would agree to a union with Poland (the proposed Międzymorze federation). Polish leader Józef Piłsudski believed there were enough Polish sympathizers in Lithuania to carry out the coup.[ On August 3, a Polish diplomatic mission, led by Leon Wasilewski and Tadeusz Kasprzycki, in Kaunas had a double purpose: propose a ]plebiscite
A referendum, plebiscite, or ballot measure is a direct vote by the electorate (rather than their representatives) on a proposal, law, or political issue. A referendum may be either binding (resulting in the adoption of a new policy) or adv ...
in the contested territories and assess preparedness for the coup. On August 6, the Lithuanian government rejected the plebiscite proposal, stating that the disputed territories constitute ethnographic Lithuania. According to Lithuanian historian Kazys Ališauskas, PMO planned to capture and hold Kaunas for a few hours until the arrival of the regular Polish troops, situated only some east from the city. Piłsudski and his entourage were sincerely convinced that Taryba, who ruled Lithuania, had no real popular support and was merely a German creation. They were bolstered in this conviction by intra-Lithuanian quarrels, primarily between Lithuanian émigré leader Juozas Gabrys and newly elected President Smetona, who lacked democratic legitimacy. This conviction was reinforced by the constant presence of the German army in Lithuania. The Germans' departure from Kaunas on July 11, 1919, created the conditions for military action. Polish newspapers ran a propaganda campaign claiming that the Council of Lithuania
In the history of Lithuania, the Council of Lithuania (; ; ), after July 11, 1918, the State Council of Lithuania () was convened at the Vilnius Conference that took place between 18 and 23 September 1917. The twenty men who composed the c ...
was simply a German puppet.
It managed to win the support of some Lithuanian politicians, most notably the aforementioned Gabrys, Defense Ministry employee Jurgis Aukštuolaitis, and even Lithuanian army commander Silvestras Žukauskas. However, it was not much, greater success was achieved in gaining the support of Kaunas Poles. The coup was initially scheduled for the night of August 27 to 28 but was postponed to September 1. The outbreak of the Sejny uprising, which reinforced resentment against Poles in Lithuania, further hindered the success of the coup.
The postponement of the start of the coup turned out to be a fatal mistake, as some PMO units did not receive information about it and began operations on the original date, disrupting telegraph connections between Kaunas and the rest of the country. Lithuanian intelligence discovered the coup, but did not have a list of PMO members. Lithuanian authorities began mass arrests of some 200 Polish activists, including 23 officers of the Lithuanian Army. Kaunas was declared in a state of siege. Polish press saw mass arrests of Polish activists "to whom no charge can be ascribed other than being Poles" as proof of systematic anti-Polish policies of the German-ridden Lithuanian government. Another wave of arrests took place on September 9 in Kaišiadorys, an important railroad junction, where about 100 people were arrested. The PMO was little affected by the arrests and scheduled another coup attempt for the end of September. However, the Lithuanians obtained a full list of PMO members, including 369 names of members and 122 names of Lithuanians sympathetic to the PMO, and liquidated the organization in Lithuania. The wave of arrests, included names outside the list, Lithuanian police used this as a pretext to arrest Polish activists, there were even murders.
September 1919 – June 1920: minor incidents
Military developments
After the failure of the coup in Kaunas, there were numerous small border incidents. On September 17 and 18, Lithuanian troops attacked and occupied Musninkai and Širvintos, and were soon driven from them. On September 19, 1919, Polish troops attacked Gelvonai and encroached towards Ukmergė. On several occasions fights broke out regarding a strategically important bridge over the Šventoji River near Vepriai. In October, when main Lithuanian forces were deployed against the Bermontians in northwestern Lithuania, the attacks intensified. Poles captured Salakas on October 5 and attacked Kapčiamiestis on October 12. When Polish troops were engaged in combat with Soviet forces German troops attacked Alanta on 1920, and Stakliškės on January 14. The front stabilized, but harassment of border guards and local villagers continued throughout early 1920.
In March 1920, fights erupted along the railroad stations in Kalkūni and Turmantas. The situation was investigated by British and French observers and reported to the Entente. The situation somewhat improved only in late spring 1920, when most Polish troops were deployed in Ukraine during the
At the time Lithuania faced a severe budget crisis – in 1919 its revenue was 72 million while expenses reached 190 million German mark
The Deutsche Mark (; "German mark"), abbreviated "DM" or "D-Mark" (), was the official currency of West Germany from 1948 until 1990 and later of unified Germany from 1990 until the adoption of the euro in 2002. In English, it was typically c ...
s. While the government was struggling to obtain financial assistance and loans, deep cuts affected the army. Instead of increasing its armed forces to 40,000 men, Lithuania was forced to cut them to about 25,000.
Diplomatic developments
After the failed coup, Leon Wasilewski left Kaunas and settled in Vilnius. There he met twice, on September 15 and 24, with Lithuanian Foreign Minister Augustian Voldemaras. The talks concerned bilateral relations, the possibility of a plebiscite, and ended without any concrete agreements. Wasilewski then began propaganda work involving Lithuanian activists Józef Albin Herbaczewski, priest Antanas Viskantas or Jurgis Aukštuolaitis, who had been released from prison, and published bilingual or Lithuanian-language press for this purpose.
Meanwhile, British influence was increasing in the Baltic States, interested primarily in limiting German, but also French influence. A British military mission was established in Kaunas, headed by Richard Barrington Ward. On September 19, 1919, along with 21 other British officers, General Frank Percy Crozier joined the newly established Lithuanian Army as an advisor to the General Staff. On September 25, 1919, the UK recognized the Lithuanian state de facto. The British also provided military equipment.
Latvia
Latvia, officially the Republic of Latvia, is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is one of the three Baltic states, along with Estonia to the north and Lithuania to the south. It borders Russia to the east and Belarus to t ...
fought against the German-Russian forces of Pavel Bermondt-Avalov. Latvia enjoyed the support of Poland. The fighting spread to Lithuania in October 1919. Poland offered to help, but the Lithuanians refused to allow passage through their territory. Fearing a Polish attack, Lithuania reached an agreement with the Bermontians and signed a truce on October 30, establishing the Tauragė-Šiauliai demacration line. After the Latvian army breached the front, the Lithuanian army joined the counteroffensive. Later clashes were stopped by the intervention of an Entente representative, in order to not interrupt withdrawal of German troops. By December 15, all German forces were completely removed from Lithuania. At the same time, the plenipotentiary of the German government was forced to leave Kaunas. On December 30, a Polish-Latvian alliance was signed, resulting in a joint fight for the liberation of Daugavpils
Daugavpils (see also other names) is a state city in southeastern Latvia, located on the banks of the Daugava River, from which the city derives its name. The parts of the city to the north of the river belong to the historical Latvian region ...
, which was successful on January 5, 1920. Lithuanian troops attempted an early entry into the city, but without success.
In April 1920, Lithuania held its first parliamentary elections, among the constituencies established were cities outside the Lithuanian administration: Vilnius, Lida
Lida is a city in Grodno Region, western Belarus, located west of Minsk. It serves as the administrative center of Lida District. As of 2025, it has a population of 103,262.
Etymology
The name ''Lida'' arises from its Lithuanian name ''Ly ...
, Grodno
Grodno, or Hrodna, is a city in western Belarus. It is one of the oldest cities in Belarus. The city is located on the Neman, Neman River, from Minsk, about from the Belarus–Poland border, border with Poland, and from the Belarus–Lithua ...
and Białystok
Białystok is the largest city in northeastern Poland and the capital of the Podlaskie Voivodeship. It is the List of cities and towns in Poland, tenth-largest city in Poland, second in terms of population density, and thirteenth in area.
Biał ...
. The Polish minority had limited opportunities for election campaigning, the only Polish newspaper was closed down, and as a result Poles received only 3 parliamentary seats. Kazys Grinius became the new prime minister. On May 11, 1920, France recognized Lithuania de facto. And on May 7, 1920, Lithuania began peace talks with Soviet Russia.
July 1920: Soviet advance and Polish retreat
Diplomatic developments
On 25 April 1920, the Polish army and the remnants of Ukrainian People's Army
The Ukrainian People's Army (), also known as the Ukrainian National Army (UNA) or by the derogatory term Petliurivtsi (, ), was the army of the Ukrainian People's Republic (1917–1921). They were often quickly reorganized units of the former I ...
under Petliura launched the large-scale Kiev offensive following the treaty of alliance. Initially successful, the Polish Army started retreating after Russian counterattacks in early June 1920. Soon the Soviet forces began to threaten Poland's independence as they reached and crossed the Polish borders. On July 9, Polish Prime Minister Władysław Grabski
Władysław Dominik Grabski (; 7 July 1874 – 1 March 1938) was a Polish National Democratic politician, economist and historian. He was the main author of the currency reform in the Second Polish Republic and served as Prime Minister of Pola ...
asked the Allied Powers in the Spa Conference for military assistance in the war with the Soviets. The conference proposed that the Polish forces would withdraw behind the Curzon Line, the Soviet forces would stop to the east of the line, the Lithuanian forces would take control of Vilnius, and all other disputes would be settled via negotiations in London. Grabski opposed the transfer of Vilnius, but under the pressure of British Prime Minister Lloyd George
David Lloyd George, 1st Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor (17 January 1863 – 26 March 1945) was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1916 to 1922. A Liberal Party (United Kingdom), Liberal Party politician from Wales, he was known for leadi ...
, agreed to the resolution on July 10.
At the same time, the Soviets and Lithuanians negotiated the Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty, which was signed on July 12, 1920. Russia recognized Lithuanian independence and withdrew any territorial claims. The treaty drew the eastern border of Lithuania, which the Lithuanians continued to claim as their ''de jure'' state border until World War II. Vilnius Region
Vilnius Region is the territory in present-day Lithuania and Belarus that was originally inhabited by ethnic Baltic tribes and was a part of Lithuania proper, but came under East Slavic and Polish cultural influences over time.
The territory ...
, including Braslaw (Breslauja), Hrodna (Gardinas), Lida
Lida is a city in Grodno Region, western Belarus, located west of Minsk. It serves as the administrative center of Lida District. As of 2025, it has a population of 103,262.
Etymology
The name ''Lida'' arises from its Lithuanian name ''Ly ...
(Lyda), and Vilnius
Vilnius ( , ) is the capital of and List of cities in Lithuania#Cities, largest city in Lithuania and the List of cities in the Baltic states by population, most-populous city in the Baltic states. The city's estimated January 2025 population w ...
, was recognized to Lithuania. On August 6, after long and heated negotiations, Lithuania and Soviet Russia signed a convention regarding the withdrawal of Russian troops from the recognized Lithuanian territory. However, the troops began to retreat only after the Red Army suffered a heavy defeat in Poland.
Territorial changes
The Bolshevik forces reached Lithuanian territory on July 7, 1920, and continued to push the Polish troops. The Lithuanian Army moved to secure territories abandoned by the retreating Polish forces, reaching Turmantas on July 7, Tauragnai and Alanta on July 9, Širvintos and Musninkai on July 10, Kernavė
Kernavė was a medieval capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and today is a tourist attraction and an archeological site (population 238, 2021). It is located in the Širvintos district municipality located in southeast Lithuania. A Lithuanian ...
, Molėtai, and Giedraičiai on July 11, Maišiagala
Maišiagala is a historic town in Vilnius district municipality, Lithuania. It is located about northwest of Vilnius city municipality near the Vilnius–Panevėžys highway. According to the 2021 census, it had a population of 1 562, a decreas ...
and Pabradė on July 13. On July 13, the Polish command decided to transfer Vilnius to the Lithuanians following the Spa conference's resolution. Lithuanians moved in, but their trains were stopped by Polish soldiers near Kazimieriškės. Polish soldiers didn't receive orders to let Lithuanian troops go through. This delay meant that the Bolsheviks were the first to enter Vilnius on July 14. By the time the first Lithuanian troops entered the city on July 15, it was already secured by the Soviets. Poland sought to have Russians in the city as it would create much fewer complications when the Polish Army counterattacked. Despite the Peace Treaty, the Soviets did not intend to transfer the city to the Lithuanians. Indeed, there were indications that the Soviets planned a coup against the Lithuanian government in hopes to re-establish the Lithuanian SSR
The Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (Lithuanian SSR; ; ), also known as Soviet Lithuania or simply Lithuania, was '' de facto'' one of the constituent republics of the Soviet Union between 1940–1941 and 1944–1990. After 1946, its terr ...
.
Despite the setback in Vilnius, the Lithuanians continued to secure territories in the Suwałki Region. They took Druskininkai on July 17, Vištytis, Punsk, Giby, and Sejny on July 19, Suwałki on July 29, Augustów on August 8. The Polish units, afraid of being surrounded and cut off from the main Polish forces, retreated towards Łomża
Łomża () is a city in north-eastern Poland, approximately to the north-east of Warsaw and west of Białystok. It is situated alongside the Narew river as part of the Podlaskie Voivodeship. It is the capital of Łomża County and has been the se ...
. The Lithuanian authorities started to organize themselves in the regained areas.
Lithuanian neutrality
Poland claimed that Lithuania violated its claim to neutrality in the Polish–Soviet War and in effect became a Soviet ally. A secret clause of the Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty allowed Soviet forces unrestricted movement within the Soviet-recognized Lithuanian territory for the duration of Soviet hostilities with Poland. This clause was of a practical matter: Soviet troops already occupied much of the assigned territory and could not withdraw while hostilities with Poland continued.[ Lithuanians were also simply unable to resist Soviet troops. For example, when Lithuanians refused permission to use a road, the Soviets ignored Lithuanian protests and transported their troops and equipment regardless. At the same time Polish soldiers were disarmed and interned. The largest group, a brigade under colonel Pasławski, was interned on July 18, 1920, near Kruonis. On August 10, Lithuanians held 103 Polish officers and 3,520 private soldiers. Poland also claimed that the Lithuanian troops actively participated in the Red Army's military operations.][ This charge, based on memoirs of Soviet officials, lacks evidence. Further military clashes between Polish and Lithuanian troops in the Suwałki Region were interpreted by Poland to show that "the Lithuanian government has become an instrument of the Soviet government." Lithuania responded that it was defending its borders.
]
August–October 1920: struggles for the Suwałki Region
Polish advance and Soviet retreat
The Russians suffered a great defeat in the Battle of Warsaw in mid-August 1920 and started withdrawing. They handed over Vilnius to the Lithuanians on August 26. The Lithuanians hastily made preparations to secure the border, as determined by the Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty. The soldiers were ordered to maintain neutrality: avoid hostilities and intern
An internship is a period of work experience offered by an organization for a limited period of time. Once confined to medical graduates, internship is used to practice for a wide range of placements in businesses, non-profit organizations and g ...
any Soviet or Polish troops that would cross the border. On August 26, a Polish delegation, led by Colonel Mieczysław Mackiewicz, arrived in Kaunas to negotiate the situation. The Poles, lacking authority to discuss political issues, were concerned with military aspects. They sought permission to transport Polish troops through the territory of Lithuania, wanted access to a portion of the Saint Petersburg–Warsaw railway, and demanded that the Lithuanian troops would withdraw from the Suwałki Region behind the Curzon Line. The Lithuanians refused to discuss military matters without a clear political Polish–Lithuanian border, that would be respected after the war. Due to these fundamental disagreements and Polish attacks, the negotiations broke down on August 30.
The Suwałki Region had strategic importance in the Polish–Soviet War. Following orders of Edward Rydz-Śmigły
Marshal Edward Śmigły-Rydz also called Edward Rydz-Śmigły, (11 March 1886 – 2 December 1941) was a Polish people, Polish politician, statesman, Marshal of Poland and Commander-in-Chief of Poland's armed forces, as well as a painter and ...
, Polish forces took Augustów from Lithuanians in a surprise attack on August 28. Confused and disoriented, Lithuanians retreated from Suwałki and Sejny on August 30 and 31. The Lithuanians reorganized, gathered their forces (11 battalions with 7,000 soldiers), and organized a counterattack to retake lost territory on September 2. The goal was to take and secure the Augustów–Lipsk
Lipsk (also ) is a town in Augustów County, Podlaskie Voivodeship, in north-eastern Poland, with 2,520 inhabitants (2004).
History
Lipsk was granted town rights in 1580 by King Stephen Báthory by virtue of a privilege (law), privilege issued ...
– Grabowo–Grodno
Grodno, or Hrodna, is a city in western Belarus. It is one of the oldest cities in Belarus. The city is located on the Neman, Neman River, from Minsk, about from the Belarus–Poland border, border with Poland, and from the Belarus–Lithua ...
line. The Lithuanians succeeded in re-taking Sejny and Lipsk and by September 4 reached the outskirts of Augustów. On September 5, the Poles counterattacked and forced the Lithuanians to retreat. On September 9, the Polish forces recaptured Sejny, but the Lithuanians pushed back and regained Sejny and Giby on September 13 and 14. Pending direct negotiations, hostilities were ceased on both sides.
Direct negotiations and League of Nations
On September 6, Lithuanian Foreign Minister Juozas Purickis proposed direct negotiations in Marijampolė. On September 8, during a planning meeting of the Battle of the Niemen River, the Poles decided to manoeuvre through the Lithuanian-held territory to the rear of the Soviet Army, stationed in Grodno. In an attempt to conceal the planned attack, Polish diplomats accepted the proposal to negotiate. The negotiations started on September 16 in Kalvarija, but collapsed just two days later.
On September 5, 1920, Polish Foreign Minister Eustachy Sapieha delivered a diplomatic note to the League of Nations
The League of Nations (LN or LoN; , SdN) was the first worldwide intergovernmental organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. It was founded on 10 January 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920), Paris Peace ...
alleging that Lithuania violated its neutrality and asked to intervene in the Polish–Lithuanian War. The League agreed to mediate and began its session on September 16. The resolution, adopted on September 20, urged both states to cease hostilities and adhere to the Curzon Line. Poland was asked to respect Lithuanian neutrality if Soviet Russia agreed to do the same. Also, a special Control Commission was to be dispatched to the conflict zone to oversee the implementation of the resolution. It was clear that the League had only a narrow goal to prevent armed hostilities and not to resolve the underlying territorial dispute. The Lithuanian government accepted the resolution, but Poland reserved full freedom of action in preparation for the attack on the Soviets.
Battle of the Niemen River
On September 22, 1920, Poland attacked Lithuanian units in the Suwałki Region on a wide front. Overwhelmed by 4–5 times larger Polish forces, some 1,700–2,000 Lithuanian troops surrendered and were taken prisoner.
Polish forces then marched, as planned on September 8, across the Neman River
Neman, Nemunas or Niemen is a river in Europe that rises in central Belarus and flows through Lithuania then forms Lithuania–Russia border, the northern border of Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia's western exclave, which specifically follows its s ...
near Druskininkai and Merkinė to the rear of the Soviet forces near Grodno and Lida. The Red Army hastily retreated. The Lithuanians had had limited intelligence warning that such an attack might occur, but chose an inadequate defensive strategy and spread their forces too thinly along the entire Polish–Lithuanian front without sufficient forces to protect the bridges across the Neman. This attack, just two days after the resolution by the League of Nations to cease hostilities, put more pressure on Poland to settle the dispute peacefully.
On September 26, the Poles captured Grodno and the Polish foreign minister proposed new negotiations in Suwałki. The Battle of the Niemen River drastically altered the balance of power: Vilnius, in Lithuanian hands since August 26, was now exposed to a Polish attack. Indeed, the Poles had already decided to capture the city and used the negotiations in Suwałki to stall and buy the time necessary to make preparations. The Lithuanian side was ready to give up the Suwałki Region in exchange for Poland's recognition of the Lithuanian claims to Vilnius.[
]
Suwałki Agreement
The negotiations between Poles, led by colonel
Colonel ( ; abbreviated as Col., Col, or COL) is a senior military Officer (armed forces), officer rank used in many countries. It is also used in some police forces and paramilitary organizations.
In the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, a colon ...
Mieczysław Mackiewicz, and Lithuanians, led by general
A general officer is an Officer (armed forces), officer of high rank in the army, armies, and in some nations' air force, air and space forces, marines or naval infantry.
In some usages, the term "general officer" refers to a rank above colone ...
Maksimas Katche, began on the evening of September 29, 1920.[ Both sides agreed to an ]armistice
An armistice is a formal agreement of warring parties to stop fighting. It is not necessarily the end of a war, as it may constitute only a cessation of hostilities while an attempt is made to negotiate a lasting peace. It is derived from t ...
but only to the west of the Neman River (the Suwałki Region). Fighting to the east of the river continued around Marcinkonys, Zervynos, Perloja, Eišiškės. The major point of contention, both diplomatic and military, was the train station in Varėna (Orany) on the Saint Petersburg–Warsaw railway. Major Lithuanian forces were still concentrated in the Suwałki Region and moving them to protect Vilnius without the railway would be extremely difficult. Fighting east of the Neman River ceased only on October 6, when Polish troops had already captured the train station in Varėna.
Negotiations regarding the demarcation line were difficult. In essence, the Lithuanians wanted a longer demarcation line to provide better protection for Vilnius. The Poles agreed only to a short line to provide the planned attack on Vilnius with space for operation. The Polish delegation was also stalling to buy time for necessary preparations for an attack on Vilnius. While Vilnius was not a topic of debate, it was on everybody's mind. On October 4, the Control Commission, sent by the League according to its resolution of September 20, arrived to Suwałki. The commission, led by French colonel Pierre Chardigny, re-energized the negotiations. On October 7, at midnight, the final agreement was signed. The treaty made not a single reference to Vilnius or the Vilnius Region.[ The ceasefire was effective only along the demarcation line, which ran through the Suwałki Region to the train station in ][ Thus the line was incomplete, did not protect the Vilnius Region, but indicated it would be left on the Lithuanian side.
]
October–November 1920: struggles for Vilnius Region
Żeligowski's Mutiny
Polish chief of state Józef Piłsudski ordered his subordinate, General Lucjan Żeligowski, to stage a mutiny with his 1st Lithuanian–Belarusian Division (16 battalions with 14,000 soldiers) in Lida
Lida is a city in Grodno Region, western Belarus, located west of Minsk. It serves as the administrative center of Lida District. As of 2025, it has a population of 103,262.
Etymology
The name ''Lida'' arises from its Lithuanian name ''Ly ...
and capture Vilnius in ''fait accompli
Many words in the English vocabulary are of French language, French origin, most coming from the Anglo-Norman language, Anglo-Norman spoken by the upper classes in England for several hundred years after the Norman conquest of England, Norman ...
''. The rebellion had two main goals: capture Vilnius and preserve Poland's international reputation. The League of Nations was mediating other Polish disputes, notably over the Free City of Danzig
The Free City of Danzig (; ) was a city-state under the protection and oversight of the League of Nations between 1920 and 1939, consisting of the Baltic Sea port of Danzig (now Gdańsk, Poland) and nearly 200 other small localities in the surrou ...
and Upper Silesia
Upper Silesia ( ; ; ; ; Silesian German: ; ) is the southeastern part of the historical and geographical region of Silesia, located today mostly in Poland, with small parts in the Czech Republic. The area is predominantly known for its heav ...
, and direct aggression against Lithuania could have hampered Polish bargaining positions. While the Polish side officially held Żeligowski to be a deserter and did not support him, Poland provided logistic support, including munitions and food rations, to his units.[ Żeligowski also received reinforcements, when, according to the official version, the mutiny spread further among the Polish troops. His initial attack was secured on both sides by two Polish Armies.
Żeligowski's Mutiny, in planning since mid-September, began in the early morning of October 8, 1920, just a few hours after the signing of the Suwałki Agreement. A provisional agreement was made in the Polish–Soviet War, which freed up Polish units for the attack on Lithuania. As part of the ruse, Żeligowski wrote a note to the Polish command announcing his mutiny and expressing his disappointment with the Suwałki Agreement. He claimed that his troops marched to defend the right of ]self-determination
Self-determination refers to a people's right to form its own political entity, and internal self-determination is the right to representative government with full suffrage.
Self-determination is a cardinal principle in modern international la ...
of the local Polish population.
Capture of Vilnius and other military attacks
The Lithuanians were not prepared for the assault. They had only two battalions, stationed near Jašiūnai and along the Merkys River, shielding the city from Poland. Their main forces were still in the Suwałki Region and to the west from Druskininkai and Varėna. Without the railway, Lithuanian units could not be easily redeployed to protect Vilnius. After it became clear that Żeligowski would not stop in Vilnius, Commander of the Lithuanian Army Silvestras Žukauskas, who had recently taken the position on October 6, ordered the city evacuated in the afternoon on October 8. They left the city's administration to Entente official Constantin Reboul. The first Polish units entered the city around 2:15 PM on October 9, Żeligowski entered Vilnius in the evening the same day. He did not recognize Reboul's authority and Entente officials left the city in protest. On October 12, Żeligowski proclaimed the independence of the Republic of Central Lithuania
The Republic of Central Lithuania (, ), commonly known as the Central Lithuania, and the Middle Lithuania (, , ), was an unrecognized short-lived puppet state of Poland, that existed from 1920 to 1922. It was founded on 12 October 1920, after ...
, with Vilnius as its capital. The name aligned with Piłsudski's vision of historical Lithuania, divided into three cantons: Lithuanian-inhabited Western Lithuania with its capital in Kaunas
Kaunas (; ) is the second-largest city in Lithuania after Vilnius, the fourth largest List of cities in the Baltic states by population, city in the Baltic States and an important centre of Lithuanian economic, academic, and cultural life. Kaun ...
, Polish-inhabited Central Lithuania with its capital in Vilnius, and Belarusian-inhabited Eastern Lithuania with its capital in Minsk
Minsk (, ; , ) is the capital and largest city of Belarus, located on the Svislach (Berezina), Svislach and the now subterranean Nyamiha, Niamiha rivers. As the capital, Minsk has a special administrative status in Belarus and is the administra ...
. Further developments of other cantons were prevented by Polish National Democracy, a party opposed to Piłsudski's federalist ideas.
Żeligowski's units continued to advance: territories east of the city were taken without resistance while Lithuanians defended in the west. Żeligowski took Švenčionys
Švenčionys (; ; known also by several Švenčionys#Etymology, alternative names) is a city in eastern Lithuania, and capital of the Švenčionys district municipality, located north of Vilnius. , it had a population of 4,065 of which about 17% ...
and Rūdiškės on October 10, Nemenčinė
Nemenčinė () is a city in Vilnius district municipality, Lithuania, it is located only about north-east of Vilnius. Close to Nemenčinė forest was planted which forms a sentence ''Žalgiris 600'' (commemorating the Battle of Grunwald) visibl ...
on October 11, Lentvaris on October 13, Rykantai on October 15. The front somewhat stabilized on the southern (left) side of the Neris River, but fighting continued on the northern (right) side of Neris. On October 18, the Lithuanian army began a failed counteroffensive trying to retake Vilnius. When Polish cavalry manoeuvred towards Riešė, it learned from the local population the location of the command of the 1st Riflemen Division. On October 21, the cavalry raided the village and took the entire command (including Stasys Nastopka) prisoner. Left without their commanders, the Lithuanians retreated and Poles took Maišiagala
Maišiagala is a historic town in Vilnius district municipality, Lithuania. It is located about northwest of Vilnius city municipality near the Vilnius–Panevėžys highway. According to the 2021 census, it had a population of 1 562, a decreas ...
and Paberžė. Żeligowski at this point offered peace negotiations but was refused by the Lithuanian command. On October 26, another cavalry raid captured Dubingiai, Giedraičiai and Želva
Želva is a town in Ukmergė district municipality, Vilnius County, east Lithuania. According to the Lithuanian census of 2011, the town has a population of 457 people.
History
The town has a Catholic church and a synagogue. Želva is the birth ...
and threatened Ukmergė. However, Lithuanians counterattacked and took back Želva on October 30 and Giedraičiai on November 1. For a while, the front stabilized.
On November 17, the mutineers began a major attack. They planned to capture Kaunas, thus threatening Lithuanian independence, by encircling the city from the north through Širvintos–Ukmergė–Jonava
Jonava () is the ninth largest city in Lithuania with a population of .
It is located in Kaunas County in central Lithuania, north east of Kaunas, the second-largest city in Lithuania. It is served by Kaunas International Airport. ''Achema'', t ...
and Giedraičiai– Kavarskas–Kėdainiai
Kėdainiai () is one of the oldest List of cities in Lithuania, cities in Lithuania. It is located north of Lithuania's second largest city Kaunas on the banks of the Nevėžis River. Kėdainiai were first mentioned in the 1372 Livonian Chronicle ...
. Żeligowski's forces were about three times larger: 15 Polish battalions against 5 Lithuanian battalions. One cavalry brigade managed to break through the Lithuanian defence lines near Dubingiai, reached Kavarskas, and continued towards Kėdainiai. However, Lithuanians successfully stopped an attack on Ukmergė near Širvintos on November 19. About 200 Lithuanians manoeuvred through swamps to the rear of three Polish battalions. Attacked from the front and rear, some 200 Poles were taken prisoner while others retreated. The Lithuanians continued to attack and captured Giedraičiai on November 21. On the same day, a ceasefire was signed under pressure from the League of Nations. The Polish cavalry brigade, pushed from Kėdainiai and cut off from its main forces, retreated through Ramygala– Troškūnai– Andrioniškis–Leliūnai and rejoined Żeligowski's other units only on November 24.
Mediation and diplomatic measures
On October 11, 1920, the Lithuanian envoy in Paris Oscar Milosz
Oscar Vladislas de Lubicz Milosz (; ) (28 May 1877 or 15 May 1877 – 2 March 1939) was a French language poet, playwright, novelist, essayist and representative of Lithuania at the League of Nations.Czesław Miłosz, Cynthia L. Haven. Czesła ...
asked the League of Nations to intervene in the renewed conflict with Poland. On October 14, the Chairman of the League Léon Bourgeois issued a note condemning the aggression and asking Polish units to retreat. Politicians in London even considered expelling Poland from the League.[ When the League heard both arguments on October 26–28, Polish envoy ]Szymon Askenazy
Szymon Askenazy (December 24, 1865, Zawichost – June 22, 1935, Warsaw) was a Polish Jews, Jewish-Polish historian, educator, statesman and diplomat, founder of the Askenazy school.
He was the first Polish representative at the League of Natio ...
claimed that there was no conflict between Poland and Lithuania to mediate. He maintained that the old conflict ended with signing ceasefires with Lithuania on October 7 and with Soviet Russia on October 12 and the new conflict was caused by Żeligowski, who acted without approval from the Polish command, but with the moral support of the entire Polish nation. Lithuanian envoy Augustinas Voldemaras argued that Poland orchestrated the mutiny and demanded strict sanctions against Poland. The League refused to validate Żeligowski's action. It suggested to hold a plebiscite
A referendum, plebiscite, or ballot measure is a direct vote by the electorate (rather than their representatives) on a proposal, law, or political issue. A referendum may be either binding (resulting in the adoption of a new policy) or adv ...
in the contested areas. On November 6 and 7, both sides agreed and Lithuanians began preparatory work.
On November 19, Żeligowski proposed to the Control Commission, led by Chardigny, to cease hostilities. Lithuanians agreed and a ceasefire was signed on November 21. Later this episode was criticized by Lithuanian commentators as at the time the Lithuanian Army had the initiative in the front and had a chance of marching on Vilnius. However, the Lithuanians trusted the League of Nations would resolve the dispute in their favour and were afraid that in case of an attack on Vilnius regular Polish forces would arrive to reinforce Żeligowski's units.
Negotiations for a more permanent armistice, under the mediation of the Control Commission, began on November 27 in Kaunas. Lithuania did not agree to negotiate directly with Żeligowski and thus legitimizing his actions. Therefore, Poland stepped in as a mediator. Lithuania agreed as it hoped to put the talks back into the context of the Suwałki Agreement. Poles rejected any withdrawal of Żeligowski's forces. No agreement could be reached regarding a demarcation line. On November 29, 1920, it was agreed only to cease hostilities on November 30, to entrust the Control Commission with the establishment of a wide neutral zone and to exchange prisoners. The neutral zone existed until February 1923.
Aftermath
The result of this war was that while Lithuania defended its independence against Poland and its puppet state Central Lithuania, Lithuania also lost a third of its territory and its capital. The issue would not be laid to rest during the interwar as no peace treaty was ever signed, and Lithuania–Poland relations
Poland and Lithuania established diplomatic relations from the 13th century, after the Grand Duchy of Lithuania under king Mindaugas acquired some of the territory of Rus' people, Rus' and thus established a border with the History of Poland during ...
were broken off until the 1938 Polish ultimatum to Lithuania. In 1920–1939, Lithuania and Poland were separated by a demarcation line
{{Refimprove, date=January 2008
A political demarcation line is a geopolitical border, often agreed upon as part of an armistice or ceasefire.
Africa
* Moroccan Wall, delimiting the Moroccan-controlled part of Western Sahara from the Sahraw ...
that mostly followed the Foch Line, which meant that Vilnius
Vilnius ( , ) is the capital of and List of cities in Lithuania#Cities, largest city in Lithuania and the List of cities in the Baltic states by population, most-populous city in the Baltic states. The city's estimated January 2025 population w ...
and Suwałki region
Suwałki Region ( ; ) is a historical region around the city of Suwałki in northeastern Poland near the border with Lithuania. It encompasses the powiats of Augustów, Suwałki, and Sejny, and roughly corresponds to the southern part of the for ...
were under Polish rule.
In March 1921, the plans for a plebiscite were abandoned. Neither Lithuania, which was afraid of a negative result nor Poland, which saw no reason to change ''status quo
is a Latin phrase meaning the existing state of affairs, particularly with regard to social, economic, legal, environmental, political, religious, scientific or military issues. In the sociological sense, the ''status quo'' refers to the curren ...
'', wanted the plebiscite. The parties could not agree on which territory to carry out the vote and how Żeligowski's forces should be replaced by League's forces. The League of Nations then moved on from trying to solve the narrow territorial dispute in the Vilnius Region to shaping the fundamental relationship between Poland and Lithuania. In 1921, Belgian Paul Hymans
Paul Louis Adrien Henri Hymans (23 March 1865 – 8 March 1941), was a Belgian politician associated with the Liberal Party. He was the second president of the League of Nations and served again as its president in 1932–1933.
Life
Hymans was ...
suggested several Polish–Lithuanian federation models, all rejected by both sides. In January 1922, parliamentary election to the Wilno Diet (''Sejm wileński'') resulted in a landslide Polish victory. In its first session on February 20, 1922, the Diet voted for incorporation into Poland as the Wilno Land and then Voivodeship
A voivodeship ( ) or voivodate is the area administered by a voivode (governor) in several countries of central and eastern Europe. Voivodeships have existed since medieval times and the area of extent of voivodeship resembles that of a duchy in ...
. Polish Sejm
The Sejm (), officially known as the Sejm of the Republic of Poland (), is the lower house of the bicameralism, bicameral parliament of Poland.
The Sejm has been the highest governing body of the Third Polish Republic since the Polish People' ...
accepted the resolution of the Diet.A. Srebrakowski, Sejm Wileński 1922 roku. Idea i jej realizacja, Wrocław 1993
A. Srebrakowski, Stosunek mniejszości narodowych Litwy Środkowej wobec wyborów do Sejmu Wileńskiego
/ref> The League of Nations ended its efforts to mediate the dispute. After Lithuanians seized the Klaipėda Region
The Klaipėda Region () or Memel Territory ( or ''Memelgebiet'') was defined by the 1919 Treaty of Versailles in 1920 and refers to the northernmost part of the German province of East Prussia, when, as Memelland, it was put under the administr ...
in January 1923, the League saw recognition of Lithuanian interest in Klaipėda as adequate compensation for the loss of Vilnius. The League accepted the ''status quo'' in February 1923 by dividing the neutral zone and setting a demarcation line, which was recognised in March 1923 as the official Polish–Lithuanian border. Lithuania did not recognize this border.
Some historians, notably Alfred E. Senn
Alfred Erich Senn (April 12, 1932 – March 8, 2016) was a professor of history at the University of Wisconsin–Madison.
Senn was born in Madison, Wisconsin, to Swiss philologist and lexicographer, . His father taught at the Vytautas Magnus ...
, have asserted that if Poland had not prevailed in the Polish–Soviet War, Lithuania would have been invaded by the Soviets and would never have experienced two decades of independence. Despite the Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty of 1920, Lithuania was very close to being invaded by the Soviets in the summer of 1920 and being forcibly incorporated into that state, and only the Polish victory derailed that plan.
The dispute over Vilnius remained one of the biggest foreign policy issues in Lithuania and Poland. Lithuania broke off all diplomatic relations with Poland and refused any actions that would recognize Poland's control of Vilnius even '' de facto''. For example, Lithuania broke off diplomatic relations with the Holy See
The Holy See (, ; ), also called the See of Rome, the Petrine See or the Apostolic See, is the central governing body of the Catholic Church and Vatican City. It encompasses the office of the pope as the Bishops in the Catholic Church, bishop ...
after the Concordat of 1925 established an ecclesiastical province in Wilno and thereby acknowledged Poland's claims to the city. Poland refused to formally recognize the existence of any dispute regarding the region since that would have lent legitimacy to the Lithuanian claims. Railroad traffic and telegraph lines could not cross the border, and mail service was complicated. For example, a letter from Poland to Lithuania needed to be sent to a neutral country and repackaged in a new envelope to remove any Polish signs and only then could be delivered to Lithuania. Despite several attempts to normalize the relations, the situation of "no war, no peace", lasted until Poland demanded to re-establish diplomatic relations by issuing the ultimatum of 1938. These tensions were one of the reasons that Józef Piłsudski's Międzymorze federation was never formed. The Soviets gave Vilnius to Lithuania after the Soviet invasion of Poland
The Soviet invasion of Poland was a military conflict by the Soviet Union without a formal declaration of war. On 17 September 1939, the Soviet Union invaded Second Polish Republic, Poland from the east, 16 days after Nazi Germany invaded Polan ...
in September 1939.
See also
* List of wars between democracies
Notes
References
Bibliography
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Polish-Lithuanian War
1919 in Poland
1919 in Lithuania
1920 in Poland
1920 in Lithuania
Polish–Soviet War
Lithuania–Poland military relations
Poland in the Russian Civil War
Lithuania–Second Polish Republic relations
Lithuania in the Russian Civil War
Invasions by Poland