Šauška
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Šauška (Shaushka), also called Šauša or Šawuška, was the highest ranked goddess in the
Hurrian pantheon The Hurrian pantheon consisted of gods of varied backgrounds, some of them natively Hurrian, while others adopted from other pantheons, for example Eblaite and Mesopotamian. Like the other inhabitants of the Ancient Near East, Hurrians regarded t ...
. She was associated with love and war, as well as with incantations and by extension with healing. While she was usually referred to as a goddess and with feminine titles, such as ''allai'' (
Hurrian The Hurrians (; ; also called Hari, Khurrites, Hourri, Churri, Hurri) were a people who inhabited the Ancient Near East during the Bronze Age. They spoke the Hurro-Urartian language, Hurrian language, and lived throughout northern Syria (region) ...
: "lady"), references to masculine Šauška are also known. The Hurrians associated her with
Nineveh Nineveh ( ; , ''URUNI.NU.A, Ninua''; , ''Nīnəwē''; , ''Nīnawā''; , ''Nīnwē''), was an ancient Assyrian city of Upper Mesopotamia, located in the modern-day city of Mosul (itself built out of the Assyrian town of Mepsila) in northern ...
, but she was also worshiped in many other centers associated with this culture, from Anatolian cities in Kizzuwatna, through Alalakh and
Ugarit Ugarit (; , ''ủgrt'' /ʾUgarītu/) was an ancient port city in northern Syria about 10 kilometers north of modern Latakia. At its height it ruled an area roughly equivalent to the modern Latakia Governorate. It was discovered by accident in 19 ...
in
Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...
, to Nuzi and Ulamme in northeastern
Mesopotamia Mesopotamia is a historical region of West Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent. Today, Mesopotamia is known as present-day Iraq and forms the eastern geographic boundary of ...
. She was also worshiped in southern Mesopotamia, where she was introduced alongside a number of other foreign deities in the Ur III period. In this area, she came to be associated with
Ishtar Inanna is the List of Mesopotamian deities, ancient Mesopotamian goddess of war, love, and fertility. She is also associated with political power, divine law, sensuality, and procreation. Originally worshipped in Sumer, she was known by the Akk ...
. At a later point in time, growing Hurrian influence on Hittite culture resulted in the adoption of Šauška into the Hittite state pantheon. In Hurrian myths, many of which are only known from their Hittite translations, Šauška commonly appears either as an ally of her brother
Teshub Teshub was the Hurrians, Hurrian weather god, as well as the head of the Hurrian pantheon. The etymology of his name is uncertain, though it is agreed it can be classified as linguistically Hurrian language, Hurrian. Both Phonetics, phonetic and L ...
, or as a heroine in her own right. Specific narratives describe her battles against the sea monster
Ḫedammu Ḫedammu, Hurrian language, Hurrian Apše ("Snake"), is a sea-dragon from Hurrian religion, Hurrian-Hittite mythology, which caused trouble on the Syrian coast. His Hittite counterpart was Illuyanka. Ḫedammu is the son of the god Kumarbi and , t ...
, the diorite giant Ullikummi, the sea god Kiaše and the mountain god Pišaišapḫi. She also appears in a myth about Hašarri, a personified olive tree, who needs to be protected by her from various threats. Both in the sphere of cult and in myths, Šauška was usually accompanied by her two handmaidens,
Ninatta and Kulitta Ninatta and Kulitta were a dyad of Hurrian goddesses regarded as the handmaidens of Šauška. They were primarily considered divine musicians, though they also had a warlike aspect. They are attested in western Hurrian sources from Ugarit and Hat ...
. Other servant deities associated with her appear only in lists of offerings and descriptions of rituals.


Name

The name Šauška has a
Hurrian The Hurrians (; ; also called Hari, Khurrites, Hourri, Churri, Hurri) were a people who inhabited the Ancient Near East during the Bronze Age. They spoke the Hurro-Urartian language, Hurrian language, and lived throughout northern Syria (region) ...
origin and can be translated as "The Great One" or "The Magnificent One." Many Hurrian deities had similarly simple, epithet-like names, for example Allani ("the lady"), Mušuni ("she of justice"),
Kumarbi Kumarbi, also known as Kumurwe, Kumarwi and Kumarma, was a Hurrian god. He held a senior position in the Hurrian pantheon, and was described as the "father of gods". He was portrayed as an old, deposed king of the gods, though this most likely ...
("he of Kumar") or
Nabarbi Nabarbi or Nawarni was a Hurrian goddess possibly associated with pastures. She was one of the major deities in Hurrian religion, and was chiefly worshiped in the proximity of the river Khabur, especially in Taite. It has been proposed that s ...
("she of Nawar"). The spellings vary between sources. The Bogazköy Archive attests multiple, both logographic ( d8-TÁR, dLIŠ and dGAŠAN) and syllabic (no less than eleven variants), the latter present in exclusively Hurrian contexts. Logographic spellings also predominate in literary texts, but ''Song of Hašarri'' is an exception and seemingly consistently employs the syllabic spelling ''dŠa-wuu-us-ga''. Early Hurrian king of Urkesh and Nawar, Atal-shen, used the logogram dINANNA to write Šauška's name, while later on in Nuzi one logographic spelling was dU. In
Mitanni Mitanni (–1260 BC), earlier called Ḫabigalbat in old Babylonian texts, ; Hanigalbat or Hani-Rabbat in Assyrian records, or in Ancient Egypt, Egyptian texts, was a Hurrian language, Hurrian-speaking state in northern Syria (region), Syria an ...
documents, the usual spelling is syllabic, ''dŠa-uš-ka-a''. Based on administrative texts of the archives of the Third Dynasty of Ur, the early spelling was ''dŠa-u18-ša''. In Mari in the Old Babylonian period the name was spelled as ''dŠa-ú-úš–an'', and was often preceded by the epithet ''al-la-e-en'', understood as ''allai'', "lady," equivalent of Sumerian ''gašan'' and Akkadian ''bēltu''. The same epithet is attested from other Hurrian texts, sometimes in the variant ''allai Ninuwa'', "lady of
Nineveh Nineveh ( ; , ''URUNI.NU.A, Ninua''; , ''Nīnəwē''; , ''Nīnawā''; , ''Nīnwē''), was an ancient Assyrian city of Upper Mesopotamia, located in the modern-day city of Mosul (itself built out of the Assyrian town of Mepsila) in northern ...
." Other Hurrian goddesses, for example Hebat or Pinikir, could be referred to as ''allai'' too. Additionally, it was the origin of the name of the goddess of the underworld, Allani. Two alphabetic spellings are attested in Ugaritic texts, ''šwšk'' and ''šušk''.


Uncertain attestations

According to Joan Goodnick Westenholz, it is difficult to tell if full correspondence can be assumed to exist between Hurrian Šauška and Assyrian Ishtar of Nineveh, especially in inscriptions of
Shamshi-Adad I Shamshi-Adad (; Amorite: ''Shamshi-Addu''), ruled 1813–1776 BC, was an Amorite warlord and conqueror who had conquered lands across much of Syria, Anatolia, and Upper Mesopotamia.Some of the Mari letters addressed to Shamsi-Adad by his son ca ...
, who might have introduced religious innovations in Nineveh to compete with the religious importance of the city of Assur and its manifestation of Ishtar. A different view is presented by Beate Pongratz-Leisten, who understands Šauška and Ishtar of Nineveh to be fully analogous, and as a result, refers to the goddess whose temple existed in
Babylon Babylon ( ) was an ancient city located on the lower Euphrates river in southern Mesopotamia, within modern-day Hillah, Iraq, about south of modern-day Baghdad. Babylon functioned as the main cultural and political centre of the Akkadian-s ...
at the end of the second millennium BCE and to Šauška as known from sources from the Hurrian kingdom of Arrapha as one and the same. It is assumed that Ishtar references in documents from the Old Assyrian trading colony Kanesh are Ishtar of Assur rather than Šauška, but she might nonetheless appear in Assyrian
theophoric name A theophoric name (from Greek: , ''theophoros'', literally "bearing or carrying a god") embeds the word equivalent of 'god' or a god's name in a person's name, reflecting something about the character of the person so named in relation to that d ...
s attested on tablets from that site. Daniel Schwemer argues that NIN''-na-garki'' ( Belet Nagar) from the inscription of Tish-atal was a local form of Šauška. This view has been evaluated critically by Joan Goodnick Westenholz, who remarks that with the exception of their gender these deities do not appear to be similar to each other.


Character

Šauška was a goddess of love (including sexual love), as well as war. In the former of these two roles, she was believed to be able to guarantee conjugal love, return or deprive of potency, but also turn women into men and vice versa. Especially in Anatolia, she was also closely associated with magic and incantations, and as a result could be invoked as a healing deity. Hittite texts describe her as ''taršikantaš'' MUNUS-''aš'', which can be translated as "the woman of that which is repeatedly spoken," most likely a reference to her role in incantations. Šauška was also the tutelary goddess of
Nineveh Nineveh ( ; , ''URUNI.NU.A, Ninua''; , ''Nīnəwē''; , ''Nīnawā''; , ''Nīnwē''), was an ancient Assyrian city of Upper Mesopotamia, located in the modern-day city of Mosul (itself built out of the Assyrian town of Mepsila) in northern ...
, and in Hurrian myths she is often called the "queen" of that city. Other Hurrian texts refer to her as ''Ninuwawi'', "she of Nineveh," or ''Ninuvaḫi'', "the Ninevite." The association is also present in Mesopotamian texts: these from the Ur III period label her as ''ni-nu-a-kam'', "of Nineveh," while an Old Babylonian god list from
Uruk Uruk, the archeological site known today as Warka, was an ancient city in the Near East, located east of the current bed of the Euphrates River, on an ancient, now-dried channel of the river in Muthanna Governorate, Iraq. The site lies 93 kilo ...
mentions her under the name dINANNA ''ni-nu-a''. Unlike the Mesopotamian
Ishtar Inanna is the List of Mesopotamian deities, ancient Mesopotamian goddess of war, love, and fertility. She is also associated with political power, divine law, sensuality, and procreation. Originally worshipped in Sumer, she was known by the Akk ...
, as well as the other "Ishtars" known to Hurrians and Hittites (such as Ishtar of Samuha, possibly the same deity as the enigmatic " Goddess of the Night," DINGIR.GE6), Šauška did not have a pronounced astral character. The role of a divine representation of
Venus Venus is the second planet from the Sun. It is often called Earth's "twin" or "sister" planet for having almost the same size and mass, and the closest orbit to Earth's. While both are rocky planets, Venus has an atmosphere much thicker ...
was instead played by Pinikir in the Hurrian pantheon. Like Šauška, she was associated with Ishtar. A single ritual text pairs them together.


Androgynous or genderfluid characteristics

While primarily referred to as a goddess, Šauška had both a feminine and masculine aspect and in reliefs from the Yazılıkaya sanctuary appears twice, once among the gods, accompanied also by her handmaidens
Ninatta and Kulitta Ninatta and Kulitta were a dyad of Hurrian goddesses regarded as the handmaidens of Šauška. They were primarily considered divine musicians, though they also had a warlike aspect. They are attested in western Hurrian sources from Ugarit and Hat ...
, and once among goddesses. A Hurrian ritual text separately mentions offerings to "male attributes" and "female attributes" of Šauška. Hittitologist Gary Beckman states that "ambiguous gender identification" was a characteristic of a category he refers to as "Ishtar type" goddesses, encompassing also the likes of Ninsianna and Pinikir.


In visual arts

Šauška was commonly depicted in the company of and her two attendants, Ninatta and Kulitta, both on reliefs and on cylinder seals. A Hittite text describing the appearance of statues of various deities mentions two depictions of Šauška, one seated, winged and holding a cup, and another, masculine, also winged and armed with a golden ax. Both were said to be flanked by Ninatta and Kulitta and accompanied by an ''awiti'', a mythical winged lion. On a relief from Yazılıkaya, the masculine form of Šauška appears in the procession of male deities (figure designated as 38 in modern reference works), accompanied by Ninatta and Kulitta (figures 36 and 37). While beardless, he wears the same pointed headwear as the other male deities, as well as a robe exposing one leg and pointed shoes. An inscription placed above a gap between figures 55 and 56 in the procession of female deities indicates that originally feminine Šauška was depicted there as well, but this relief is presently missing. A single relief similar to these from Yazılıkaya has however been found in nearby Yekbas. A further relief of Šauška is known from
Malatya Malatya (; ; Syriac language, Syriac ܡܠܝܛܝܢܐ Malīṭīná; ; Ancient Greek: Μελιτηνή) is a city in the Eastern Anatolia region of Turkey and the capital of Malatya Province. The city has been a human settlement for thousands of y ...
, where she is depicted holding an ax and a hammer, and wearing the same type of horned headwear as the male deities. Similar reliefs are also known from other locations, including Ain Dara and
Aleppo Aleppo is a city in Syria, which serves as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Governorates of Syria, governorate of Syria. With an estimated population of 2,098,000 residents it is Syria's largest city by urban area, and ...
, though the weapons are not always the same, with clubs and spears also attested. Like the Yazılıkaya reliefs, they tend to show Šauška with one leg exposed. Some of them are winged.
Lapis lazuli Lapis lazuli (; ), or lapis for short, is a deep-blue metamorphic rock used as a semi-precious stone that has been prized since antiquity for its intense color. Originating from the Persian word for the gem, ''lāžward'', lapis lazuli is ...
figurines of Šauška are known from Carchemish and possibly Alalakh.


Uncertain examples

Some possible depictions of Šauška are also known from Nuzi, though they are not directly labeled as such in inscriptions from the site or other textual sources. One is a figure of a deity holding an axe and a geometric emblem, dressed in shoes with pointy ends and a robe exposing the abdomen and legs, but lacking any identifiable sex characteristics, which is assumed to fit Šauška's dual nature as both masculine and feminine deity. Additionally, goddesses depicted on eastern Hurrian cylinder seals in company of various animals (lions, goats, bulls, snakes, scorpions) and mythical beasts (lion-dragons, bullmen, sphinx-like and snake-like creates, two-headed griffin demons) are often assumed to be Šauška, her hypostases or similar local deities, though this identification is uncertain due to lack of textual evidence. Frans Wiggermann additionally considers it possible that some depictions of the weather god accompanied by a naked goddess, usually interpreted as Adad and Shala, instead represent Teshub and his companion, who he assumes to be Šauška. The naked goddess depicted on the bowl of Hasanlu might be Šauška, as the scenes depicted on it are sometimes interpreted as a representation of myths from the
Kumarbi Kumarbi, also known as Kumurwe, Kumarwi and Kumarma, was a Hurrian god. He held a senior position in the Hurrian pantheon, and was described as the "father of gods". He was portrayed as an old, deposed king of the gods, though this most likely ...
cycle.


Position in the pantheon

Šauška was the highest ranked goddess in the Hurrian pantheon, as evidenced for example by documents from the kingdom of Arrapha and by the correspondence of the Mitanni king Tushratta. Her status was lower only in Kizzuwatna, where the main Hurrian goddess was instead Hebat, absorbed from the pantheon of Halab (Aleppo) and regarded as the wife of Teshub. Šauška's secondary position compared to Hebat is particularly visible in Hittite lists of divine witnesses of treaties. According to Alfonso Archi, Shaushka was nonetheless one of the three most commonly worshiped unmarried Hurrian goddesses in the west, next to Allani and Išḫara, while according to Gernot Wilhelm her position in Alalakh and
Ugarit Ugarit (; , ''ủgrt'' /ʾUgarītu/) was an ancient port city in northern Syria about 10 kilometers north of modern Latakia. At its height it ruled an area roughly equivalent to the modern Latakia Governorate. It was discovered by accident in 19 ...
was the same as in the east. Šauška could be included in (offering lists) dedicated to the circle of Teshub, in which case she was placed between the god Ea and her servants Ninatta and Kulitta, or to these dedicated Hebat, in which case she could be placed between Aya and Shuwala, but she could also head a of her own, which included deities such as Allani, Išḫara and Nikkal.


Family

Western Hurrians regarded her as Teshub's sister, but their relation in eastern Hurrian pantheons from the Mittani Empire or various kingdoms east of the
Tigris The Tigris ( ; see #Etymology, below) is the eastern of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia, the other being the Euphrates. The river flows south from the mountains of the Armenian Highlands through the Syrian Desert, Syrian and Arabia ...
is uncertain. They could be worshiped side by side, but Šauška was never explicitly identified as Teshub's spouse. Marie-Claude Trémouille notes that as the sister of Teshub, she was presumably the daughter of Anu and
Kumarbi Kumarbi, also known as Kumurwe, Kumarwi and Kumarma, was a Hurrian god. He held a senior position in the Hurrian pantheon, and was described as the "father of gods". He was portrayed as an old, deposed king of the gods, though this most likely ...
. However, the first myth in the so-called Kumarbi cycle, which deals with the birth of his children, does not mention her, even though she is referred to as the sister of both Teshub and his brother (and
sukkal Sukkal (conventionally translated from Sumerian as "vizier") was a term which could denote both a type of official and a class of deities in ancient Mesopotamia. The historical sukkals were responsible for overseeing the execution of various com ...
) Tashmishu in other compositions. It is possible more evidence was present in sections which are not preserved. Mary R. Bachvarova proposes that Šauška might have been born before the storm god. In an alternate tradition, she was the daughter of the moon god, Kušuḫ, likely due to influence of Mesopotamian religion, in which her counterpart Inanna was most commonly viewed as a daughter of the moon god Nanna and his wife
Ningal Ningal ( Sumerian: "Great Queen"; Akkadian Nikkal) was a Mesopotamian goddess regarded as the wife of the moon god, Nanna/Sin. She was particularly closely associated with his main cult centers, Ur and Harran, but they were also worshiped toge ...
. While Kušuḫ is also attested as the father of Teshub, according to Daniel Schwemer the reference is isolated and it is presently not possible to evaluate its implications. Šauška was typically regarded as unmarried and childless.


Court

Ninatta and Kulitta, a dyad of Hurrian musician goddesses always listed together, were her handmaidens, though in the Bronze Age they are only attested in texts from
Hattusa Hattusa, also Hattuşa, Ḫattuša, Hattusas, or Hattusha, was the capital of the Hittites, Hittite Empire in the late Bronze Age during two distinct periods. Its ruins lie near modern Boğazkale, Turkey (originally Boğazköy) within the great ...
and
Ugarit Ugarit (; , ''ủgrt'' /ʾUgarītu/) was an ancient port city in northern Syria about 10 kilometers north of modern Latakia. At its height it ruled an area roughly equivalent to the modern Latakia Governorate. It was discovered by accident in 19 ...
. In ritual texts other deities were grouped with Ninatta and Kulitta as members of Šauška's entourage. Examples include Šintal-wuri (Hurrian: "seven-eyed"), Šintal-irti ("seven-breasted"), Šinan-tatukarni ("twofold at love") and Namrazunna (from Akkadian ''namru'', shining, and ''Zunna'', a Hurrianized spelling of Suen, name of the moon god; unlike him Namrazunna was female). In one text, Ninatta, Kulitta, Šintal-irti and Namrazunna are grouped together as "first servants," while Šinan-tatukarni, Ali, Halzari and Taruwi are labeled as "last servants." It is assumed that the former group should be understood as bringers of luck, and the latter as having the opposite impact. Another minor deity, Undurumma, attested with certainty in only one document, was identified as Šauška's
sukkal Sukkal (conventionally translated from Sumerian as "vizier") was a term which could denote both a type of official and a class of deities in ancient Mesopotamia. The historical sukkals were responsible for overseeing the execution of various com ...
(attendant deity). The same ritual text also mentions other Hurrian sukkals: Immanzizi, Ḫupuštukar, Tenu, Lipparuma and Mukišanu. It is uncertain if Unudurupa (also spelled Unduruwa), associated with Allani in another document, was the same deity as Undurumma. An association between Šauška and
Nabarbi Nabarbi or Nawarni was a Hurrian goddess possibly associated with pastures. She was one of the major deities in Hurrian religion, and was chiefly worshiped in the proximity of the river Khabur, especially in Taite. It has been proposed that s ...
is also attested. In some ''itkalzi'' ("purification") rituals they appear alongside the pairs Hutena and Hutellura, Ea and Damkina, and Hebat and Mušuni. One of such texts refers to "water of Šauška and Nabarbi," believed to have purifying qualities.


Attested equivalences

Šauška was regarded as the Hurrian equivalent of
Ishtar Inanna is the List of Mesopotamian deities, ancient Mesopotamian goddess of war, love, and fertility. She is also associated with political power, divine law, sensuality, and procreation. Originally worshipped in Sumer, she was known by the Akk ...
, and Mesopotamian lexical lists could refer to her as "Ishtar of Subartu." The term "Subartu" designated areas north of Mesopotamia. Both in ancient documents and in past scholarship the terms "Subartu" and "Subarians" usually refer to Hurrians. In Ugarit Šauška could be associated with
Ashtart Astarte (; , ) is the Greek language, Hellenized form of the Religions of the ancient Near East, Ancient Near Eastern goddess ʿAṯtart. ʿAṯtart was the Northwest Semitic languages, Northwest Semitic equivalent of the East Semitic language ...
. However, in four Ugaritic texts Ashtart instead corresponds to Išḫara. Mary R. Bachvarova and Gernot Wilhelm consider it possible that Anzili was regarded as her Hittite counterpart, though this view is not accepted by Volkert Haas, who points out that Anzili was paired with the goddess Zukki, while Šauška was not.


Worship

Both Šauška and her primary cult center, Nineveh, are mentioned for the first time in a text from Puzrish-Dagan dated to the 46th year of
Shulgi Shulgi ( dšul-gi,(died c. 2046 BC) formerly read as Dungi) of Ur was the second king of the Third Dynasty of Ur. He reigned for 48 years, from (Middle Chronology). His accomplishments include the completion of construction of the Great ...
's reign. The city already existed in the Sargonic period, but according to Gary Beckman it is unknown if it was inhabited by Hurrians and if Šauška was worshiped in it at the time. Joan Goodnick Westenholz argues that in the light of later evidence and well attested Hurrian names of various locations in northern Mesopotamia, it is plausible that Nineveh was already Hurrian during the reign of kings of Akkad. Šauška, directly identified as the goddess of Nineveh, was also worshiped in Nuzi, where she appears in theophoric names, one example being Ar-Šauška. She was most likely worshiped in a double temple dedicated jointly to her and Teshub. Documents from Nuzi listing oil offerings to various deities additionally attest the worship of other goddesses referred to as "Ishtars": IŠTAR ''Ḫumella'', IŠTAR ''Akkupaweniwe'', IŠTAR ''Tupukilḫe'', IŠTAR ''Putaḫḫe'', IŠTAR ''Allaiwašwe'' (first half of the name might be identical with the word ''allai'', "lady"), and IŠTAR ''bēlat dūri''. Most of these epithets are either Hurrian or Hurrianised, and their meaning is unknown. An exception is ''bēlat dūri'', which means "lady of the city walls" in Akkadian. It is also known that in Ulamme, a Hurrian city like Nuzi located in the kingdom of Arrapha, IŠTAR ''Ḫumella'' was associated with
Nergal Nergal ( Sumerian: d''KIŠ.UNU'' or ; ; Aramaic: ܢܸܪܓܲܠ; ) was a Mesopotamian god worshiped through all periods of Mesopotamian history, from Early Dynastic to Neo-Babylonian times, with a few attestations indicating that his cult surv ...
. A further cult center of Šauška known from the Nuzi texts is Lupti, identified with modern Taza Khurmatu. An important document pertaining to worship of Šauška in the Mittani empire is the Amarna letter EA 19, written by Tushratta, king of Mitanni to his father-in-law,
pharaoh Pharaoh (, ; Egyptian language, Egyptian: ''wikt:pr ꜥꜣ, pr ꜥꜣ''; Meroitic language, Meroitic: 𐦲𐦤𐦧, ; Biblical Hebrew: ''Parʿō'') was the title of the monarch of ancient Egypt from the First Dynasty of Egypt, First Dynasty ( ...
Amenophis III, which mentions a statue of Šauška meant to help with the recovery of the ailing ruler: Šauška was also worshiped in various cities in Syria. In Ugarit she appears in a ritual dedicated to the local goddess Ashtart. One section of the text pertaining directly to the Hurrian goddess is written in
Ugaritic Ugaritic () is an extinct Northwest Semitic languages, Northwest Semitic language known through the Ugaritic texts discovered by French archaeology, archaeologists in 1928 at Ugarit, including several major literary texts, notably the Baal cycl ...
. She was also venerated in Alalakh, though Marie-Claude Trémouille notes that the logogram IŠTAR might instead denote Išḫara in sources from that city. Shaushka is however unambiguously attested in personal names, such as Arib-Šauška and Wandi-Šauška. In Emar she appears exclusively in Hurro-Hittite documents, and bears the Hurrian epithet ''awar(r)iwe'', "of the steppe". A genre of Hurrian songs whose name, ''zinzabuššiya'', is derived from that of an unidentified bird, was associated with the worship of Šauška according to Hittite documents. The bird in mention, ''zinzabu'', was also associated with her.


Mesopotamian reception

It is presently uncertain under what circumstances Šauška and other foreign deities were introduced to the pantheon of Mesopotamia during the Ur III period. Tonia Sharlach notes the areas in which they were originally worshiped form a horseshoe around territories the Ur state controlled, from Upper
Euphrates The Euphrates ( ; see #Etymology, below) is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of West Asia. Tigris–Euphrates river system, Together with the Tigris, it is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia (). Originati ...
and Khabur triangle to
Kirkuk Kirkuk (; ; ; ) is a major city in northern Iraq, serving as the capital of the Kirkuk Governorate. The city is home to a diverse population of Kurds, Iraqi Turkmen, Iraqi Turkmens and Arabs. Kirkuk sits on the ruins of the original Kirkuk Cit ...
and Diyala. In addition to Šauška, the Hurrian examples include Allatum (Allani) from Zimudar and Shuwala from Mardaman. While foreign deities were generally not worshiped in the official provincial shrines of the Ur III state, Šauška appears to be an exception, as offerings to her took place in the provincial shrine in
Umma Umma () in modern Dhi Qar Province in Iraq, was an ancient city in Sumer. There is some scholarly debate about the Sumerian and Akkadian names for this site. Traditionally, Umma was identified with Tell Jokha. More recently it has been sugges ...
, where she received linen textiles, possibly clothing meant for a cult state. However, she only rarely received offerings at the royal court. In the Old Babylonian period the worship of Šauška persisted in
Isin Isin (, modern Arabic language, Arabic: Ishan al-Bahriyat) is an archaeological site in Al-Qādisiyyah Governorate, Iraq which was the location of the Ancient Near East city of Isin, occupied from the late 4th millennium Uruk period up until at ...
, where she appears in offering lists and in a local god list, in a section dedicated to manifestations of Ishtar. A forerunner to the later god list '' An = Anum'' known from
Uruk Uruk, the archeological site known today as Warka, was an ancient city in the Near East, located east of the current bed of the Euphrates River, on an ancient, now-dried channel of the river in Muthanna Governorate, Iraq. The site lies 93 kilo ...
from the same period also mentions her. She is also present in texts from Mari from the period of
Zimri-Lim __NOTOC__ Zimri-Lim was in the Middle Bronze Age the king of Mari, Syria, Mari (c. 1767–1752 BCE; low chronology). Background Family Zimri-Lim (Akkadian language, Akkadian: ''Zi-im-ri Li-im'') was the son or grandson of king Yahdun-Lim of Ma ...
's reign. Theophoric names invoking Šauška are also known from Mesopotamian sources from Puzrish-Dagan, Ur, and
Lagash Lagash (; cuneiform: LAGAŠKI; Sumerian language, Sumerian: ''Lagaš'') was an ancient city-state located northwest of the junction of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and east of Uruk, about east of the modern town of Al-Shatrah, Iraq. Lagash ( ...
, for example Ur-Šauša and Geme-Šauša, both using the standard Ur III spelling of the name.


Hittite reception

Šauška was also worshiped by the Hittites, who received her from the Hurrians. The Bogazköy Archive contains many references to Šauška. There are few, if any, references to any "Ishtar-type" goddesses in texts from the Old Hittite period, indicating that Shaushka only gained her importance in Anatolia, attested from the Middle Hittite period onward, under Hurrian influence. The annexation of Kizzuwatna in particular is assumed to be a contributing factor. 25 local hypostases of Šauška or other goddesses represented by the logogram dIŠTAR are known from Hittite sources. In addition to Šauška of Nineveh, these from the cities of Lawazantiya, Hattarina and Tameninga occur particularly commonly. Also common are references to Ishtar of Samuha,
de Martino, Stefano, "The Edict Issued bt the Hittite King Hattusili III Concerning the Priesthood of the Goddess Istar/Sausga", STUDIA ASIANA 13, pp. 9-23, 2023 usually identified by researchers as the so-called Goddess of the Night. Many of the locations associated with Šauška in Hittite documents were located in northern Syria and southeastern Anatolia, and both she and any other goddesses referred to as "Ishtars" were apparently not associated with any of the oldest Hittite religious centers like Nerik and Zippalanda. There is nonetheless evidence for worship of her in cities like Katapa and Lanta, which according to Gary Beckman belonged to the central Hittite area, and she likely had a temple in Hattusa as well. Šauška is mentioned in documents from the reign of king
Hattusili III Ḫattušili (''Ḫattušiliš'' in the inflected nominative case) was the regnal name of three Hittite kings: * Hattusili I (Labarna II) * Hattusili II * Hattusili III It was also the name of two Neo-Hittite kings: * Hattusili I (Kummuh) * Hattus ...
, who married Puduhepa, the daughter of this goddess' priest from Lawazantiya, Pentipsharri. Some members of the royal court during his reign had theophoric names invoking Šauška, some of them combining linguistically Hittite and Hurrian name elements. She was also introduced to many northern Hittite towns during the reign of Puduhepa's son Tudḫaliya IV, alongside other foreign deities such as Ishtar of Babylon, Syrian Milku or the "storm god of Assur" ( Adad) . Due to the convention of logographic writing of
theonym A theonym (from Greek (), 'god', attached to (), ) is a proper name of a deity. Theonymy, the study of divine proper names, is a branch of onomastics, the study of the etymology, history, and use of proper names. Theonymy helps develop an und ...
s in Hittite texts, it is difficult to tell what types of clergy belonged to the cult of Šauška and served as the staff of her temples. An exception is the case of ''kirištenna'', who were directly associated with festivals dedicated to her.


Myths


Cycle of Kumarbi

Šauška plays a major role in myths forming the cycle of
Kumarbi Kumarbi, also known as Kumurwe, Kumarwi and Kumarma, was a Hurrian god. He held a senior position in the Hurrian pantheon, and was described as the "father of gods". He was portrayed as an old, deposed king of the gods, though this most likely ...
, known largely from their Hittite translations. In the ''Song of
Ḫedammu Ḫedammu, Hurrian language, Hurrian Apše ("Snake"), is a sea-dragon from Hurrian religion, Hurrian-Hittite mythology, which caused trouble on the Syrian coast. His Hittite counterpart was Illuyanka. Ḫedammu is the son of the god Kumarbi and , t ...
'', she is the central protagonist. She discovers the existence of the eponymous antagonist, a voracious sea monster who was the son of Kumarbi and Šertapšuruḫi, a daughter of his ally, the sea god Kiaše, and informs Teshub about it. After hearing the news, Teshub starts crying. The following scene is poorly preserved, but it is possible that a violent struggle occurs between Teshub and his allies and Kumarbi. When the text resumes, both sides are being admonished by the god Ea, who warns them about the potential dire consequences of their lack of concern of welfare of their human followers. Šauška therefore devises a non-violent solution to the threat of Ḫedammu. She seduces the eponymous antagonist, and with the help of her servants Ninatta and Kulitta tricks him into drinking a sedating potion, which seemingly leads to his defeat, though the ending is not preserved. It is possible that like some of the other antagonists, he was not killed, but merely had to abstain from trying to overthrow Teshub. In the Song of Ullikummi, after the sun god Šimige informs Teshub about the birth of a new threat, the diorite giant Ullikummi, Šauška joins her brother in a journey to mount Hazzi, from which they can see the new foe. She unsuccessfully attempts to seduce the monster by adorning herself with sea shells and singing a song which reaches both earth and heaven, but a sea wave informs her her efforts are in vain as the monster is incapable of feeling anything. She also appears in the , in which she is attacked by the eponymous deity while traveling with Teshub in his chariot. According to Marie-Claude Trémouille this myth emphasizes her role as a war deity. While she does not play an active role in the ''Song of Silver'', she is mentioned in passing as a (half-)sister of Kumarbi's half human son, Silver.


Other myths

Šauška is referenced in a fragmentary myth dealing with the sea. It relays that at one point the sea caused a flood which reached the heavens, and demanded tribute of gold, silver and
lapis lazuli Lapis lazuli (; ), or lapis for short, is a deep-blue metamorphic rock used as a semi-precious stone that has been prized since antiquity for its intense color. Originating from the Persian word for the gem, ''lāžward'', lapis lazuli is ...
from the gods, with Kumarbi possibly urging the other deities to pay. The deity who brings the tribute to the sea is Šauška (d IŠTAR). It has been pointed out that this text resembles an
Egyptian ''Egyptian'' describes something of, from, or related to Egypt. Egyptian or Egyptians may refer to: Nations and ethnic groups * Egyptians, a national group in North Africa ** Egyptian culture, a complex and stable culture with thousands of year ...
composition about the goddess
Astarte Astarte (; , ) is the Greek language, Hellenized form of the Religions of the ancient Near East, Ancient Near Eastern goddess ʿAṯtart. ʿAṯtart was the Northwest Semitic languages, Northwest Semitic equivalent of the East Semitic language ...
and the sea, known from the so-called "Astarte papyrus," though the latter bears similarities to the Baal Cycle as well. Another myth (KUB 33.108) deals with the conflict between Šauška and the mountain god Pišaišapḫi, described in it as a rapist. In return for sparing him in spite of his crime he promises to tell her the story of Teshub's victory over the sea and the subsequent rebellion of the mountain gods against him. ''Song of Hašarri'', only known from fragments, seemingly recounts a story in which Šauška raises the eponymous entity, whose name can be translated as "oil." It has been proposed that in the context of this myth Hašarri should be understood as a personified olive tree. Volkert Haas proposed that this myth might have belonged to the cycle of Kumarbi, but this proposal is not universally accepted. The restoration of the plot is uncertain, both due to state of preservation and the still imperfect understanding of Hurrian language. In known fragments Šauška seeks the help of Ea, as suggested to her by Kumarbi, assembles various gods for uncertain reasons, protects Hašarri from a lion, and eventually rejoices watching the olive tree's growth, possibly supplemented with the help of her magic. Ninatta and Kulitta also make a brief appearance in an unknown role. Šauška also replaces Ishtar in the Hurrian translation of the ''
Epic of Gilgamesh The ''Epic of Gilgamesh'' () is an epic poetry, epic from ancient Mesopotamia. The literary history of Gilgamesh begins with five Sumerian language, Sumerian poems about Gilgamesh (formerly read as Sumerian "Bilgames"), king of Uruk, some of ...
''. However, in the Hittite version Ishtar's replacement is instead a goddess whose name is written as d8-TÁR-iš, whose identity cannot be determined with certainty.


Later relevance


Assyrian Ishtar of Nineveh

Iron Age The Iron Age () is the final epoch of the three historical Metal Ages, after the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age. It has also been considered as the final age of the three-age division starting with prehistory (before recorded history) and progre ...
attestations of the goddess of Niniveh come exclusively from
Assyria Assyria (Neo-Assyrian cuneiform: , ''māt Aššur'') was a major ancient Mesopotamian civilization that existed as a city-state from the 21st century BC to the 14th century BC and eventually expanded into an empire from the 14th century BC t ...
. Her character in this period was shaped by associations with Ishtar of Assur and Ishtar of Arbela, and especially under the rule of the Assyrian Sargonids, all three of them were in turn influenced by
Ninlil Ninlil ( D NIN.LÍL; meaning uncertain) was a Mesopotamian goddess regarded as the wife of Enlil. She shared many of his functions, especially the responsibility for declaring destinies, and like him was regarded as a senior deity and head of th ...
, as a result of the Assyrian rulers pairing all of these goddesses with the head of the imperial pantheon, Ashur. Some Hurrian elements nonetheless survived in Nineveh. Šauška's role as a healing deity seemingly resurfaces in the documents from the reign Ashurnasirpal I, who prayed to the Ishtar of Nineveh to be relieved from physical and mental pains. Additionally, Frans Wiggermann considers a text describing Ishtar of Nineveh whose "upper parts are Bel, and (...) lower parts are Ninlil" to be evidence of the deity's
androgynous Androgyny is the possession of both masculine and feminine characteristics. Androgyny may be expressed with regard to biological sex or gender expression. When ''androgyny'' refers to mixed biological sex characteristics in humans, it often r ...
character. A further example of Hurrian influence is the fact that in the first millennium BCE Ninatta and Kulitta are attested in the entourages of Ishtar of Arbela, Ishtar of Assur, and Ishtar of Nineveh. The Akkadian spellings of their names known from neo-Assyrian sources are ''dNi-ni-tum'' and ''dKu-li-it-tum''. It is also possible that the frequent appearances of Adad side by side with Ishtar in neo-Assyrian treaties were the influence of Hurrian beliefs regarding the close connection between Teshub and Šauška.
Sargon II Sargon II (, meaning "the faithful king" or "the legitimate king") was the king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire from 722 BC to his death in battle in 705. Probably the son of Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727), Sargon is generally believed to have be ...
in a single document used the name "Šawuška" to refer to a goddess he called the "dweller in Nineveh." This is assumed to be the last pre-modern mention of her as a distinct figure.


Ugaritic Ishtar Hurri and Phoenician Astarte Hurri

It has been proposed that a figure known as Ishtar Hurri (the Hurrian Ishtar first attested in texts from Ugarit written in Akkadian, was analogous to Šauška. While other explanations of the epithet Hurri have also been proposed, according to Mark Smith they are not plausible. The "Hurrian Astarte" is known from 8th century BCE
Sidon Sidon ( ) or better known as Saida ( ; ) is the third-largest city in Lebanon. It is located on the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean coast in the South Governorate, Lebanon, South Governorate, of which it is the capital. Tyre, Lebanon, Tyre, t ...
.


References


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Sauska Hurrian deities Hittite deities Ugaritic deities Mesopotamian goddesses War goddesses Love and lust goddesses Health goddesses Androgyny LGBTQ themes in mythology Androgynous and hermaphroditic deities Intersex topics in religion and mythology Nineveh