Ilocanos

The Ilocanos ( ilo, Tattao nga Iloko/), Ilokanos, or Iloko people are the third largest Filipino ethnolinguistic group and mostly reside within the Ilocos Region in the northwestern seaboard of Luzon, Philippines. The native language of the Ilocano people is the Ilocano (or Ilokano) language.

Historically, the Ilocano people have developed a near-stereotypical reputation among Filipinos of resourcefulness, frugality and industriousness, their resilience likely stemming from their geographical location and extreme weather patterns, and their high average savings rate in the Ilocos Region throughout the years. Ilocanos have an elaborate network of beliefs and social practices.

The Ilocano diaspora has reached nearly all parts of the Philippines, as well as to places in the Western world, particularly Hawaii and California. Emigration was caused by dense population pressures in a land with limited agricultural potential. The Ilocos Region is one of the most densely populated regions in the country. Agricultural production is not sufficient to meet local needs, thus, much of the population historically went into the labor market and interregional trade. Tobacco is the leading cash crop of the Ilocano people. The textile industry in the area has a long tradition. Fishing is second only to agricultural production.

Among the more dominant of the ethnic groups, Ilocanos have figured prominently in the political, educational, economic, religious, and other sectors of Philippine society. Intensely regionalistic like most of the other major groups, the Ilocano people generally take pride in their roots and language.

Etymology

The word ''Ilocano'' or ''Ilokano'' originates from the word ''Iloko'' (archaic Spanish form, ''Yloco''), the conjugation of (meaning 'of') and (meaning 'bay'), which means 'from the bay' in Ilocano. Alternatively, according to some records, the name term is derived from "l-"(originating from) and "luku" or "lukung (a valley or depression of land, hence "lowland"). It is located between the "gulod" (mountains) and the "luek" (sea or bay). Iloc"ano" is the Spanish word for "us" ano, which refers to the people (e.g., ''americano'', ''italiano'', ''africano'', ''mexicano'', etc.). Males are referred to as Ilocano or Ilokano while females are referred to as Ilocana or Ilokana.

History

Pre-history

Two theories are prominent among historians regarding the spread of what historians call the Austronesian peoples.
* A theory posted by the anthropologist Henry Otley Beyer, known as the Wave of Migration Theory, posits that from 300 to 200 BC a migration of Austronesian speaking people from the island of Borneo arrived on the shores of northwest Luzon. They were supposedly the most recent of the three waves of migration to the Philippines known as the Malays. Before the arrival of these people, the inhabitants of northwest Luzon were a different Austronesian-speaking people called the proto-Malay group, consisting of the modern Tinguian, Isneg, Kalinga, Kankanaey, Bontoc and other tribes collectively known today as the Igorot. Prior to the arrival of the Igorot, the people known today as the Aeta or Negritos resided in the area. Different studies show that the Ilocanos came to northwestern Luzon along with the Kalingas, Apayaos, and Tingguians. Over time, the Malay people intermarried with the proto-Malay and/or Aeta people, and it is their descendants who lived along the coasts of northwestern Luzon that the Spanish first came in contact with and called Ilocanos.
* Nowadays, the most commonly accepted theory is the "Out of Taiwan" model. In this model, it is suggested that the ancestors of today's Austronesian peoples originated from migrations from the island of Taiwan during the Neolithic period.

Early history

Social structure

While Spain applied the term barangay to the settlements in the Ilocos region upon contact, the Ilocano people called their towns ''íli'' and a smaller group of houses ''purók''.

These residents of the ''íli'' were organized in a class society. At the top of the class system was a chief or ''agtúray'' or ''ári'' and his family. The ári earned his position due to strength, wealth or wisdom''.'' This position could also be inherited and usually reserved for a male; however, in the event that no male heir was available, a strong female heir was accepted.

If the heir was found to be weak by the ''íli'', then another ''ári'' family would be put in place and the former ''ári'' family could fall down in class. Together with a community of elders called ''amáen'' or ''panglakáyen íli'', the ári administered justice and governed the daily lives of the ''íli'' and led his or her people to war if necessary.

Below the ''ári'' were the wealthy ''babaknáng'', or '' maharlika'' in Tagalog, some of whom could easily move into the position of ''ári''. Their wealth was maintained by their control of trade with primarily the Chinese, Japanese, Igorots, and the Tagalogs. Goods often traded were rice, cotton, gold, wax, iron, glass beads, honey, and stoneware jars called ''burnáy''.

Below the ''babaknáng'' were the ''kailianes'', a class that helped the ''ári'' in sailing, working his or her fields, and preparing for celebrations. In exchange, the ''kailianes'' were given gifts directly from the ''ári.''

The ''katalonan'' were below the ''babaknáng'' and the ''kailianes'' and they were tenant farmers who consisted of the majority of the population in an ''íli''. They largely practiced wet-rice agriculture which included rice and taro as well as dry agriculture that included cotton.

At the bottom of the pre-colonial Ilocano society were the ''ubíng'' and below them, the ''tagábu'', also called ''adípen''. The ''ubíng'' were servants while the ''tagábu'' were slaves. The ''tagábu'' acquired their status through unresolved debt, insulting a member of the ''babaknáng'' or ''ári'', by being prisoners of war, or even inheriting the debt of their ancestor.

Clothing and appearances

At the time of the Spanish conquest, the ''Ilocanos'' had long hair like the '' Igorots'', but it was not as long as the ''Cagayanons''’ ''( Ibanag and Itawes)'' whose hair covered their backs. Women wore their hair in a charming ''bun'' on the crown of their heads. Both men and women took care of their hair, using shampoo decoctions made from the barks of specific trees, coconut oil mixed with musk and other perfumes, ''gogo'', and lye made from rice husk, which is still used in Ilocos today.

They polished and sharpened their teeth with ''betel nut husk'' and stones since childhood, making them all even or sometimes serrated like saw teeth. They would color them red or black, just like the Igorots, to preserve them. The wealthy, particularly women, decorated or encrusted them with gold to make them more powerful or flashy.

Men entertained themselves by pulling the hairs out of their beards using clam shells fashioned into tweezers; that is why they did not have beards and mustaches like they do today.

Women, and men in some places, adorned their ears with large gold rings, and children had their earlobes pierced. The more ripped and larger the holes, the higher the social status. There were two types of ear piercings: one for a small earflap and one for a larger earflap. The preceding was written by a chronicler about Filipinos in general. Thus, according to ''Isabelo de los Reyes'', old Ilocano women did not wear earrings, whereas today's women consider them a sign of coquetery. Although the old Ilocano men do not recall their ancestors wearing earrings, it is highly likely that they did so in imitation of their Igorot neighbors.

The men wore a long narrow cloth called ''“bangal”'' ( ''Tagalogs'' called them “''potong”'') that they wrapped around their heads like ''Tinguians'' or fashioned into a ''Muslim-style turban''. Those who were proud of their bravery draped the bangal over their shoulder, the embroidered ends touching the back of their knees. The bangal's colors represented the wearer's accomplishments and status: ''red'' indicated that the wearer had killed someone; only those who had killed seven or more could wear a striped bangal. However, by the time of ''Morga'', thirty years after the Spanish conquest, men were already wearing hats.

In addition to the ''bangal'', farmers and fishermen also wore a gourd hat called a ''kattukong'' on sunny or rainy days. The ''kattukong'' was made from a hollowed and dried calabash gourd (''tabúngaw'' in Ilocano) with a woven interior made of ''anahaw'', nipa, bamboo, or rattan. Also often worn during rainy days was a cape called a ''annangá'', also called ''lábig'' or ''kalapiáw'', which was often made of nipa palm leaves.

Men wore a collarless waist-length fitted jacket made of cloth that was sewn in front, similar to the Tinguians' koton. It had short, wide blue or black sleeves. The principalia had them in fine red ''chininas crepe'' from ''India'' or ''silk''.

For trousers, Ilocanos wore a richly colored cloth, usually gold striped, rolled up at the waist, and passing between the legs such that they were decently covered until mid-thigh; from the thigh down, their legs and feet remained uncovered. Ilocanos called them ''babaques'', according to the author of ''Lavor Evangelica'' (Evangelical Labor); Morga corroborates the observation.

In the 21st century, Ilocano women have followed suit when wearing traditional dress, gathering up the skirt in front, passing it between their legs and hitching it at the back of their waist, "thereby covering until their mid-thigh and leaving the rest down to their legs and feet uncovered."

Ilocanos' main accessories were ''precious stones, gold jewelry'', and ''expensive trinkets''. According to Morga, the Ilocano men wore many gold chains around their necks, “fashioned like spun gold and linked in the same style as ours”. Gold and ivory ''kalombiga'' bracelets were wrapped around their arms from hand to elbow, and some wore strings of carnelian, agate, and other blue and white stones.

Ilocanos also wore ''anklets'' or ''strings'' made of the same stones, as well as many black-dyed strings. According to Morga, they used to walk around barefoot, but after the Spaniards arrived, they began wearing shoes. Many of the women were dressed in gold-embroidered velvet slippers. They wore stone and gold rings on their fingers. They wore a sash, which was a rich shawl draped over the shoulder and tied beneath the arm.

The women wore a multicolored overskirt over a floor-length white underskirt that was usually as wide on top as it was on the bottom.

The pleats were paced at one side after it was gathered at the waist. In Ilocos, where it is still used today, the pleats are called ''“salupingping”.''

Ladies of the ''principalia'' wore crimson silk or other cloth woven with gold and decorated with thick fringes whenever they went out. Morga and Father Colin speak for Filipinos in general. During ceremonies, the principalia and others wore a black, floor-length cloak with long sleeves over their clothes; the old ladies also wore them. This style of clothing would eventually replace the Ilocano women's gleaming black shawl.

Women wore gold and precious stone jewelry on their ears, wrists, fingers, and neck. The Ilocanos would prick themselves, then rub the area with permanent black pitch powder or smoke; they did not do it as commonly as the Visayans, who painted themselves as a matter of course.

“In time the practice became more popular and dividing society into different classes brought with it some requirements; the Indio principalia showed off their bedaubed clothing while the comm man of the people was naked,” wrote Morga y Jimenez.

Indeed, the Ilocanos must have been naked in the beginning with only a small loincloth of smoothened balete like the Igorots of Abra, and they most probably only started wearing clothes when the Asians brought over cloth from their own countries which they have used since then to exploit the wealth of this country.

However, when the Spaniards arrived, the rich wore clothing that, according to all the chronicles, was luxurious and in good taste.

Spanish Era to the Philippine Republic

Juan de Salcedo

The Spanish conquistador Juan de Salcedo explored the northern regions of the Philippines in 1571, where he traveled to the Ilocos region (among other places), colonizing the north, and establishing several Spanish municipalities, including Villa Fernandina (present-day Vigan) and Tagudin.

War with Zambales and Pangasinan 1660

In 1660, Andres Malong, a chief of San Carlos, Pangasinan or Binalatongan as it was called then, allied with the people of Zambales in an effort to remove the Spanish and subdue those who supported Spain. Malong was formerly employed by the Spanish to help colonize non-Christian towns and villages in Pangasinan, however, as Malong subjugated others, he realized he could also overcome the outnumbered Spanish.

With his Zambales allies, Malong crowned himself the king of Pangasinan and sent out letters to all the chiefs of the Ilocos Region, Pampanga and Cagayan Valley and demanded that they too align and recognize Malong as their king and kill any Spaniards among them. If they did not, Malong warned that he would invade and punish them for not joining his cause.

Unlike Pangasinan and the Zambales, The Ilocos at the time was a region that the Spanish invested its soldiers and missionaries in and routinely secured. Towns such as Vigan, Ilocos Sur and Tagudin, Ilocos Sur were quickly conquered by the Spanish ''encomiendas'', fortifications and Catholic churches quickly established to subjugate the Ilocano people into the Spanish Empire. The Spanish were swift in this process to stake their claim on the region's gold trade with the Igorots. They sought to prevent Chinese and Japanese pirates and different European powers such as the Dutch or English from taking these trade routes. Considering this relatively recent history with the Spanish and primarily under the influence of Catholic missionaries, many of the Ilocano chiefs rejected Andres Malong's offer.

In response to their rejection, Malong sent a Zambales chief named Don Pedro Gumapos, who had recently conquered the Pampanga region with 6,000 men, to invade the Ilocos as well as Cagayan regions. Gumapos and his men were met with only 1,500 Spanish loyalist Ilocanos under the command of the '' alcalde mayor'' of the region and even missionaries. As such, the Zambales and Pangasinese army quickly defeated them and marched as far north as Vigan, Ilocos Sur where they sacked and burned the Spanish stronghold and nearby villages. With many of the Spanish missionaries and colonial authorities in Ilocos evacuated or in retreat, Malong then asked Gumapos to assist him in Pangasinan, where the Spanish were beginning to advance on him. As Gumapos and his troops traveled back down through Narvacan, Ilocos Sur, they continued to raid Ilocano towns and villages for supplies. Ultimately, the people of Narvacan responded with guerrilla tactics aided by their Tinguian allies. This retaliation by the Ilocano people was devastating and caused more fatalities on Gumapos' army than with the Spanish lead Ilocano forces.

As the invading army headed south, they sacked and/or burned the coastal towns of Santa Maria, Ilocos Sur, San Esteban, Ilocos Sur, Santiago, Ilocos Sur and Candon, Ilocos Sur. When they finally approached Santa Cruz, Ilocos Sur, Gumapos encountered a Spanish led army who had just finished reconquering Pangasinan and captured Andres Malong. Despite learning of Malong's defeat, Gumapos led his army to battle. Gumapos and his army were defeated after two large battles. After being captured, Gumapos was sent back to Vigan, Ilocos Sur where he was executed by hanging. The Ilocos Region would not see another revolt against the Spanish until 1762.

The Basi Revolt 1807

The Basi Revolt, also known as the Ambaristo Revolt, erupted on September 16, 1807 in the present-day town of Piddig, Ilocos Norte. Led by Pedro Mateo, a ''cabeza de barangay'' of Piddig, and Saralogo Ambaristo, an Ilocano and Tinguian, and composed of townspeople from Piddig, Badoc, Sarrat, Laoag, Sinait, Cabugao, Magsingal and other towns of Ilocos, they marched under their own flag of yellow and red horizontal bands and made their way southward towards the provincial capital of Vigan to protest against the abuses of the Spanish colonial government.

According to historical accounts, in 1786, people's frustration grew over the ''basi'' (the local beverage of the Ilocos) wine monopoly imposed by the Spanish colonial government that prohibited the private manufacture of ''basi'', forcing Ilocanos to buy from government stores.

Even before the arrival of the Spaniards, ''basi'' was an important part of the Ilocanos' society and culture. Drinking ''basi'' played such a great importance in Ilocano culture; from marriage to childbirth and to death, it was a part of their ritual, tradition, and daily life. ''Basi'' was a major industry in the Ilocos region at the time, therefore in addition to the grief of Ilocanos had also lost their livelihood, in other words, they had been robbed of their happiness as well as an essential part of their culture and heritage.

Fueled by these abuses, people were prompted to start the uprising in Piddig town and later spread in the northern and southern towns of Ilocos province. On September 28, 1807, Ilocano forces on their way to the capital Vigan were assassinated by Spanish forces while crossing the Bantaoay River in San Ildefonso, Ilocos Sur, resulting in the deaths of hundreds of Ilocano forces. Those who survived the battle were hanged and their heads pierced with wooden poles and flagged by the Spaniards as a warning to anyone who wanted to strike and fight against the Spaniards.

The Basi Revolt lasted for 13 days. The series of unrest also led the colonial government to divide the province into the now Ilocos Norte and Ilocos Sur. Despite failing to attain their ultimate goal of liberation, the Basi Revolt succeeded in inspiring future movements for justice and freedom in northern Luzon.

American Colonial Era and World War II

In 1901, the region came under American colonial rule, and in 1941, under Japanese occupation.

During 1945, the combined American and the Philippine Commonwealth troops including with the Ilocano and Pangasinan guerillas liberated the Ilocos Region from Japanese forces during the Second World War.

Modern history

Post-Independence period

Several modern presidents of the Republic of the Philippines hailed from the Region: Elpidio Quirino, Ferdinand Marcos. Marcos expanded the scope of the original Ilocos Region by transferring the province of Pangasinan from Region III into Region I in 1973, and imposed a migration policy for Ilokanos into Pangasinan; He also expanded Ilokano influence amongst the ethnic peoples of the Cordilleras by including Abra, Mountain Province, and Benguet in the Ilocos region in 1973, although these were later integrated into the Cordillera Administrative Region in 1987. A third "Ilocano" President, Fidel V. Ramos, hailed from Pangasinan.

Martial Law era

Ilocanos were also among the victims of human rights violations during the martial law era which began in September 1972, despite public perception that the region was supportive of Marcos' administration. In Ilocos Norte, various farmers from the towns of Vintar, Dumalneg, Solsona, Marcos and Piddig were documented to have been tortured, and eight farmers in Bangui and three indigenous community members in Vintar were " salvaged" in 1984.

Ilocanos who were critical of Marcos' authoritarian rule included Roman Catholic Archbishop and Agoo, La Union native Antonio L. Mabutas, who spoke actively against the torture and killings of church workers. Another prominent opponent of the martial law regime was human rights advocate and Bombo Radyo Laoag program host David Bueno, who worked with the Free Legal Assistance Group in Ilocos Norte during the later part of the Marcos administration and the early part of the succeeding Aquino administration. Bueno was assassinated by motorcycle-riding men in fatigue uniforms on October 22, 1987 – part of a wave of assassinations which coincided with the 1986–87 coup d'etat which tried to unseat the democratic government set up after the 1986 People Power Revolution.

Others critics included student activists student activists Romulo and Armando Palabay of San Fernando, La Union, who were tortured and killed in a Military camp in Pampanga; and Purificacion Pedro, a Catholic lay social worker who tried to help the indigenous peoples in the resistance against the Chico River Dam Project, was caught in the crossfire of a military operation, and was later murdered in the hospital by a soldier who claimed she was a rebel sympathizer.

Bueno, Pedro, and the Palabay brothers would later be honored as martyrs of the fight against the dictatorship at the Philippines' Bantayog ng mga Bayani memorial.

Recent cultural work

A number of major initiatives to promote Ilocano culture have been initiated since the late 1990s.

The historic town of Vigan was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1999, and the local community effort to preserved it has since been recognized as "a model of best practices in World Heritage site management."

In international ethnic studies, University of California, Davis professor Robyn Rodriguez founded the Bulosan Center for Filipino Studies, named after the Binalonan-born author Carlos Bulosan.

Ilocano entrepreneurs such as Niña Corpuz have revived the popularity of Inabel fabrics by incorporating it into high fashion, creating a new demand for the material.

Demographics

Ilocanos number 8,074,536 in the Philippines in 2010. A few Ilocanos living in the Cordilleras have some Cordillerano blood.

Ethnic Homeland

''Ilocandia'' or ''Kailokuan'' / ''Kailukuan'' is the term given to the traditional homeland of the Ilocano people, which constitutes present-day Ilocos Norte and the northern portions of Ilocos Sur, hence in early history and early Ilocano inhabitants of the region called their place as ''Samtoy'', from “''sao mi toy'',” which literally means "our language here".

Diaspora

The mounting population pressure due to the substantial population density during the mid-19th century caused the migration of the Ilocanos out of their traditional homeland. By 1903, more than 290,000 Ilocanos migrated to Central Luzon, Cagayan Valley, and Metro Manila. More than 180,000 moved to the provinces of Pangasinan, Tarlac, and Nueva Ecija; there is a visible Ilocano population in Aurora and in Quezon Province when the 2 provinces were one and part of Southern Tagalog, the concentration of Ilocano population in the present Southern Tagalog and Calabarzon is now Quezon Province. Almost 50,000 moved to Cagayan Valley; half of them resided in Isabela. Around 47,000 lived in Zambales and more than 11,000 in Sultan Kudarat.

Later migrations brought Ilocanos to the Cordilleras, Mindoro, Palawan, and Mindanao provinces of Sultan Kudarat, North Cotabato, and South Cotabato.

The Ilocano diaspora continued in 1906 when Ilocanos started to migrate to Hawaii and California. They are called the ''manongs'' or ''sakadas'', the first generation of Filipino immigrants to the United States of America, primarily in California and Hawaii. In Ilocano, the term ''manong'' is loosely used to refer to an elderly gentleman. ''Sakadas'' "imported ones" "lower-paid workers recruited out of the area" and a term for "migrant workers" in and from the Philippines, doing manual agricultural labor. Within the Philippines, ''sakadas'' work in provinces other than their own. In the 20th century, Filipino men were imported by the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association to work in the sugarcane and pineapple fields to Hawaii as skilled laborers from 1906 to 1946 mainly from the Ilocos region of the Philippines to seek their fate, or ''gasat'' in Iloco, for a better life for themselves and their families.

The Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association approved a plan to recruit labor from the Philippines in April 1906 and asked Albert F. Judd to represent them. The first Filipino farm laborers in Hawaii arrived in December 1906 from Candon, Ilocos Sur, aboard the SS Doric (1883).

Ilocanos composed the largest number of expatriates in the United States, though most are bilingual with Tagalog. There is a significant Ilocano community in Hawai'i, in which they make up more than 85% of the Filipino population there.

Languages

Most Ilocanos speak the Ilocano language, which is part of the Northern Philippine subgroup of the Austronesian family of languages. They also speak Tagalog, and English as second languages.

Ilocano, like all Philippine languages, is an Austronesian language, it is related to Malay (Indonesian and Malaysian), Tetum, Chamorro, Fijian, Māori, Hawaiian, Samoan, Tahitian, Paiwan, and Malagasy. It is closely related to some of the other Austronesian languages of Northern Luzon, and has slight mutual intelligibility with the Balangao language and the eastern dialects of the Bontoc language.

Austronesian is a very expansive language family believed to originate in Taiwan. Ilocano comprises its own branch within the Philippine Cordilleran language subfamily. It is spoken as first language by seven million people.

A lingua franca of the northern region (Northern Luzon) of the Philippines, it is spoken as a secondary language by more than two million people who are native speakers of Ibanag, Ivatan, Ibaloi, Itneg, Itawes, Pangasinan, Kankanaey, Kalinga, and other languages in Northern Luzon. Many Ilocanos speak those languages in North Luzon.

Religion

Most Ilocanos are Roman Catholics, though some are members of the Aglipayan Church, which originated in Ilocos Norte."Ilokanos."
Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cultures. The Gale Group, Inc. 1999. Retrieved December 10, 2009.

Indigenous beliefs

Cosmology

In Ilocano cosmology, there is the concept of the upstream ''“surong”'' and downstream ''“puyupoyan”,'' among 3 other cosmological regions. ''Surong'' represented creation, birth, and life and ''puyupoyan'' represented the death and the afterlife. They would giv''e ata''ng, or food offerings, that were put on a raft and drifted downstream as an offering to the spirits.

Throughout several ethnic groups the Milky Way was seen as something connected with water. For the Ilocano people, they called the Milky Way as “''Rimmuok dagiti Bitbituen”''. They saw it as a river in the night sky.

Spirits

Prior to the arrival of the Spanish, Ilocanos were animists who believed in spirits called ''anito,'' who were either bad or good. The '' anito'' ruled over all aspects of the universe. For example, ''litao'' were the ''anitos'' of water; ''kaibáan'', also called ''kanibáan'', were ''anitos'' of the undergrowth in a forest; and ''mangmangkik'' were anitos of trees. The ''mangmangkik'' were often feared for causing sickness when a fellow tree was cut down. To appease the ''mangmangkik'' before cutting down a tree, the following chant was made:

:''Bari Bari.''
:''Dikat agunget pari.''
:''Ta pumukan kami.''
:''Iti pabakirda kadakami.''

This chant calls on the ''mangmangkik'' and beseeches them not to curse the people cutting the tree down. Similar chants and phrases are uttered to appease the ''kaibáan'' when hot cooking water is thrown out into the yard for disposal. The ''kaibáan'' can be befriended, giving luck and blessing to the person. Likewise, if a ''kaibáan'' is angered, illness and in some cases death would plague the person's health and family.

Other ways anitos were respected and appeased were through offerings and sacrifices to idols on platforms called a ''simbaan'' or designated caves where the ''anito'' frequents. These offerings, called ''atang'', consisted of various foodstuffs and sweets, as well as cigars and ''paan''.

'' Atang'' is also offered to the deceased during prayers for the dead or on Pista ti Natay, Undas or All Soul's Day. Plates of food prepared for an ''atang'' consist of delicacies such as suman, dudul, linapet, baduya, patopat or balisongsong (snacks made from sticky rice or rice flour); ''busi'' (caramelized popped rice); linga (black sesame seeds); sticky rice with coconut milk; and bagas (uncooked rice) shaped in a crucifix and topped with fresh eggs. The food may also be accompanied by bua ken gawed (betel nut and piper leaf), apog (lime powder), basi (fermented sugarcane wine), and tabako (tobacco). These offerings are placed in front of a photo of the departed and/or image of Jesus, Mary, or the Holy Family during wakes and anniversaries in homes or in front of the graves, after which the family and/or mourners of the deceased may also offer prayers.

Soul beliefs and typology

Ilocanos generally believe that the soul has not yet left the world of the living during the wake and still needs sustenance, hence the offering of food as they transcend onto the afterlife. It is also believed that the soul returns to the land of the living after the nine-day wake and must be welcomed back. In instances when the deceased appears in a dream or when a family member suddenly experiences unexplainable sickness, atang is performed as an appeasement ritual for the deceased who may have been offended or disturbed. It is also interpreted as asking the deceased to intercede for their loved ones, and thanking them for warning against bad omen through dreams. The significance of the atang for the Ilocanos goes beyond the remembrance and honoring of the dead loved ones. It connotes their view of life after death and the relation of the living to the departed.

According to one Ilocano mythological tale, the sky was created by a giant named ''Aran'', who hung the sun, moon, and stars in it. Aran's companion, the giant ''“ Angalo”,'' could see the land under their light, which he then molded into mountains and valleys. The giants discovered their world to be windswept and desolate. Angalo spat on the ground, and the first man and woman emerged from his spit. He put them in a ''bamboo tube'' and tossed it into the sea. The bamboo washed up on the shores of the Ilocos region, and the Ilocano people descended from this couple.

Like other Filipinos, Ilocanos recognize an array of supernatural beings, such as the “''katawtaw-an”'' (the spirits of infants, who died unbaptized who in turn victimize newborns).

The Ilocano traditional mythos has a four-soul system.

# The first soul of the Ilocanos is called the ''“kararua”'' or the soul proper. This is the term used for the equivalent of the Christian soul that can only leave after death.
# ''Karkarma'' is the name of the second soul. It can leave the physical body when one is frightened, or may be stolen. If this soul fails to return the owner becomes insane, sacrificial ceremonies may be held to lure back a lost ''karkarma''. ''Karkarma'' stands for natural vigor, mind and reason.
# ''Aniwaas'' is the name of the third soul. It can leave the body during sleep and visits places familiar to the body. If one wakes up while the ''aniwaas'' is visiting these places, they may lose the ''aniwaas'' and become insane.
# ''Araria'' is the name of the fourth soul. This is the liberated soul of the dead, the soul that visits relatives and friends in the earthworld asking them to pray for it or perform a duty it failed to do in life. Its presence can be heralded by the howling of dogs, the cracking of glass, the rattling of beds, and the banging of doors, or in the form (at night) of a grunting pig or a crowing chicken. These signs remind the living to pray to God for the forgiveness of the deceased's sins (otherwise, the ''al-alia'' may visit misfortunes upon them). This soul can make sounds and manipulate physical objects usually relating to what it did in life.

Water beliefs

A mantra in Ilocano religion is ''Water is life. It is death.'' In many ethnic groups in the Philippines, water represents a cosmological cycle of both. Water plays a vital role in Ilocano folklore, from the Ilocano god of the rivers and sea, Apo Litao, to cosmological beliefs involving the water and sea.

Apo Litao is the Ilocano god of the sea and rivers. It is said that Apo Litao is a small man who lives in the branches of the bamboo trees along the river banks. In one tale, there was once a girl who lived with her mother near the banks of the river. One day her sewing needle fell into the river and her mother warned her not to get it. However, she went anyway and once she got the needle, the waves swept her away. She was taken in by Apo Litao who gave her the gift of enchantment and she became his wife. She became a mermaid, or sirena and the queen of the waters. She is described to have long, thick hair and sharp nails. To those who speak ill of her, she would kill them. But to those who gained her favor, she used her gifts to entertain and give them gifts.

Water, especially the rivers, is seen by the majority of ethnic groups in the Philippines as pathways to the afterlife. There is a belief that the soul travels on a boat that is ferried by a deity or spirit. The most famous depiction of this concept is through the ''manunggul jar'', that was found in a cave in Palawan. For the Ilocanos, this concept is also found. When the deceased was buried, they would give offerings and money in the coffin so that they would be able to pay the toll to the ''agrakrakit'', the spirit who ferries the dead souls, so that they would be able to cross the waters to the afterlife safely.

Crocodiles were once abundant in the Philippines. They were deeply respected and historical records state that they were seen as divine creatures, even representing the ancestors and were called ''nono''. They would give offerings (''panagyatang'') to them as signs of respect. Fishermen would throw the first catch to the crocodile.

Sibróng

Another practice that survived well into the 19th century was ''sibróng'', associated with human sacrifice and headhunting, ''sibróng'' was a prevalent practice in the Ilocos region. The person who carried out the executions was called the ''mannibróng''; this term now means 'thief' in modern Ilocano. Before the death of a community leader or a member of the ''principalía'', the dying person would lift his hand raised with a certain number of fingers. The number of fingers raised would be the indicator of how many people would have to be killed in order to accompany the dying to the afterlife. In other cases, the people chosen by the ''mannibróng'' would have their fingers cut off instead of being executed. ''Síbrong'' can also refer to the practice of placing a human head in the foundations of the building to protect the structure from damage.

Culture

Ilocandia boasts a vibrant culture that bears some resemblance back to colonial times. The colonial city of Vigan, sometimes known as the "Intramuros of the North", still has its original Castillan colonial architecture. Old Spanish-style dwellings (often known as ''bahay na bato'' or Vigan houses) line the small and cobblestoned streets. Enormous, high-pitched roofs, large and rectangular living rooms with life-sized mirrors, ancient, wooden furniture, and elegant Vienna sets characterize these majestic mansions.

The churches of the Ilocos region are a lasting emblem of the Ilocano's triumphant transformation from practitioners of local religions to believers in theistic Christianity. The Vigan Cathedral in Ilocos Sur, with its gigantic hand-carved pictures of the route crucis; the Magsingal Cathedral (also in Ilocos Sur), with its centuries-old wooden altar; the St. Augustine Church in Paoay (Ilocos Norte), with its massive buttresses; and Santa Maria Church (Ilocos Sur) is a UNESCO World Heritage Site that is located on a hill with an 80-step stone stairway.

Dances were mainly a reflection of the gracious ways of the Ilocano. The ''dinaklisan'' (a dance common to fisher folks), the ''agabel'' (a weaver's dance) and the ''agdamdamili'' (a pot dance) illustrate in simple steps the ways of the industrious Ilocano. Other popular dances among the Ilocanos are Tadek, Habanera, Comintan, Saimita, Kinotan, Kinnalogong.

Cuisine

Ilocanos boast of a diet heavy in boiled or steamed vegetables and freshwater fish and are particularly fond of dishes flavored with '' bugguong'' (fermented fish paste). Most people are unaware that Ilocano cuisine arose out of necessity. Due to the severe conditions of the region, Ilocanos had no choice but to make do with what they had, including the bitterest bitter gourd. Ilocandia is known for its strong culinary traditions all around the country. It's an island-strewn, salt-loving, porcine-dominated regional cuisine known for its delectable dishes.

Prominent ingredients include '' ''sukang iloko'''' (sugarcane vinegar), ''bugguong'', ''bawang'' (garlic), and ''karne (''meats) with a crispy finish.

Ilocanos often season boiled vegetables with ''bugguong monamon'' (fermented anchovy paste) to produce ''pinakbet'', ''dinengdeng'', ''inabraw'', ''buridibod'' and many others local dishes. Local specialties include the ''abuos'', soft white larvae of ants, and ''“jumping salad”'' or tiny live shrimp ''ipon'' with calamansi juice.

''Dinakdakan,'' made from ''masskara'' or grilled pig's head parts and ''offal'', blended with '' lasoná'' or ''sibuyas'' and pig's brain; ''Insarabasab,'' made out of chopped flame grilled pork mixed with chillies, ''lasoná'' or sibuyas (onion), ''sukang Iloko'' (vinegar) and other spices; ''Ilocos Empanada,'' an orange-tinged glutinous rice flour with atsuete fried dish stuffed with vegetables or green papaya, skinless longganisa, and egg; '' bagnet'', a pork belly boiled and deep fried until it is crispy; '' chicharon''; '' ''poqui poqui'','' made of eggplant, tomatoes, and eggs; ''igado'', strips of meat, liver, and other internal organs such as kidney, heart, and intestines, this dish reflects the influence of the Spanish cuisine, from higado; ''pinapaitan'' (composed of cow or goat innards and bile); ''sinanglaw'' (beef innards, tendon, face and bile); and ''dinardaraan'' (dry pork blood stew) are another popular dish among Ilocanos and Filipinos.

Another food that is popular for many Ilocanos is '' marunggay''. It is a condiment for meat soup called ''La'uya'' (e.g. tinola) or it can be mixed with the famous ''dinengdeng'', a soup made of mainly vegetables with prawn '' aramang or armang.'' Most households grow this tree in their backyards and usually offered free for all the neighbors who may want them. Many Ilocanos from Hawaii are fond of eating them. The Ilocano people are also known to be the first ethnic group in the Philippines to eat the larvae and eggs of '' abuos'' (weaver ants). The practice has since been infused as well with other ethnic groups in northern Luzon.

Literature

Ilocano animistic past offers a rich background in folklore, mythology and superstition (see Religion in the Philippines

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