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The Indus ( ) is a transboundary river of Asia and a trans- Himalayan river of
South South is one of the cardinal directions or Points of the compass, compass points. The direction is the opposite of north and is perpendicular to both east and west. Etymology The word ''south'' comes from Old English ''sūþ'', from earlier Pro ...
and Central Asia. The river rises in mountain springs northeast of Mount Kailash in
Western Tibet The geography of Tibet consists of the high mountains, lakes and rivers lying between Central, East and South Asia. Traditionally, Western (European and American) sources have regarded Tibet as being in Central Asia, though today's maps show a t ...
, flows northwest through the disputed region of
Kashmir Kashmir () is the northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term "Kashmir" denoted only the Kashmir Valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal Range. Today, the term encompas ...
, Quote: "Kashmir, region of the northwestern Indian subcontinent. It is bounded by the Uygur Autonomous Region of Xinjiang to the northeast and the Tibet Autonomous Region to the east (both parts of China), by the Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Punjab to the south, by Pakistan to the west, and by Afghanistan to the northwest. The northern and western portions are administered by Pakistan and comprise three areas: Azad Kashmir, Gilgit, and Baltistan, ... The southern and southeastern portions constitute the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. The Indian- and Pakistani-administered portions are divided by a "line of control" agreed to in 1972, although neither country recognizes it as an international boundary. In addition, China became active in the eastern area of Kashmir in the 1950s and since 1962 has controlled the northeastern part of Ladakh (the easternmost portion of the region)." bends sharply to the left after the Nanga Parbat massif, and flows south-by-southwest through Pakistan, before emptying into the Arabian Sea near the port city of Karachi. The river has a total drainage area of circa . Its estimated annual flow is around , making it one of the 50 largest rivers in the world in terms of average annual flow. Its left-bank tributary in Ladakh is the Zanskar River, and its left-bank tributary in the plains is the Panjnad River which is formed by the successive confluences of the five Punjab rivers, namely the Chenab,
Jhelum Jhelum ( Punjabi and ur, ) is a city on the east bank of the Jhelum River, which is located in the district of Jhelum in the north of Punjab province, Pakistan. It is the 44th largest city of Pakistan by population. Jhelum is known for p ...
,
Ravi Ravi may refer to: People * Ravi (name), including a list of people and characters with the name * Ravi (composer) (1926–2012), Indian music director * Ravi (Ivar Johansen) (born 1976), Norwegian musical artist * Ravi (music director) (1926–201 ...
, Beas, and
Sutlej The Sutlej or Satluj River () is the longest of the five rivers that flow through the historic crossroads region of Punjab in northern India and Pakistan. The Sutlej River is also known as ''Satadru''. It is the easternmost tributary of the Ind ...
rivers. Its principal right-bank tributaries are the Shyok,
Gilgit Gilgit (; Shina: ; ur, ) is the capital city of Gilgit–Baltistan, Pakistan. The city is located in a broad valley near the confluence of the Gilgit River and the Hunza River. It is a major tourist destination in Pakistan, serving as a h ...
, Kabul, Kurram, and Gomal rivers. Beginning in a mountain spring and fed with glaciers and rivers in the Himalayan,
Karakoram The Karakoram is a mountain range in Kashmir region spanning the borders of Pakistan, China, and India, with the northwest extremity of the range extending to Afghanistan and Tajikistan. Most of the Karakoram mountain range falls under the ...
, and Hindu Kush ranges, the river supports the ecosystems of temperate forests, plains, and arid countryside. The northern part of the Indus Valley, with its tributaries, forms the Punjab region of South Asia, while the lower course of the river ends in a large delta in the southern
Sindh Sindh (; ; ur, , ; historically romanized as Sind) is one of the four provinces of Pakistan. Located in the southeastern region of the country, Sindh is the third-largest province of Pakistan by land area and the second-largest province ...
province of Pakistan. The river has historically been important to many cultures of the region. The 3rd millennium BC saw the rise of Indus Valley civilisation, a major urban civilization of the Bronze Age. During the 2nd millennium BC, the Punjab region was mentioned in the Rigveda hymns as ''Sapta Sindhu'' and in the Avesta religious texts as ''Saptha Hindu'' (both terms meaning " seven rivers"). Early historical kingdoms that arose in the Indus Valley include Gandhāra, and the Ror dynasty of Sauvīra. The Indus River came into the knowledge of the Western world early in the classical period, when King Darius of Persia sent his Greek subject
Scylax of Caryanda Scylax of Caryanda ( el, Σκύλαξ ὁ Καρυανδεύς) was a Greek explorer and writer of the late 6th and early 5th centuries BCE. His own writings are lost, though occasionally cited or quoted by later Greek and Roman authors. The peri ...
to explore the river, c. 515 BC.


Etymology and names

This river was known to the ancient Indians in Sanskrit as ''Sindhu'' and the Persians as ''Hindu'' which was regarded by both of them as "the border river". The variation between the two names is explained by the Old Iranian sound change ''*s'' > ''h'', which occurred between 850 and 600 BCE according to Asko Parpola. From the Persian
Achaemenid Empire The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenian Empire (; peo, 𐎧𐏁𐏂, , ), also called the First Persian Empire, was an ancient Iranian empire founded by Cyrus the Great in 550 BC. Based in Western Asia, it was contemporarily the largest em ...
, the name passed to the Greeks as ''Indós'' (Ἰνδός). It was adopted by the Romans as ''Indus''. The name India is derived from Indus. The Indigenous peoples of the Americas are commonly called "Indians" or "Indios", a misnaming that dates to Christopher Columbus's erroneous belief that he had landed near India in 1492, when he actually landed in the Americas. In Sindhi, this river is also known as ''Mehran''. The
Ladakhis Ladakhis or Ladakhi people or Ladakspa are an ethnic group and first-language speakers of the Ladakhi language living in the Ladakh region in the northernmost part of India India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country ...
and Tibetans call it ''Senge Tsangpo'' (སེང་གེ་གཙང་པོ།),
Baltis Baltis was an ancient Arabian goddess. She was revered at Carrhae and identified with the planet Venus. Isaac of Antioch mentions Baltis in a text written in the middle of the 5th century CE as a deity worshipped by the Arabs. Baltis here is e ...
call it ''Gemtsuh'' and ''Tsuh-Fo'',
Pashtuns Pashtuns (, , ; ps, پښتانه, ), also known as Pakhtuns or Pathans, are an Iranian ethnic group who are native to the geographic region of Pashtunistan in the present-day countries of Afghanistan and Pakistan. They were historically re ...
call it ''Nilab'', ''Sher Darya'' and ''Abbasin'', while Sindhis call it ''Purali'' and ''Samundar''. The modern name in Urdu and Hindi is ''Sindh'' ( ur, , hi, सिंध), a semi-learned borrowing from the Sanskrit.


Description

The Indus River provides key water resources for Pakistan's economy – especially the ''breadbasket'' of Punjab province, which accounts for most of the nation's agricultural production, and Sindh. The word Punjab means "land of five rivers" and the five rivers are
Jhelum Jhelum ( Punjabi and ur, ) is a city on the east bank of the Jhelum River, which is located in the district of Jhelum in the north of Punjab province, Pakistan. It is the 44th largest city of Pakistan by population. Jhelum is known for p ...
, Chenab,
Ravi Ravi may refer to: People * Ravi (name), including a list of people and characters with the name * Ravi (composer) (1926–2012), Indian music director * Ravi (Ivar Johansen) (born 1976), Norwegian musical artist * Ravi (music director) (1926–201 ...
, Beas and
Sutlej The Sutlej or Satluj River () is the longest of the five rivers that flow through the historic crossroads region of Punjab in northern India and Pakistan. The Sutlej River is also known as ''Satadru''. It is the easternmost tributary of the Ind ...
, all of which finally flow into the Indus. The Indus also supports many heavy industries and provides the main supply of
potable water Drinking water is water that is used in drink or food preparation; potable water is water that is safe to be used as drinking water. The amount of drinking water required to maintain good health varies, and depends on physical activity level, ag ...
in Pakistan. The total length of the river varies in different sources. The length used in this article is , taken from the ''Himalayan Climate and Water Atlas'' (2015). Historically, the 1909 '' The Imperial Gazetteer of India'' gave it as "just over 1,800 miles". A shorter figure of has been widely used in modern sources, as has the one of . The modern ''Encyclopedia Britannica'' was originally published in 1999 with the shorter measurement, but was updated in 2015 to use the longer measurement. Both lengths are commonly found in modern publications; in some cases, both measurements can be found within the same work. An extended figure of circa was announced by a Chinese research group in 2011, based on a comprehensive remeasurement from satellite imagery, and a ground expedition to identify an alternative source point, but detailed analysis has not yet been published. The ultimate source of the Indus is in Tibet, but there is some debate about the exact source. The traditional source of the river is the ''Sênggê Kanbab'' ( Sênggê Zangbo) or "Lion's Mouth", a perennial spring not far from the sacred Mount Kailash, marked by a long low line of Tibetan
chortens A stupa ( sa, स्तूप, lit=heap, ) is a mound-like or hemispherical structure containing relics (such as ''śarīra'' – typically the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns) that is used as a place of meditation. In Buddhism, circumambu ...
. There are several other tributaries nearby, which may possibly form a longer stream than Sênggê Kanbab, but unlike the Sênggê Kanbab, are all dependent on snowmelt. The Zanskar River, which flows into the Indus in Ladakh, has a greater volume of water than the Indus itself before that point.Albinia (2008), p. 307. An alternative reckoning begins the river around 300 km further upstream, at the
confluence In geography, a confluence (also: ''conflux'') occurs where two or more flowing bodies of water join to form a single channel. A confluence can occur in several configurations: at the point where a tributary joins a larger river (main stem); o ...
of the Sengge Zangbo and
Gar Tsangpo Gar Tsangpo (; ), also called Gartang or Gar River, is a headwater of the Indus River in the Ngari Prefecture, Tibet, China. It merges with other headwater, Sênggê Zangbo, near the village of Tashigang to form the Indus River. The combined r ...
rivers, which drain the Nganglong Kangri and Gangdise Shan (Gang Rinpoche, Mt. Kailash) mountain ranges. The 2011 remeasurement suggested the source was a small lake northeast of Mount Kailash, rather than either of the two points previously used. The Indus then flows northwest through Ladakh (Indian-administered Kashmir) and
Baltistan Baltistan ( ur, ; bft, སྦལ་ཏི་སྟཱན, script=Tibt), also known as Baltiyul or Little Tibet ( bft, སྦལ་ཏི་ཡུལ་།, script=Tibt), is a mountainous region in the Pakistani-administered territory of Gilg ...
and
Gilgit Gilgit (; Shina: ; ur, ) is the capital city of Gilgit–Baltistan, Pakistan. The city is located in a broad valley near the confluence of the Gilgit River and the Hunza River. It is a major tourist destination in Pakistan, serving as a h ...
(Pakistan-administered Kashmir), just south of the
Karakoram The Karakoram is a mountain range in Kashmir region spanning the borders of Pakistan, China, and India, with the northwest extremity of the range extending to Afghanistan and Tajikistan. Most of the Karakoram mountain range falls under the ...
range. The Shyok, Shigar and
Gilgit Gilgit (; Shina: ; ur, ) is the capital city of Gilgit–Baltistan, Pakistan. The city is located in a broad valley near the confluence of the Gilgit River and the Hunza River. It is a major tourist destination in Pakistan, serving as a h ...
rivers carry glacial waters into the main river. It gradually bends to the south and descends into the Punjab plains at Kalabagh, Pakistan. The Indus passes gigantic gorges deep near the Nanga Parbat massif. It flows swiftly across
Hazara Hazara may refer to: Ethnic groups * The Hazaras, a Persian-speaking people of Afghanistan and Pakistan * Aimaq Hazara, Aimaq's subtribe of Hazara origin * Hazarawals, a Hindko-speaking people of the Hazara region of northern Pakistan * Hazar ...
and is dammed at the Tarbela Reservoir. The Kabul River joins it near Attock. The remainder of its route to the sea is in the plains of the Punjab and Sindh, where the flow of the river becomes slow and highly braided. It is joined by the
Panjnad The Panjnad River ( Punjabi and ur, ) is a river at the extreme end of Bahawalpur district in Punjab, Pakistan. The name ''Panjnad'' means "five rivers", from Persian ''panj'' ("five") and Sanskrit ''nadī́'' ("river").The Panjnad River is for ...
at Mithankot. Beyond this confluence, the river, at one time, was named the ''Satnad River'' (''sat'' = "seven", ''nadī'' = "river"), as the river now carried the waters of the Kabul River, the Indus River and the five Punjab rivers. Passing by Jamshoro, it ends in a large delta to the South of Thatta in the
Sindh Sindh (; ; ur, , ; historically romanized as Sind) is one of the four provinces of Pakistan. Located in the southeastern region of the country, Sindh is the third-largest province of Pakistan by land area and the second-largest province ...
province of Pakistan. The Indus is one of the few rivers in the world to exhibit a tidal bore. The Indus system is largely fed by the snow and glaciers of the Himalayas, Karakoram and the Hindu Kush ranges. The flow of the river is also determined by the seasons – it diminishes greatly in the winter, while flooding its banks in the monsoon months from July to September. There is also evidence of a steady shift in the course of the river since prehistoric times – it deviated westwards from flowing into the Rann of Kutch and adjoining
Banni grasslands Banni Grasslands Reserve or Banni grasslands form a belt of arid grassland ecosystem on the outer southern edge of the desert of the marshy salt flats of Rann of Kutch in Kutch District, Gujarat State, India. They are known for rich wildlife a ...
after the 1816 earthquake. , Indus water flows in to the Rann of Kutch during its floods breaching
flood bank A levee (), dike (American English), dyke (Commonwealth English), embankment, floodbank, or stop bank is a structure that is usually earthen and that often runs parallel to the course of a river in its floodplain or along low-lying coastlin ...
s.


History

The major cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation, such as
Harappa Harappa (; Urdu/ pnb, ) is an archaeological site in Punjab, Pakistan, about west of Sahiwal. The Bronze Age Harappan civilisation, now more often called the Indus Valley Civilisation, is named after the site, which takes its name from a mode ...
and Mohenjo-daro, date back to around 3300 BC, and represent some of the largest human habitations of the ancient world. The Indus Valley Civilisation extended from across northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India, with an upward reach from east of Jhelum River to Ropar on the upper Sutlej. The coastal settlements extended from
Sutkagan Dor Sutkagan Dor (or Sutkagen Dor) is the westernmost known archaeological site of the Indus Valley civilization. It is located about 480 km west of Karachi on the Makran coast near Gwadar, close to the Iranian border, in Pakistan's Baluchista ...
at the Pakistan, Iran border to Kutch in modern Gujarat, India. There is an Indus site on the Amu Darya at Shortughai in northern Afghanistan, and the Indus site Alamgirpur at the Hindon River is located only from Delhi. To date, over 1,052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the general region of the Ghaggar-Hakra River and its tributaries. Among the settlements were the major urban centres of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, as well as Lothal, Dholavira,
Ganeriwala Ganweriwal ( ur, pa, ), more commonly known as Ganweriwala, is an archaeological site in the Cholistan Desert of southern Punjab, Pakistan. It was one of the largest cities within the Indus Valley civilisation, one of the most extensive Bronze ...
, and Rakhigarhi. Only 40 Indus Valley sites have been discovered on the Indus and its tributaries. However, it is notable that majority of the Indus script seals and inscribed objects discovered were found at sites along the Indus river. Most scholars believe that settlements of Gandhara grave culture of the early Indo-Aryans flourished in
Gandhara Gandhāra is the name of an ancient region located in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, more precisely in present-day north-west Pakistan and parts of south-east Afghanistan. The region centered around the Peshawar Vall ...
from 1700 BC to 600 BC, when Mohenjo-daro and Harappa had already been abandoned. The Rigveda describes several rivers, including one named "Sindhu". The Rigvedic "Sindhu" is thought to be the present-day Indus river. It is attested 176 times in its text, 94 times in the plural, and most often used in the generic sense of "river". In the Rigveda, notably in the later hymns, the meaning of the word is narrowed to refer to the Indus river in particular, e.g. in the list of rivers mentioned in the hymn of ''
Nadistuti sukta The Nadistuti sukta (Sanskrit: नदिस्तुति सूक्त), or "the hymn in praise of rivers", is 75th hymn (''sukta'') of 10th MandalaTogether with 1st Mandala, 10th Mandala forms the latest part of the Rigveda of the Rigveda. N ...
''. The Rigvedic hymns apply a feminine gender to all the rivers mentioned therein, except for the
Brahmaputra The Brahmaputra is a trans-boundary river which flows through Tibet, northeast India, and Bangladesh. It is also known as the Yarlung Tsangpo in Tibetan, the Siang/Dihang River in Arunachali, Luit in Assamese, and Jamuna River in Bangla. It ...
. The word "India" is derived from the Indus River. In ancient times, "India" initially referred to those regions immediately along the east bank of the Indus, where are Punjab and
Sindh Sindh (; ; ur, , ; historically romanized as Sind) is one of the four provinces of Pakistan. Located in the southeastern region of the country, Sindh is the third-largest province of Pakistan by land area and the second-largest province ...
now but by 300 BC, Greek writers including Herodotus and Megasthenes were applying the term to the entire subcontinent that extends much farther eastward. The lower basin of the Indus forms a natural boundary between the Iranian Plateau and the Indian subcontinent; this region embraces all or parts of the Pakistani provinces Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab and
Sindh Sindh (; ; ur, , ; historically romanized as Sind) is one of the four provinces of Pakistan. Located in the southeastern region of the country, Sindh is the third-largest province of Pakistan by land area and the second-largest province ...
and the countries Afghanistan and India. The first West Eurasian empire to annex the Indus Valley was the
Persian Empire The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenian Empire (; peo, wikt:𐎧𐏁𐏂𐎶, 𐎧𐏁𐏂, , ), also called the First Persian Empire, was an History of Iran#Classical antiquity, ancient Iranian empire founded by Cyrus the Great in 550 BC. Bas ...
, during the reign of
Darius the Great Darius I ( peo, 𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁 ; grc-gre, Δαρεῖος ; – 486 BCE), commonly known as Darius the Great, was a Persian ruler who served as the third King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, reigning from 522 BCE until his d ...
. During his reign, the Greek explorer
Scylax of Caryanda Scylax of Caryanda ( el, Σκύλαξ ὁ Καρυανδεύς) was a Greek explorer and writer of the late 6th and early 5th centuries BCE. His own writings are lost, though occasionally cited or quoted by later Greek and Roman authors. The peri ...
was commissioned to explore the course of the Indus. It was crossed by the invading armies of Alexander, but after his Macedonians conquered the west bank—joining it to the Hellenic world, they elected to retreat along the southern course of the river, ending Alexander's Asian campaign. Alexander's admiral
Nearchus Nearchus or Nearchos ( el, Νέαρχος; – 300 BC) was one of the Greek officers, a navarch, in the army of Alexander the Great. He is known for his celebrated expeditionary voyage starting from the Indus River, through the Persian Gulf and e ...
set out from the Indus Delta to explore the Persian Gulf, until reaching the Tigris River. The Indus Valley was later dominated by the Mauryan and
Kushan Empire The Kushan Empire ( grc, Βασιλεία Κοσσανῶν; xbc, Κυϸανο, ; sa, कुषाण वंश; Brahmi: , '; BHS: ; xpr, 𐭊𐭅𐭔𐭍 𐭇𐭔𐭕𐭓, ; zh, 貴霜 ) was a syncretic empire, formed by the Yuezhi, i ...
s, Indo-Greek Kingdoms, Indo-Scythians and Hepthalites. Over several centuries
Muslim Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abrah ...
armies of Muhammad ibn al-Qasim,
Mahmud of Ghazni Yamīn-ud-Dawla Abul-Qāṣim Maḥmūd ibn Sebüktegīn ( fa, ; 2 November 971 – 30 April 1030), usually known as Mahmud of Ghazni or Mahmud Ghaznavi ( fa, ), was the founder of the Turkic Ghaznavid dynasty, ruling from 998 to 1030. At th ...
, Muhammad of Ghor, Timur and
Babur Babur ( fa, , lit= tiger, translit= Bābur; ; 14 February 148326 December 1530), born Mīrzā Zahīr ud-Dīn Muhammad, was the founder of the Mughal Empire in the Indian subcontinent. He was a descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan through his ...
crossed the river to invade Sindh and Punjab, providing a gateway to the Indian subcontinent.


Geography


Tributaries

* Gar River * Gilgit River * Gomal River *
Hunza River Hunza River ( ur, ) is the principal river of Hunza in Gilgit–Baltistan, Pakistan It is formed by the confluence of the Chapursan and Khunjerab ''nalas'' (gorges) which are fed by glaciers. It is joined by the Gilgit River and the Naltar R ...
* Kabul River * Kunar River * Kurram River * Panjnad River ** Chenab River *** Jhelum River *** Ravi River **
Satluj River The Sutlej or Satluj River () is the longest of the five rivers that flow through the historic crossroads region of Punjab in northern India and Pakistan. The Sutlej River is also known as ''Satadru''. It is the easternmost tributary of the In ...
*** Beas River *
Shyok River The Shyok River is a tributary of the Indus River that flows through northern Ladakh and enters Gilgit–Baltistan, spanning some . The Shyok River originates at the Rimo Glacier, one of the tongues of Siachen Glacier. Its alignment is very ...
* Soan River * Suru River * Swat River * Zanskar River * Zhob River


Geology

Indus is an
antecedent river An antecedent stream is a stream that maintains its original course and pattern despite the changes in underlying rock topography. A stream with a dendritic drainage pattern, for example, can be subject to slow tectonic uplift. However, as the upli ...
, meaning that it existed before the Himalayas and entrenched itself while they were rising. The Indus river feeds the Indus
submarine fan Abyssal fans, also known as deep-sea fans, underwater deltas, and submarine fans, are underwater geological structures associated with large-scale sediment deposition and formed by turbidity currents. They can be thought of as an underwater ve ...
, which is the second largest sediment body on the Earth. It consists of around 5 million cubic kilometres of material eroded from the mountains. Studies of the sediment in the modern river indicate that the Karakoram Mountains in northern Pakistan and India are the single most important source of material, with the Himalayas providing the next largest contribution, mostly via the large rivers of the Punjab (Jhelum, Ravi, Chenab, Beas and Sutlej). Analysis of sediments from the Arabian Sea has demonstrated that prior to five million years ago the Indus was not connected to these Punjab rivers which instead flowed east into the
Ganga The Ganges ( ) (in India: Ganga ( ); in Bangladesh: Padma ( )). "The Ganges Basin, known in India as the Ganga and in Bangladesh as the Padma, is an international river to which India, Bangladesh, Nepal and China are the riparian states." is ...
and were captured after that time. Earlier work showed that sand and silt from western Tibet was reaching the Arabian Sea by 45 million years ago, implying the existence of an ancient Indus River by that time. The delta of this proto-Indus river has subsequently been found in the Katawaz Basin, on the Afghan-Pakistan border. In the Nanga Parbat region, the massive amounts of erosion due to the Indus river following the capture and rerouting through that area is thought to bring middle and lower crustal rocks to the surface. In November 2011, satellite images showed that the Indus river had re-entered India, feeding Great Rann of Kutch, Little Rann of Kutch and a lake near
Ahmedabad Ahmedabad ( ; Gujarati: Amdavad ) is the most populous city in the Indian state of Gujarat. It is the administrative headquarters of the Ahmedabad district and the seat of the Gujarat High Court. Ahmedabad's population of 5,570,585 (per t ...
known as
Nal Sarovar NAL or Nal may refer to: In organizations: * Nal Sarovar Bird Sanctuary, in India * National Aerospace Laboratories, India * National Aerospace Laboratory of Japan * National Alliance of Liberals, a political party in Ghana * United States Nation ...
. Heavy rains had left the river basin along with the Lake Manchar, Lake Hemal and Kalri Lake (all in modern-day Pakistan) inundated. This happened two centuries after the Indus river shifted its course westwards following the
1819 Rann of Kutch earthquake The 1819 Rann of Kutch earthquake occurred at about 18:45 to 18:50 local time on 16 June. It had an estimated magnitude ranging from 7.7 to 8.2 on the moment magnitude scale and a maximum perceived intensity of XI (''Extreme'') on the Mercalli i ...
. The Induan Age at start of the Triassic Period of geological time is named for the Indus region.


Wildlife

Accounts of the Indus valley from the times of Alexander's campaign indicate a healthy forest cover in the region. The Mughal Emperor
Babur Babur ( fa, , lit= tiger, translit= Bābur; ; 14 February 148326 December 1530), born Mīrzā Zahīr ud-Dīn Muhammad, was the founder of the Mughal Empire in the Indian subcontinent. He was a descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan through his ...
writes of encountering rhinoceroses along its bank in his memoirs (the
Baburnama The ''Bāburnāma'' ( chg, ; literally: ''"History of Babur"'' or ''"Letters of Babur"''; alternatively known as ''Tuzk-e Babri'') is the memoirs of Ẓahīr-ud-Dīn Muhammad Bābur (1483–1530), founder of the Mughal Empire and a great-great- ...
). Extensive deforestation and human interference in the ecology of the Shivalik Hills has led to a marked deterioration in vegetation and growing conditions. The Indus valley regions are arid with poor vegetation. Agriculture is sustained largely due to irrigation works. The Indus river and its watershed has a rich biodiversity. It is home to around 25 amphibian species.


Mammals

The Indus river dolphin (''Platanista indicus minor'') is found only in the Indus River. It is subspecies of the South Asian river dolphin. The Indus river dolphin formerly also occurred in the tributaries of the Indus river. According to the World Wildlife Fund it is one of the most threatened
cetacea Cetacea (; , ) is an infraorder of aquatic mammals that includes whales, dolphins, and porpoises. Key characteristics are their fully aquatic lifestyle, streamlined body shape, often large size and exclusively carnivorous diet. They propel them ...
ns with only about 1,000 still existing. There are two otter species in the Indus River basin: the Eurasian otter in the northeastern highland sections and the smooth-coated otter elsewhere in the river basin. The smooth-coated otters in the Indus River represent a subspecies found nowhere else, the Sindh otter (''Lutrogale perspicillata sindica'').


Fish

The Indus River basin has a high diversity, being the home of more than 180 freshwater fish species, including 22 which are found nowhere else. Fish also played a major role in earlier cultures of the region, including the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation where depictions of fish were frequent. The Indus script has a commonly used fish sign, which in its various forms may simply have meant "fish", or referred to stars or gods. In the uppermost, highest part of the Indus River basin there are relatively few genera and species: ''
Diptychus ''Diptychus'' is a genus of cyprinid freshwater fish, consisting of two species found in Himalaya and the Tibetan Plateau of China, India, Nepal and Pakistan, ranging west to the Tien Shan Mountains and Central Asia.Li, G.; Y. Tang; R. Zhang; and ...
'', ''
Ptychobarbus ''Ptychobarbus'' is a genus of cyprinid fish that is found in rivers, streams and lakes in the Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau of China, India, Nepal and Pakistan, extending into the highlands of Afghanistan. They reach up to in weight and about ...
'', ''
Schizopyge ''Schizopyge'' is a genus of cyprinid freshwater fish found in Pakistan and the northwestern part of India. ''Schizopyge'' is closely related to ''Schizothorax'' and some species have historically been moved between the two genera. Species There ...
'', ''
Schizopygopsis ''Schizopygopsis'' is a genus of cyprinid fish. Most species are endemic to river basins in the Himalayas and Qinghai–Tibet Plateau of China, but ''S. stoliczkai'' extends into the highlands of Afghanistan, Iran, northern India, Kyrgyzstan, Pak ...
'' and ''
Schizothorax ''Schizothorax'' is a genus of cyprinid fish found in southern and western China, through northern South Asia (Himalaya) and Central Asia, to Iran, with a single species, ''S. prophylax'', in Turkey.Yang, J.; J.X. Yang; and X.Y. Chen (2012). A re ...
'' snowtrout, ''
Triplophysa ''Triplophysa'' is a genus of fish in the family Nemacheilidae found mainly in and around the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in China. Currently, the genus is a mixed assemblage of species. Some lineages have been identified and treated as subgenera (''H ...
'' loaches, and the catfish '' Glyptosternon reticulatum''. Going downstream these are soon joined by the golden mahseer ''
Tor putitora ''Tor putitora'', the Putitor mahseer, Himalayan mahseer, or golden mahseer, is an endangered species of cyprinid fish that is found in rapid streams, riverine pools, and lakes in the Himalayan region. Its native range is within the basins of th ...
'' (alternatively ''T. macrolepis'', although it often is regarded as a synonym of ''T. putitora'') and ''
Schistura ''Schistura'' is a genus of fish in the stone loach family Nemacheilidae native to the streams and rivers of the southern and eastern Asia. Some of these species are troglobitic A troglobite (or, formally, troglobiont) is an animal species, or ...
'' loaches. Downriver from around Thakot, Tarbela, the Kabul–Indus river confluence,
Attock Khurd Attock Khurd ( ur, ; ''"''Little Attock''"'') is a small town located beside the Indus River in the Attock District of Punjab Province in Pakistan. Khurd and Kalan are Persian words, themselves derived from Sanskrit (''Kshudra'' means "small ...
and Peshawar the diversity rises strongly, including many cyprinids (''
Amblypharyngodon The carplets (''Amblypharyngodon'') are a genus of fishes in the family Cyprinidae. They are up to in total length and inhabit a wide range of slow-moving or stagnant freshwater habitats in South and Mainland Southeast Asia. Species There are 5 ...
'', ''
Aspidoparia ''Aspidoparia'' is a small genus of cyprinid fishes that are found in South Asia South Asia is the southern subregion of Asia, which is defined in both geographical and ethno-cultural terms. The region consists of the countries of Afghan ...
'', ''
Barilius ''Barilius'' is a large genus of cyprinid freshwater fishes native to Asia. Four species in this genus have been described since 2012. Species There are currently 31 recognized species in this genus: * ''Barilius ardens'' Knight, A. Rai, D ...
'', '' Chela'', '' Cirrhinus'', '' Crossocheilus'', ''
Cyprinion ''Cyprinion'' is a genus of ray-finned fish in the family Cyprinidae. Species * '' Cyprinion acinaces'' Banister & M. A. Clarke, 1977 ** '' Cyprinion acinaces acinaces'' Banister & M. A. Clarke, 1977 ** '' Cyprinion acinaces hijazi'' Krupp, ...
'', ''
Danio ''Danio'' is a genus of small freshwater fish in the family Cyprinidae found in South and Southeast Asia, commonly kept in aquaria. They are generally characterised by a pattern of horizontal stripes, rows of spots or vertical bars. Some species ...
'', ''
Devario ''Devario'' is a genus of fish in the family Cyprinidae native to the rivers and streams of South and Southeast Asia. These fishes have short barbels and many species having vertical or horizontal stripes. These species consume various small, aqu ...
'', '' Esomus'', '' Garra'', '' Labeo'', '' Naziritor'', ''
Osteobrama ''Osteobrama'' is a genus of cyprinid fish found in southern Asia consisting of eight species. The name is derived from the Greek word ''osteon'', meaning "bone", and the Old French word ''breme'', a type of freshwater fish. Species *''Osteobra ...
'', '' Pethia'', ''
Puntius ''Puntius'' is a genus of small freshwater fish in the family Cyprinidae native to South Asia and Mainland Southeast Asia, as well as Taiwan. Many species formerly placed in ''Puntius'' have been moved to other genera such as ''Barbodes'', ''Daw ...
'', '' Rasbora'', ''
Salmophasia The razorbelly minnows are a group of fish in the genus ''Salmostoma'' found in southern Asia. They have been placed in the genus ''Salmophasia'' but this is regarded as a junior synonym of ''Salmostoma''. Species There are currently 13 recogn ...
'', ''
Securicula ''Securicula gora'' is a species of cyprinid fish found in Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and possibly in Nepal. It is the only species in its genus. Description Sericula gora'' is a silvery fish with an upward pointing mouth, shich has a prominent ...
'' and ''
Systomus ''Systomus'' is a genus of fish in the family Cyprinidae native to tropical Asia.Kottelat, M. (2013)The fishes of the inland waters of southeast Asia: A catalogue and core bibliography of the fishes known to occur in freshwaters, mangroves and e ...
''), true loaches (''
Botia ''Botia'' (Indian loaches) is a genus of freshwater fish in the loach family (Botiidae). It was a large genus with about 20 species. In 2004 Maurice Kottelat proposed in his paper (along with the description of ''Botia kubotai'', see References b ...
'' and '' Lepidocephalus''), stone loaches (''
Acanthocobitis ''Acanthocobitis'' is a genus of freshwater ray-finned fish of the stone loach family, Nemacheilidae. Recent work has suggested that the genus be split into two with the subgenus '' Paracanthocobitis'' being raised to a full species, leaving jus ...
'' and ''
Nemacheilus ''Nemacheilus'' is a genus of stone loaches native to Asia. Species There are currently 44 recognized species in this genus: * '' Nemacheilus anguilla'' Annandale, 1919 (eel loach) * '' Nemacheilus arenicolus'' Kottelat, 1998 * '' Nemacheil ...
''), ailiid catfish (''
Clupisoma ''Clupisoma'' is a genus of catfish in the family Ailiidae native to Asia Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which sh ...
''), bagridae catfish ('' Batasio'', ''
Mystus ''Mystus'' is a genus of fish in the family Bagridae native to Asia. Phylogenetic relationships within this genus are poorly understood, though it has been suggested that there are two major lineages. Species There are currently 46 recognized s ...
'', ''
Rita Rita may refer to: People * Rita (given name) * Rita (Indian singer) (born 1984) * Rita (Israeli singer) (born 1962) * Rita (Japanese singer) * Eliza Humphreys (1850–1938), wrote under the pseudonym Rita Places * Djarrit, also known as Rita, a ...
'' and ''
Sperata ''Sperata'' is a genus of bagrid catfishes. Species There are currently six recognized species in this genus: * ''Sperata acicularis'' Ferraris & Runge, 1999 * ''Sperata aor'' ( F. Hamilton, 1822) - Long-whiskered catfish * ''Sperata aorella ...
''), airsac catfish (''
Heteropneustes ''Heteropneustes'' is a genus of catfishes, the airsac catfishes, native to Asia. This genus is monotypic. Their bodies are elongated and compressed with greatly depressed heads. They have long air sacs that serve as lungs that extend from the ...
''), schilbid catfish ('' Eutropiichthys''), silurid catfish ('' Ompok'' and '' Wallago''), sisorid catfish ('' Bagarius'', '' Gagata'', '' Glyptothorax'' and '' Sisor''), gouramis ('' Trichogaster''), nandid leaffish (''
Nandus ''Nandus'' is a genus of Asian leaffishes native to southern and southeastern Asia. Species The currently recognized species in this genus are: * ''Nandus andrewi'' H. H. Ng & Jaafar, 2008 * ''Nandus meni'' Hossain & Sarker, 2013 * '' Nandu ...
''), snakeheads (''
Channa ''Channa'' is a genus of predatory fish in the family Channidae, commonly known as snakeheads, native to freshwater habitats in Asia. This genus contains about 50 scientifically described species. The genus has a wide natural distribution extend ...
''), spiny eel (''
Macrognathus ''Macrognathus'' is a genus of eel-like fish of the family Mastacembelidae of the order Synbranchiformes. These fish are distributed throughout most of South and Southeast Asia. ''Macrognathus'' species feed on small aquatic insect larvae as ...
'' and '' Mastacembelus''), knifefish (''
Notopterus The bronze featherback (''Notopterus notopterus''; as, কান্ধুলি ''kandhuli'', bn, ফলি, bn, কাংলা,, th, ปลาสลาด, ปลาฉลาด, ปลาตอง, Vietnamese: ''Cá thát lát'', my, င ...
''), glassfish ('' Chanda'' and ''
Parambassis ''Parambassis'' is a genus of freshwater fish in the Asiatic glassfish family Ambassidae of order Perciformes. The type species is the Iridescent glassy perchlet (''Ambassis apogonoides''). These fishes originate mostly from Southeast Asia, bu ...
''), clupeids (''
Gudusia ''Gudusia'' is a clupeid fish genus involving two species of shad in the rivers of South and Southeast Asia: * ''Gudusia chapra'' ( F. Hamilton, 1822) (Indian river shad) * ''Gudusia variegata ''Gudusia'' is a clupeid fish genus involving two ...
''), needlefish ('' Xenentodon'') and gobies ('' Glossogobius''), as well as a few introduced species. As the altitude further declines the Indus basin becomes overall quite slow-flowing as it passes through the
Punjab Plain The Punjab Plain is a large alluvial plain in Eastern Pakistan and Northwestern India. The plain includes the Pakistani province of Punjab and the Indian states of Punjab and Haryana, and parts of Rajasthan. This plain is around 200–300 meters ...
. Major
carp Carp are various species of oily freshwater fish from the family Cyprinidae, a very large group of fish native to Europe and Asia. While carp is consumed in many parts of the world, they are generally considered an invasive species in parts of ...
become common, and chameleonfish ('' Badis''), mullet (''
Sicamugil The Burmese mullet (''Sicamugil hamiltonii'') is a species of freshwater ray-finned fish, a mullet belonging to the family Mugilidae. It is the only species in the genus ''Sicamugil''. It is found in the drainage systems of the Sittang The Sit ...
'') and swamp eel (''
Monopterus ''Monopterus'' is a genus of swamp eels native to Asia. They live in various freshwater habitats and some have a fossorial lifestyle.Britz, R., Doherty-Bone, T.M., Kouete, M.T., Sykes, D. & Gower, D.J. (2016)''Monopterus luticolus'', a new specie ...
'') appear. In some upland lakes and tributaries of the Punjab region snowtrout and mahseer are still common, but once the Indus basin reaches its lower plain the former group is entirely absent and the latter are rare. Many of the species of the middle sections of the Indus basin are also present in the lower. Notable examples of genera that are present in the lower plain but generally not elsewhere in the Indus River basin are the ''
Aphanius ''Aphanius'' is a genus of pupfishes. Unlike other members of the family which are from the Americas, ''Aphanius'' species are native to northern Africa, southwestern Asia (as far east as India) and southern Europe. Several species in the genus h ...
'' pupfish, '' Aplocheilus'' killifish, palla fish (''Tenualosa ilisha''), catla (''Labeo catla''), rohu (''Labeo rohita'') and '' Cirrhinus mrigala''. The lowermost part of the river and its delta are home to freshwater fish, but also a number of brackish and marine species. This includes pomfret and prawns. The large delta has been recognized by conservationists as an important ecological region. Here, the river turns into many marshes, streams and creeks and meets the sea at shallow levels. Palla fish (''Tenualosa ilisha'') of the river is a delicacy for people living along the river. The population of fish in the river is moderately high, with Sukkur, Thatta, and
Kotri Kotri ( sd, ڪوٽڙي, ur, ) is a city and the headquarters of the Kotri Taluka of Jamshoro District of Sindh province in Pakistan. Located on the right bank of the Indus River, it is the 29th largest city in Pakistan by population. Name The ...
being the major fishing centres – all in the lower Sindh course. As a result, damming and irrigation has made fish farming an important economic activity.


Economy

The Indus is the most important supplier of water resources to the Punjab and Sindh plains – it forms the backbone of agriculture and food production in Pakistan. The river is especially critical since rainfall is meagre in the lower Indus valley. Irrigation canals were first built by the people of the Indus Valley civilisation, and later by the engineers of the
Kushan Empire The Kushan Empire ( grc, Βασιλεία Κοσσανῶν; xbc, Κυϸανο, ; sa, कुषाण वंश; Brahmi: , '; BHS: ; xpr, 𐭊𐭅𐭔𐭍 𐭇𐭔𐭕𐭓, ; zh, 貴霜 ) was a syncretic empire, formed by the Yuezhi, i ...
and the Mughal Empire. Modern irrigation was introduced by the British East India Company in 1850 – the construction of modern canals accompanied with the restoration of old canals. The British supervised the construction of one of the most complex irrigation networks in the world. The
Guddu Barrage Guddu Barrage ( ur, )is a barrage on the Indus River near Kashmore in the Sindh province of Pakistan. President Iskander Mirza laid the foundation-stone of Guddu Barrage on 2 February 1957. The barrage was completed in 1962 at a cost of 474.8 mi ...
is long – irrigating Sukkur, Jacobabad, Larkana and Kalat. The Sukkur Barrage serves over . After Pakistan came into existence, a water control treaty signed between India and Pakistan in 1960 guaranteed that Pakistan would receive water from the Indus River and its two tributaries the Jhelum River & the Chenab River independently of upstream control by India. The
Indus Basin Project The Indus Basin Project is a water control project that resulted from a treaty, Indus Waters Treaty, signed between India and Pakistan in 1960 that guaranteed that Pakistan would receive water from the Indus River independent from upstream control ...
consisted primarily of the construction of two main dams, the
Mangla Dam The Mangla Dam ( ur, ) is a multipurpose dam situated on the Jhelum River in the Mirpur District of Azad Kashmir. It is the sixth-largest dam in the world. The village of Mangla, which sits at the mouth of the dam, serves as its namesake. I ...
built on the Jhelum River and the Tarbela Dam constructed on the Indus River, together with their subsidiary dams. The Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority undertook the construction of the Chashma-Jhelum link canal – linking the waters of the Indus and Jhelum rivers – extending water supplies to the regions of Bahawalpur and Multan. Pakistan constructed the Tarbela Dam near
Rawalpindi Rawalpindi ( or ; Urdu, ) is a city in the Punjab province of Pakistan. It is the fourth largest city in Pakistan after Karachi, Lahore and Faisalabad, and third largest in Punjab after Lahore and Faisalabad. Rawalpindi is next to Pakistan's ...
– standing long and high, with an long reservoir. It supports the
Chashma Barrage Chashma Barrage is a barrage on the River Indus in Mianwali District of the Punjab province of Pakistan 304 km NW of Lahore and 56 km downstream of Jinnah Barrage. The contract for Chashma Barrage works was awarded on 10 February 1967 ...
near Dera Ismail Khan for irrigation use and flood control and the
Taunsa Barrage Head Taunsa Barrage is a barrage on the River Indus in Taunsa district of Dera Ghazi Khan District, Punjab province of Pakistan.Dera Ghazi Khan which also produces 100,000 kilowatts of electricity. The Kotri Barrage near Hyderabad is long and provides additional water supplies for Karachi. The extensive linking of tributaries with the Indus has helped spread water resources to the valley of Peshawar, in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The extensive irrigation and dam projects provide the basis for Pakistan's large production of crops such as cotton,
sugarcane Sugarcane or sugar cane is a species of (often hybrid) tall, Perennial plant, perennial grass (in the genus ''Saccharum'', tribe Andropogoneae) that is used for sugar Sugar industry, production. The plants are 2–6 m (6–20 ft) tall with ...
and wheat. The dams also generate electricity for heavy industries and urban centers.


People

Indus river is sacred to Hindus.
Sindhu Darshan Festival Sindhu Darshan Festival is a festival held in Leh, Ladakh, India. The festival is held every year in June on the full moon day of Guru Purnima. On this day, devotees gather near the banks of the Indus River, which is known as the Sindhu River in ...
is held on every
Guru Purnima Guru Purnima (Poornima) is a tradition dedicated to all the spiritual and academic Gurus, who are evolved or enlightened humans, ready to share their wisdom, based on Karma Yoga. It is celebrated as a festival in India, Nepal and Bhutan by Hi ...
on the banks of Indus. The ethnicities of the Indus Valley (Pakistan and Northwest India) have a greater amount of ANI (or West Eurasian) admixture than other South Asians, including inputs from Western Steppe Herders, with evidence of more sustained and multi-layered migrations from the west.


Modern issues


Indus delta

Originally, the delta used to receive almost all of the water from the Indus river, which has an annual flow of approximately , and is accompanied by of silt. Since the 1940s, dams, barrages and irrigation works have been constructed on the river. The Indus Basin Irrigation System is the "largest contiguous irrigation system developed over the past 140 years" anywhere in the world. This has reduced the flow of water and by 2018, the average annual flow of water below the Kotri barrage was , and annual amount of silt discharged was estimated at . As a result, the
2010 Pakistan floods The floods in Pakistan began in late July 2010, resulting from heavy monsoon rains in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Sindh, Punjab and, Balochistan regions of Pakistan, which affected the Indus River basin. Approximately one-fifth of Pakistan's tot ...
were considered "good news" for the ecosystem and population of the river delta as they brought much needed fresh water. Any further utilization of the river basin water is not economically feasible. Vegetation and wildlife of the Indus delta are threatened by the reduced inflow of fresh water, along with extensive deforestation, industrial pollution and global warming. Damming has also isolated the delta population of Indus river dolphins from those further upstream. Large-scale diversion of the river's water for irrigation has raised far-reaching issues. Sediment clogging from poor maintenance of canals has affected agricultural production and vegetation on numerous occasions. Irrigation itself is increasing soil salinization, reducing crop yields and in some cases rendering farmland useless for cultivation.


Effects of climate change on the river

The Tibetan Plateau contains the world's third-largest store of ice. Qin Dahe, the former head of the China Meteorological Administration, said the recent fast pace of melting and warmer temperatures will be good for agriculture and tourism in the short term, but issued a strong warning:
Temperatures are rising four times faster than elsewhere in China, and the Tibetan glaciers are retreating at a higher speed than in any other part of the world... In the short term, this will cause lakes to expand and bring floods and mudflows.. In the long run, the glaciers are vital lifelines of the Indus River. Once they vanish, water supplies in Pakistan will be in peril.
"There is insufficient data to say what will happen to the Indus," says David Grey, the World Bank's senior water advisor in South Asia. "But we all have very nasty fears that the flows of the Indus could be severely, severely affected by glacier melt as a consequence of climate change," and reduced by perhaps as much as 50 percent. "Now what does that mean to a population that lives in a desert here without the river, there would be no life? I don't know the answer to that question," he says. "But we need to be concerned about that. Deeply, deeply concerned." U.S. diplomat Richard Holbrooke said, shortly before his death in 2010, that he believed that falling water levels in the Indus River "could very well precipitate World War III."


Pollution

Over the years factories on the banks of the Indus River have increased levels of water pollution in the river and the atmosphere around it. High levels of pollutants in the river have led to the deaths of endangered Indus river dolphin. The Sindh Environmental Protection Agency has ordered polluting factories around the river to shut down under the Pakistan Environmental Protection Act, 1997. Death of the Indus river dolphin has also been attributed to fishermen using poison to kill fish and scooping them up. As a result, the government banned fishing from
Guddu Barrage Guddu Barrage ( ur, )is a barrage on the Indus River near Kashmore in the Sindh province of Pakistan. President Iskander Mirza laid the foundation-stone of Guddu Barrage on 2 February 1957. The barrage was completed in 1962 at a cost of 474.8 mi ...
to Sukkur. The Indus is second among a group of ten rivers responsible for about 90% of all the plastic that reaches the oceans. The Yangtze is the only river contributing more plastic.


2010 floods

Frequently, Indus river is prone to moderate to severe flooding. In July 2010, following abnormally heavy monsoon rains, the Indus River rose above its banks and started flooding. The rain continued for the next two months, devastating large areas of Pakistan. In
Sindh Sindh (; ; ur, , ; historically romanized as Sind) is one of the four provinces of Pakistan. Located in the southeastern region of the country, Sindh is the third-largest province of Pakistan by land area and the second-largest province ...
, the Indus burst its banks near Sukkur on 8 August, submerging the village of Mor Khan Jatoi. In early August, the heaviest flooding moved southward along the Indus River from severely affected northern regions toward western Punjab, where at least of cropland was destroyed, and the southern province of Sindh. , over two thousand people had died and over a million homes had been destroyed since the flooding began.


2011 floods

The 2011
Sindh Sindh (; ; ur, , ; historically romanized as Sind) is one of the four provinces of Pakistan. Located in the southeastern region of the country, Sindh is the third-largest province of Pakistan by land area and the second-largest province ...
floods began during the Pakistani monsoon season in mid-August 2011, resulting from heavy monsoon rains in Sindh, eastern Balochistan, and southern Punjab. The floods caused considerable damage; an estimated 434 civilians were killed, with 5.3 million people and 1,524,773 homes affected. Sindh is a fertile region and often called the "breadbasket" of the country; the damage and toll of the floods on the local agrarian economy was said to be extensive. At least of arable land were inundated. The flooding followed the previous year's floods, which devastated a large part of the country. Unprecedented torrential monsoon rains caused severe flooding in 16 districts of Sindh.Government of Pakistan Pakmet.com.pk Retrieved on 19 September 2011


Barrages, bridges, levees and dams

In Pakistan currently there are six barrages on the Indus:
Guddu Barrage Guddu Barrage ( ur, )is a barrage on the Indus River near Kashmore in the Sindh province of Pakistan. President Iskander Mirza laid the foundation-stone of Guddu Barrage on 2 February 1957. The barrage was completed in 1962 at a cost of 474.8 mi ...
, Sukkur Barrage, Kotri Barrage (also called Ghulam Muhammad barrage),
Taunsa Barrage Head Taunsa Barrage is a barrage on the River Indus in Taunsa district of Dera Ghazi Khan District, Punjab province of Pakistan.Chashma Barrage Chashma Barrage is a barrage on the River Indus in Mianwali District of the Punjab province of Pakistan 304 km NW of Lahore and 56 km downstream of Jinnah Barrage. The contract for Chashma Barrage works was awarded on 10 February 1967 ...
and
Jinnah Barrage The Jinnah Barrage is a barrage on the River Indus near Kalabagh, Pakistan. It is part of the Thal Project which helps irrigate in the Sindh Sagar Doab east of the Indus. Planning for the project dates back to the nineteenth century but final pl ...
. Another new barrage called "
Sindh Barrage Sindh Barrage is a proposed project in Sindh, Pakistan that will be constructed on the River Indus in between the Kotri Barrage and the Indus River outfall into the Arabian Sea. The barrage site is proposed to be located about 30 km upstream the ...
" is planned as a terminal barrage on the Indus River. There are some bridges on river Indus, such as, Dadu Moro Bridge, Larkana Khairpur Indus River Bridge, Thatta-Sujawal bridge, Jhirk-Mula Katiar bridge and recently planned Kandhkot-Ghotki bridge. The entire left bank of Indus river in Sind province is protected from river flooding by constructing around 600 km long levees. The right bank side is also leveed from
Guddu barrage Guddu Barrage ( ur, )is a barrage on the Indus River near Kashmore in the Sindh province of Pakistan. President Iskander Mirza laid the foundation-stone of Guddu Barrage on 2 February 1957. The barrage was completed in 1962 at a cost of 474.8 mi ...
to Lake Manchar. In response to the levees construction, the river has been aggrading rapidly over the last 20 years leading to breaches upstream of barrages and inundation of large areas. Tarbela Dam in Pakistan is constructed on the Indus River, while the controversial
Kalabagh dam The Kalabagh Dam ( ur, , ) is a proposed hydroelectric dam on the Indus River at Kalabagh in the Mianwali District, Punjab, Pakistan, which has been intensely debated along ethnic and regional lines for over 40 years. If constructed, the dam ...
is also being constructed on Indus river. Pakistan is also building Munda Dam.


Gallery

File:River Indus at Kotri Barrage Jamshoro.webm, Video of River Indus at Kotri Barrage, Sindh, Pakistan. File:Rohri.jpg, Lansdowne Bridge and Ayub Bridge connecting the cities of Rohri and Sukkur in Sindh, Pakistan. File:Frozen Indus, Near Nyoma.jpg, Frozen Indus, Near Nyoma File:Indus at Skardu (1).jpg, Indus at Skardu File:Indus River Dera Ismail Khan.jpg, Indus near Dera Ismail Khan


See also

* Baglihar Dam *
Geology of the Himalayas The geology of the Himalayas is a record of the most dramatic and visible creations of the immense mountain range formed by plate tectonic forces and sculpted by weathering and erosion. The Himalayas, which stretch over 2400 km between th ...
* Ghaggar-Hakra River * HMS Indus *
Indus River Delta The Indus River Delta ( ur, سندھ ڈیلٹا, sd, سنڌو ٽِڪور), forms where the Indus River flows into the Arabian Sea, mostly in the southern Sindh province of Pakistan with a small portion in the Kutch Region of India. The delta co ...
*
Indus Sagar Doab Indus Sagar Doab ( Punjabi, ur, ) is the tract of land in Punjab, Pakistan, lying between the Indus River and the Jhelum River. It is one of the five major doabs of the Punjab and forms the north western portion of the Punjab plain. Districts ...
* Indus Valley Civilisation * Indus Waters Treaty *
List of rivers of Pakistan This is a list of rivers wholly or partly in Pakistan, organised geographically by river basin, from west to east. Tributaries are listed from the mouth to the source. The longest and the largest river in Pakistan is the Indus River. Around two- ...
* Rigvedic rivers *
Rivers of Jammu and Kashmir Jammu and Kashmir (union territory), Jammu and Kashmir has many lakes, rivers, and glaciers. Significant rivers that flow through Jammu & Kashmir from the Himalayas are Jhelum River, Jhelum, Chenab River, Chenab and Ravi River, Ravi These river b ...
* Sarasvati River * Sindhology *
Sindhu Darshan Festival Sindhu Darshan Festival is a festival held in Leh, Ladakh, India. The festival is held every year in June on the full moon day of Guru Purnima. On this day, devotees gather near the banks of the Indus River, which is known as the Sindhu River in ...
*
Sindhu Pushkaram Sindhu Pushkaram is a festival of River Sindhu normally occurs once in 12 years. This Pushkaram is observed for a period of 12 days from the time of entry of Jupiter into ''Kumbha'' rasi (Aquarius). Celebrations 2021 Sindhu Pushkaram is bein ...


Explanatory notes


Citations


General and cited references

* Albinia, Alice. (2008) ''Empires of the Indus: The Story of a River''. First American Edition (20101) W. W. Norton & Company, New York. . * Alexander Burnes, ''A voyage on the Indus'', London, 1973 * Philippe Fabry, ''Wandering with the Indus'', with Yusuf Shahid (text) Lahore, 1995 * Jean Fairley, ''The Lion River: The Indus'', London, 1975 * * D. Murphy, ''
Where the Indus is Young ''Where the Indus Is Young'' is a book by Irish author Dervla Murphy. It was first published by John Murray in 1977. The book is usually given the subtitle ''A winter in Baltistan'', but has been called ''Midwinter in Baltistan''. Summary ' ...
'', London, 1977 * Samina Quraeshi, ''Legacy of the Indus'', New York, 1974 * Schomberg, ''Between Oxus and Indus'', London, 1935 * Francine Tissot, ''Les Arts anciens du Pakistan et de l'Afghanistan'', Paris, 1987 * Sir M. Wheeler, ''Civilisations of the Indus Valley and Beyond'', London, 1966 * World Atlas, Millennium Edition, p. 265.


External links

* The origins of Indus: ** **
Northern Areas Development Gateway
* - covered parts of the Indus River
Indus River watershed map (World Resources Institute)
* * {{Authority control History of Sindh Indus Valley civilisation International rivers of Asia Rigvedic rivers Rivers of China Rivers of Gilgit-Baltistan Rivers of India Rivers of Jammu and Kashmir Rivers of Pakistan Rivers of Sindh Rivers of Tibet Sacred rivers Rivers in Buddhism Rivers of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Rivers of Punjab (Pakistan)