A closed city or closed town is a settlement where travel or residency restrictions are applied so that specific authorization is required to visit or remain overnight. They may be sensitive military establishments or secret research installations that require much more space or freedom than is available in a conventional military base. There may also be a wider variety of permanent residents including close family members of workers or trusted traders who are not directly connected with its clandestine purposes.

Many closed cities existed in the Soviet Union until its collapse in 1991. After 1991, a number of them still existed in the CIS countries, especially Russia. In modern Russia, such places are officially known as "closed administrative-territorial formations" (закрытые административно-территориальные образования, zakrytye administrativno-territorial'nye obrazovaniya, or ЗАТО ZATO for short).

Structure and operations

A checkpoint in the closed city of Zheleznogorsk, in Krasnoyarsk Krai, Russia

Sometimes closed cities may only be represented on classified maps that are not available to the general public. In some cases there may be no road signs or directions to closed cities, and they are usually omitted from railroad time tables and bus routes.

Sometimes closed cities may be indicated obliquely as a nearby insignificant village, with the name of the stop serving the closed city made equivocal or misleading. For mail delivery, a closed city is usually named as the nearest large city and a special postcode e.g. Arzamas‑16, Chelyabinsk‑65. The actual settlement can be rather distant from its namesakes; for instance, Sarov, designated Arzamas-16, is in the federal republic of Mordovia, whereas Arzamas is in the Nizhny Novgorod Oblast (roughly 75 kilometres (47 mi) away). People not living in a closed city were subject to document checks and security checkpoints, and explicit permission was required for them to visit.^[1] To relocate to a closed city, one would ne

Many closed cities existed in the Soviet Union until its collapse in 1991. After 1991, a number of them still existed in the CIS countries, especially Russia. In modern Russia, such places are officially known as "closed administrative-territorial formations" (закрытые административно-территориальные образования, zakrytye administrativno-territorial'nye obrazovaniya, or ЗАТО ZATO for short).

Sometimes closed cities may only be represented on classified maps that are not available to the general public. In some cases there may be no road signs or directions to closed cities, and they are usually omitted from railroad time tables and bus routes.

Sometimes closed cities may be indicated obliquely as a nearby insignificant village, with the name of the stop serving the closed city made equivocal or misleading. For mail delivery, a closed city is usually named as the nearest large city and a special postcode e.g. Arzamas‑16, Chelyabinsk‑65. The actual settlement can be rather distant from its namesakes; for instance, Sarov, designated Arzamas-16, is in the federal republic of Mordovia, whereas Arzamas is in the Nizhny Novgorod Oblast (roughly 75 kilometres (47 mi) away). People not living in a closed city were subject to document checks and security checkpoints, and explicit permission was required for them to visit.^[1] To relocate to a closed city, one would need security clearance by the organization running it, such as the KGB in Soviet closed cities.

Closed cities were sometimes guarded by a security perimeter with barbed wire and towers. The very fact of such a city's existence was often classified, and residents were expected not to divulge their place of residence to outsiders. This lack of freedom was often compensated by better housing conditions and a better choice of goods in retail trade than elsewhere in the country. Also, in the Soviet Union, people working with classified information received a salary bonus.

Soviet closed cities

Map indicating federal subjects containing closed cities used for nuclear research and development

Closed cities were established in the Soviet Union from the late 1940s onwards under the euphemistic name of "post boxes", referring to the practice of addressing post to them via mail boxes in other cities. They fell into two distinct categories.

1. The first category comprised relatively small communities with sensitive military, industrial, or scientific facilities, such as arms plants or nuclear research sites.^[2] Examples are the modern towns of Ozyorsk (Chelyabinsk-65) with a plutonium production plant, and Sillamäe, the site of a uranium enrichment facility. Even Soviet citizens were not allowed access to these places without proper authorization. In addition to this, some bigger cities were closed for unauthorized access to foreigners, while they were freely accessible to Soviet citizens. These included cities like Perm, a center for Soviet artillery, munitions, and also aircraft engines production, and Vladivostok, the headquarters and primary base of the Soviet Pacific Fleet.
2. The second category consisted of border cities (and some whole border areas, such as the Kaliningrad Oblast, Saaremaa, and Hiiumaa), which were closed for security purposes. Comparable closed areas existed elsewhere in the Eastern bloc; a substantial area along the inner German border and the border between West Germany and Czechoslovakia was placed under similar restrictions (although by the 1970s foreigners could cross the latter by train). Citizens were required to have special permits to enter such areas.

The locations of the first category of the closed cities were chosen for their geographical characteristics. They were often established in remote places situated deep in the Urals and Siberia, out of reach of enemy bombers. They were built close to rivers and lakes that were used to provide the large amounts of water needed for heavy industry and nuclear technology. Existing civilian settlements in the vicinity were often used as sources of construction labour. Although the closure of cities originated as a strictly temporary measure that was to be normalized under more favorable conditions, in practice the closed cities took on a life of their own and became a notable institutional feature of the Soviet system.^[3]

Movement to and from closed areas was tightly controlled. Foreigners were prohibited from entering them and local citizens were under stringent restrictions. They had to have special permission to travel there or leave, and anyone seeking residency was required to undergo vetting by t

Sometimes closed cities may be indicated obliquely as a nearby insignificant village, with the name of the stop serving the closed city made equivocal or misleading. For mail delivery, a closed city is usually named as the nearest large city and a special postcode e.g. Arzamas‑16, Chelyabinsk‑65. The actual settlement can be rather distant from its namesakes; for instance, Sarov, designated Arzamas-16, is in the federal republic of Mordovia, whereas Arzamas is in the Nizhny Novgorod Oblast (roughly 75 kilometres (47 mi) away). People not living in a closed city were subject to document checks and security checkpoints, and explicit permission was required for them to visit.^[1] To relocate to a closed city, one would need security clearance by the organization running it, such as the KGB in Soviet closed cities.

Closed cities were sometimes guarded by a security perimeter with barbed wire and towers. The very fact of such a city's existence was often classified, and residents were expected not to divulge their place of residence to outsiders. This lack of freedom was often compensated by better housing conditions and a better choice of goods in retail trade than elsewhere in the country. Also, in the Soviet Union, people working with classified information received a salary bonus.

Closed cities were established in the Soviet Union from the late 1940s onwards under the euphemistic name of "post boxes", referring to the practice of addressing post to them via mail boxes in other cities. They fell into two distinct categories.

1. The first category comprised relatively small communities with sensitive military, industrial, or scientific facilities, such as arms plants or nuclear research sites.^[2] Examples are the modern towns of Ozyorsk (Chelyabinsk-65) with a plutonium production plant, and Sillamäe, the site of a uranium enrichment facility. Even Soviet citizens were not allowed access to these places without proper authorization. In addition to this, some bigger cities were closed for unauthorized access to foreigners, while they were freely accessible to Soviet citizens. These included cities like Perm, a center for Soviet artillery, munitions, and also aircraft engines production, and Vladivostok, the headquarters and primary base of the Urals and Siberia, out of reach of enemy bombers. They were built close to rivers and lakes that were used to provide the large amounts of water needed for heavy industry and nuclear technology. Existing civilian settlements in the vicinity were often used as sources of construction labour. Although the closure of cities originated as a strictly temporary measure that was to be normalized under more favorable conditions, in practice the closed cities took on a life of their own and became a notable institutional feature of the Soviet system.^[3]

   Movement to and from closed areas was tightly controlled. Foreigners were prohibited from entering them and local citizens were under stringent restrictions. They had to have special permission to travel there or leave, and anyone seeking residency was required to undergo vetting by the NKVD and its successor agencies. Access to some closed cities was physically enforced by surrounding them with barbed wire fences monitored by armed guards.

   The "mailbox"

   "Mailbox" was the unofficial name of a secret Soviet facility much like the closed city, but smaller, usually the size of a factory. The "mailbox" name was usually classified, as were the activities there. Incoming mail was addressed to "Mailbox #XXXX", thus the name of "mailbox". Most Soviet design bureaus (OKB) for weapons, aircraft, space technology, military electronics, etc. were "mailboxes".^{[citation needed]}

   Closed cities in post-Soviet states

   RussiaNKVD and its successor agencies. Access to some closed cities was physically enforced by surrounding them with barbed wire fences monitored by armed guards.

   "Mailbox" was the unofficial name of a secret Soviet facility much like the closed city, but smaller, usually the size of a factory. The "mailbox" name was usually classified, as were the activities there. Incoming mail was addressed to "Mailbox #XXXX", thus the name of "mailbox". Most Soviet design bureaus (OKB) for weapons, aircraft, space technology, military electronics, etc. were "mailboxes".^{[citation needed]}

   Closed cities in post-Soviet statesRussia has the largest number of closed cities. The policy of closing cities underwent major changes in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Some cities, such as Perm, were opened well before the fall of the Soviet Union; others, such as Kaliningrad and Vladivostok, remained closed until as late as 1992. The adoption of a new constitution for the Russian Federation in 1993 prompted significant reforms to the status of closed cities, which were renamed "closed administrative-territorial formations" (or ZATO, after the Russian acronym). Municipally all such entities have a status of urban okrugs, as mandated by the federal law.

   There are currently 44 publicly acknowledged closed cities in Russia with a total population of about 1.5 million people. 75% are administered by the Russian Ministry of Defense, with the rest being administered by Rosatom.^[4] Another 15 or so closed cities are believed to exist, but their names and locations have not been publicly disclosed by the Russian government.^[5]

   Some Russian closed cities are open for foreign investment, but foreigners may only enter with a permit. An example is the Nuclear Cities Initiative (NCI), a joint effort of the United States National Nuclear Security Administration and Minatom, which involves in part the cities of Sarov, Snezhinsk, and Zheleznogorsk.

   The number of closed cities has been significantly reduced since the mid-1990s. However, on 30 October 2001, foreign travel (without any exceptions) was restricted in the northern citie

   There are currently 44 publicly acknowledged closed cities in Russia with a total population of about 1.5 million people. 75% are administered by the Russian Ministry of Defense, with the rest being administered by Rosatom.^[4] Another 15 or so closed cities are believed to exist, but their names and locations have not been publicly disclosed by the Russian government.^[5]

   Some Russian closed cities are open for foreign investment, but foreigners may only enter with a permit. An example is the Nuclear Cities Initiative (NCI), a joint effort of the United States National Nuclear Security Administration and Minatom, which involves in part the cities of Sarov, Snezhinsk, and Zheleznogorsk.

   The number of closed cities has been significantly reduced since the mid-1990s. However, on 30 October 2001, foreign travel (without any exceptions) was restricted in the northern cities of Norilsk, Talnakh, Kayerkan, Dudinka, and Igarka. Russian and Belarusian citizens visiting these cities are not required to have any permits; however, local courts are known to deport Belarusian citizens^[6] in contradiction with the federal Constitution.

   Krasnoyarsk-26 in Siberia, researched for the subject of Sidney Sheldon's 2001 fictional murder mystery-romance The Sky is Falling,^[7] was planned in 2003 to be shut down by 2011,^[8] in co-operation with the U.S, and documented by their Natural Resources Defense Council,^[9] but actually closed in 2008.^[10]

   The number of closed cities in Russia is defined by government decree (see links further). They include the following cities. Reasons for restrictions are denoted in the descriptions below.

   Republic of Bashkortostan

   • Mezhgorye – formerly known as Ufa-105 (Уфа-105) and Beloretsk-15 (Белорецк-15), home to the 129th Directorate of strategic subjects' technical supply and maintenance.

   By krai

   Altai Krai

   • Sibirsky

   <

   Altai Krai

   • Sibirsky

   Kamchatka Krai

   • Vilyuchinsk – formerly known as Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky-50 (Петропавловск-Камчатский-50), base of a squadron of submarines from the Russian Pacific Fleet, also involved in the production of nuclear submarines.[Vilyuchinsk – formerly known as Pet

     Krasnoyarsk Krai

     • Dikson
     • Solnechny – formerly known as Uzhur-4 (Ужур-4).^[11]
     • Zelenogorsk – formerly known as Krasnoyarsk-45 (Красноярск-45).[12]

       Perm Krai

       

       The cultural center in Zvyozdny, Russia
       • Zvyozdny – formerly known as Perm-76 (Пермь-76).

       Primorsky Krai

       • Fokino – formerly known as Shkotovo-17 (Шкотово-17).^{Fokino – formerly known as Shkotovo-17 (Шкотово-17).^[16]}

       Zabaykalsky Krai

       • Gorny – formerly known as Chita-46 (Чита-46).

       By oblast

       A-M

       Amur Oblast

       • Gorny – formerly known as Chita-46 (Чита-46).

       By oblastAmur Oblast

       • Uglegorsk – formerly known as Svobodny-18 (Свободный-18), site of the second Russian trial cosmodrome of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation, also called Svobodny Cosmodrome.

       Arkhangelsk Oblast

       • Mirnyy – site of Plesetsk Cosmodrome.

       Astrakhan Oblast

       • Znamensk �

         Arkhangelsk Oblast

         • Mirnyy – site of Plesetsk Cosmodrome.

         Astrakhan Oblast

         • Znamensk – formerly known as Kaputsin Yar-1 (Znamensk – formerly known as Kaputsin Yar-1 (Капустин Яр-1

           Chelyabinsk Oblast

           Pervomaysky – formerly known as Yurya-2 (Юрья-2).

         Moscow Oblast

         • Krasnoznamensk – formerly known as Golitsyno-2 (Голицыно-2).
         • Molodyozhny – formerly known as Naro-Fominsk-5 (Наро-Фоминск-5).
         • Vlasikha – formerly known as Gorky-2 (Горький-2).
         • Voskhod – formerly known as Novopetrovsk-2 (Новопетровск-2).
         • Zvyozdny gorodok – formerly known as Shchyolkovo-14 (Щёлково-14).

         Murmansk Oblast

         Krasnoznamensk – formerly known as Golitsyno-2 (Голицыно-2).
       • 

         A view of

         

         Sarov Monastery in Sarov (1904)

         • Sarov – formerly known as Arzamas-16^[12]

         Orenburg Oblast

         • Komarovsky

         Penza Oblast

         • Zarechny – formerly known as Penza-19^[12][13][19]

         Pskov Oblast

         • Smuravyevo

         Saratov Oblast

         • Mikhaylovsky
         • Shikhany
         • Svetly

         Sverdlovsk Oblast

         • LesnoyOrenburg Oblast
           • Komarovsky

           Penza Oblast

           • Zarechny – formerly known as Penza-19^[12][13][19]

           Pskov Oblast

           • Smuravyevo

           Saratov Oblast

           • Mikhaylovsky
           • Shikhany
           • Svetly

           Sverdlovsk Oblast

           • Lesnoy – formerly known as Sverdlovsk-45Zarechny – formerly known as

             Pskov Oblast

             • Smuravyevo

             Saratov Oblast

             • Mikhaylovsky
             • Shikhany
             • Svetly

             Sverdlovsk Oblast

             • <

               Saratov Oblast

               • Lesnoy – formerly known as Sverdlovsk-45^[12]Tomsk Oblast
                 

                 A view of Seversk, Russia
                 • Ozyorny
                 • Solnechny

                 Vladimir Oblast

                 • Raduzhny

                 Former Russian closed cities

                 • Nizhny Novgorod, previously named Gorky^[14]
                 • Perm^[20]
                 • Tomsk^Raduzhny

                 Former Russian clo

                 Perm was previously a closed city