Architecture of Japan

has been typified by wooden structures, elevated slightly off the ground, with tiled or thatched roofs. Sliding doors (''fusuma'') and other traditional partitions were used in place of walls, allowing the internal configuration of a space to be customized for different occasions. People usually sat on cushions or otherwise on the floor, traditionally; chairs and high tables were not widely used until the 20th century. Since the 19th century, however, Japan has incorporated much of Western, modern, and post-modern architecture into construction and design, and is today a leader in cutting-edge architectural design and technology.

The earliest Japanese architecture was seen in prehistoric times in simple pit-houses and stores adapted to the needs of a hunter-gatherer population. Influence from Han dynasty China via Korea saw the introduction of more complex grain stores and ceremonial burial chambers.

The introduction of Buddhism in Japan during the sixth century was a catalyst for large-scale temple building using complicated techniques in wood. Influence from the Chinese Sui and Tang dynasties led to the foundation of the first permanent capital in Nara. Its checkerboard street layout used the Chinese capital of Chang'an as a template for its design.

In 894 during the Heian period (794–1185), Japan abolished ''kentōshi'' (Japanese missions to Tang China) and began to distance itself from Chinese culture, and a culture called ''Kokufu bunka'' (lit., Japanese culture) which was suited to the Japanese climate and aesthetic sense flourished. The ''shinden-zukuri'' style, which was the architectural style of the residences of nobles in this period, showed the distinct uniqueness of Japanese architecture and permanently determined the characteristics of later Japanese architecture. Its features are an open structure with few walls that can be opened and closed with doors, ''shitomi'' and ''sudare'', a structure in which shoes are taken off to enter the house on stilts, and sitting or sleeping directly on ''tatami'' mats without using chairs and beds.

As the samurai class gained power in the Kamakura period (1185–1333), the ''shinden-zukuri'' style changed, and in the Muromachi period (1333–1573), the ''shoin-zukuri'' style appeared. This style had a lasting influence on later Japanese architectural styles and became the basis of modern Japanese houses. Its characteristics were that sliding doors called ''fusuma'' and paper windows called ''shōji'' were fully adopted, and ''tatami'' mats were laid all over the room.

The introduction of the tea ceremony emphasised simplicity and modest design as a counterpoint to the excesses of the aristocracy. In the Azuchi–Momoyama period (1568–1600), sukiya-zukuri style villas appeared under the influence of a tea house called ''chashitsu''. At first it was an architectural style for the villas of ''daimyo'' (Japanese feudal lords) and court nobles, but in the Edo period (1683–1807) it was applied to ''ryōtei'' (Japanese-style restaurants) and ''chashitsu'', and later it was also applied to residences.sukiya-zukuri.
Kotobank.

During the Meiji Restoration of 1868 the history of Japanese architecture was radically changed by two important events. The first was the Kami and Buddhas Separation Act of 1868, which formally separated Buddhism from Shinto and Buddhist temples from Shinto shrines, breaking an association between the two which had lasted well over a thousand years. Secondly, it was then that Japan underwent a period of intense Westernization in order to compete with other developed countries. Initially, architects and styles from abroad were imported to Japan, but gradually the country taught its own architects and began to express its own style. Architects returning from study with Western architects introduced the International Style of modernism into Japan. However, it was not until after the Second World War that Japanese architects made an impression on the international scene, firstly with the work of architects like Kenzo Tange and then with theoretical movements, like Metabolism.

General features of Japanese traditional architecture

In traditional Japanese architecture, there are various styles, features and techniques unique to Japan in each period and use, such as residence, castle, Buddhist temple and Shinto shrine. On the other hand, especially in ancient times, it was strongly influenced by Chinese culture like other Asian countries, so it has characteristics common to architecture in Asian countries.(Hozumi (1996:9-11)

Partly due, also, to the variety of climates in Japan, and the millennium encompassed between the first cultural import and the last, the result is extremely heterogeneous, but several practically universal features can nonetheless be found. First of all is the choice of materials, always wood in various forms (planks, straw, tree bark, paper, etc.) for almost all structures. Unlike both Western and some Chinese architecture, the use of stone is avoided except for certain specific uses, for example temple podia and pagoda foundations.

The general structure is almost always the same: posts and lintels support a large and gently curved roof, while the walls are paper-thin, often movable and never load-bearing. Arches and barrel roofs are completely absent. Gable and eave curves are gentler than in China and columnar entasis (convexity at the center) limited.

The roof is the most visually impressive component, often constituting half the size of the whole edifice. The slightly curved eaves extend far beyond the walls, covering verandas, and their weight must therefore be supported by complex bracket systems called '' tokyō'', in the case of temples and shrines. Simpler solutions are adopted in domestic structures. The oversize eaves give the interior a characteristic dimness, which contributes to the building's atmosphere. The interior of the building normally consists of a single room at the center called ''moya'', from which depart any other less important spaces.

Inner space divisions are fluid, and room size can be modified through the use of screens or movable paper walls. The large, single space offered by the main hall can therefore be divided according to the need. For example, some walls can be removed and different rooms joined temporarily to make space for some more guests. The separation between inside and outside is itself in some measure not absolute as entire walls can be removed, opening a residence or temple to visitors. Verandas appear to be part of the building to an outsider, but part of the external world to those in the building. Structures are therefore made to a certain extent part of their environment. Care is taken to blend the edifice into the surrounding natural environment.

The use of construction modules keeps proportions between different parts of the edifice constant, preserving its overall harmony. (On the subject of building proportions, see also the article ''ken'').

Even in cases as that of Nikkō Tōshō-gū, where every available space is heavily decorated, ornamentation tends to follow, and therefore emphasize, rather than hide, basic structures.

Being shared by both sacred and profane architecture, these features made it easy converting a lay building into a temple or vice versa. This happened for example at Hōryū-ji, where a noblewoman's mansion was transformed into a religious building.

Prehistoric period

The prehistoric period includes the Jōmon, Yayoi and Kofun periods stretching from approximately 5000 BCE to the beginning of the eighth century CE.

During the three phases of the Jōmon period the population was primarily hunter-gatherer with some primitive agriculture skills and their behaviour was predominantly determined by changes in climatic conditions and other natural stimulants. Early dwellings were pit houses consisting of shallow pits with tamped earth floors and grass roofs designed to collect rainwater with the aid of storage jars. Later in the period, a colder climate with greater rainfall led to a decline in population, which contributed to an interest in ritual. Concentric stone circles first appeared during this time.

During the Yayoi period, the Japanese people began to interact with the Chinese Han dynasty, whose knowledge and technical skills began to influence them. The Japanese began to build raised-floor storehouses as granaries, which were constructed using metal tools like saws and chisels that began to appear at this time. A reconstruction in Toro, Shizuoka is a wooden box made of thick boards joined in the corners in a log cabin style and supported on eight pillars. The roof is thatched but, unlike the typically hipped roof of the pit dwellings, it is a simple V-shaped gable. Some authors credit the raised structure designs of this period to contact with the rice-cultivating Austronesian peoples from coastal eastern China or Taiwan, rather than the Han.

The Kofun period marked the appearance of many-chambered burial mounds or tumuli (''kofun'' literally means "old mounds"). Similar mounds in Korean Peninsula are thought to have been influenced by Japan. Early in the period, the tombs, known as "keyhole ''kofun''" or , often made use of the existing topography, shaping it and adding man-made moats to form a distinctive keyhole shape, i.e. that of a circle interconnected with a triangle. Access was via a vertical shaft that was sealed off once the burial was completed. There was room inside the chamber for a coffin and grave goods. The mounds were often decorated with terracotta figures called ''haniwa''. Later in the period mounds began to be located on flat ground and their scale greatly increased. Among many examples in Nara and Osaka, the most notable is the ''Daisen-kofun'', designated as the tomb of Emperor Nintoku. The tomb covers and it is thought to have been decorated with 20,000 ''haniwa'' figures.

Towards the end of the Kofun period, tomb burials faded out as Buddhist cremation ceremonies gained popularity.

File:Yoshinogari1.jpg, Reconstructed raised-floor building in Yoshinogari, Saga Prefecture, 2nd or 3rd century
File:YoshinogariDwellings.jpg, Reconstructed pit dwelling houses in Yoshinogari
File:Toro1.jpg, Reconstructed grain storehouse in Toro, Shizuoka
File:YoshinogariIseki.jpg, Reconstructed raised-floor building in Yoshinogari
File:NintokuTomb Aerial photograph 2007.jpg, Daisenryō Kofun, Osaka, 5th century

Asuka and Nara architecture

The most significant contributor to architectural changes during the Asuka period was the introduction of Buddhism. New temples became centers of worship with tomb burial practices quickly became outlawed. Also, Buddhism brought to the idea of permanent shrines and gave to Shinto architecture much of its present vocabulary.

Some of the earliest structures still extant in Japan are Buddhist temples established at this time. The oldest surviving wooden buildings in the world are found at Hōryū-ji, northeast of Nara. First built in the early 7th century as the private temple of Crown Prince Shōtoku, it consists of 41 independent buildings; the most important ones, the main worship hall, or ''Kon-dō'' (金堂, Golden Hall), and the five-story pagoda), stand in the centre of an open area surrounded by a roofed cloister (''kairō''). The Kon-dō, in the style of Chinese worship halls, is a two-story structure of post-and-beam construction, capped by an ''irimoya'', or hipped-gabled, roof of ceramic tiles.

Heijō-kyō, modern day Nara, was founded in 708 as the first permanent capital of the state of Japan. The layout of its checkerboard streets and buildings were modeled after the Chinese capital of Chang'an. The city soon became an important centre of Buddhist worship in Japan. The most grandiose of these temples was Tōdai-ji, built to rival temples of the Chinese T'ang and Sui dynasties. Appropriately, the 16.2-m (53-ft) Buddha or Daibutsu (completed in 752) enshrined in the main hall is a Rushana Buddha, the figure that represents the essence of Buddhahood, just as Tōdai-ji represented the centre for imperially sponsored Buddhism and its dissemination throughout Japan. Only a few fragments of the original statue survive, and the present hall and central Buddha are reconstructions from the Edo period. Clustered around the main hall (the Daibutsuden) on a gently sloping hillside are a number of secondary halls: the Hokke-dō (Lotus Sutra Hall), and the storehouse, called the Shōsō-in, and the adjoining Kōfuku-ji. This last structure is of great importance as an art-historical cache, because in it are stored the utensils that were used in the temple's dedication ceremony in 752, as well as government documents and many secular objects owned by the imperial family.

File:Horyu-ji11s3200.jpg, Kon-dō and pagoda at Hōryū-ji, Ikaruga, Nara
Built in 7th century
File:Hokiji03ds1536.jpg, Pagoda at Hokki-ji, Ikaruga, Nara
Built in 706
File:Yakushiji Toto.jpg, Pagoda at Yakushi-ji, Nara, Nara
Originally built in 730
File:Todaiji10s3200.jpg, Hokkedō at Tōdai-ji, Nara, Nara
Founded in 743
File:Shoso-in.jpg, Shōsō-in at Tōdai-ji, Nara, Nara
Built in 8th century
File:Toshodaiji Nara Nara pref01s5s4290.jpg, Golden Temple at Tōshōdai-ji, Nara, Nara
Built in 8th century

Heian period

Although the network of Buddhist temples across the country acted as a catalyst for an exploration of architecture and culture, this also led to the clergy gaining increased power and influence. Emperor Kanmu decided to escape this influence by moving his capital first to Nagaoka-kyō and then to Heian-kyō, known today as Kyōto. Although the layout of the city was similar to Nara's and inspired by Chinese precedents, the palaces, temples and dwellings began to show examples of local Japanese taste.

Heavy materials like stone, mortar and clay were abandoned as building elements, with simple wooden walls, floors and partitions becoming prevalent. Native species like cedar (''sugi'') were popular as an interior finish because of its prominent grain, while pine (''matsu'') and larch (''aka matsu'') were common for structural uses. Brick roofing tiles and a type of cypress called ''hinoki'' were used for roofs. It was sometime during this period that the hidden roof, a uniquely Japanese solution to roof drainage problems, was adopted.

The increasing size of buildings in the capital led to an architecture reliant on columns regularly spaced in accordance with the ''ken'', a traditional measure of both size and proportion. The imperial palace '' Shishinden'' demonstrated a style that was a precursor to the later aristocratic-style of building known as ''shinden-zukuri''. The style was characterised by symmetrical buildings placed as arms that defined an inner garden. This garden then used borrowed scenery to seemingly blend with the wider landscape. A gradual increase in the size of buildings led to standard units of measurement as well as refinements in layout and garden design.Bussagli (1989), p. 166

In 894, Japan abolished ''kentōshi'' (Japanese missions to Tang China) and began to distance itself from Chinese culture, and a culture called ''Kokufu bunka'' (lit., Japanese culture) which was suited to the Japanese climate and aesthetic sense flourished. The ''shinden-zukuri'' style, which was the architectural style of the residences of nobles in this period, showed the distinct uniqueness of Japanese architecture and permanently determined the characteristics of later Japanese architecture. Its features are an open structure with few walls that can be opened and closed with doors and ''shitomi'' and ''sudare'', a structure in which shoes are taken off to enter the house on stilts, sitting or sleeping directly on ''tatami'' mats without using chairs and beds, a roof made of laminated ''hinoki'' (Japanese cypress) bark instead of ceramic tiles, and a natural texture that is not painted on pillars.Kokufu bunka.
Kotobank.Shinden-zukuri.
Kotobank.Seiroku Ota (1987) ''Study of Shinden-zukuri'' p.22. Yoshikawa Kōbunkan. A Buddhist architectural style called ''Wayō'', which developed in accordance with the Japanese climate and aesthetic sense, was established.

The priest Kūkai (best known by the posthumous title Kōbō Daishi, 774–835) journeyed to China to study Shingon, a form of Vajrayana Buddhism, which he introduced into Japan in 806. At the core of Shingon worship are the various mandalas, diagrams of the spiritual universe that influenced temple design. The temples erected for this new sect were built in the mountains, far away from the court and the laity in the capital. The irregular topography of these sites forced their designers to rethink the problems of temple construction, and in so doing to choose more indigenous elements of design.Bussagli (1989), p. 168

At this time the architectural style of Buddhist temples began to influence that of the Shintō shrines. For example, like their Buddhist counterparts the Shintō shrines began to paint the normally unfinished timbers with the characteristic red cinnabar colour.

During the later part of the Heian Period there were the first documented appearances of vernacular houses in the ''minka'' style/form. These were characterized by the use local materials and labor, being primarily constructed of wood, having packed earth floors and thatched roofs.

File:Byodo-in Uji01pbs2640.jpg, Phoenix Hall at Byōdō-in, Uji, Kyoto
Built in 1053
File:Ujigami jinja01 2816.jpg, Ujigami Shrine, Uji, Kyoto
Built in 1060
File:Itsukushima Honden Haiden.jpg, Itsukushima Shrine Honden, Hatsukaichi, Hiroshima
Built in 1168
File:Ichijoji Kasai13bs4272.jpg, Pagoda of Ichijō-ji, Kasai, Hyōgo
Built in 1171
File:Japan Tottori MitokuSan Nageiredo DSC01248.jpg, Nageire-dō of Sanbutsu-ji, Misasa, Tottori
File:Gassho-zukuri farmhouse-01.jpg, Typical minka-style ''gasshō-zukuri'' farmhouse

Kamakura and Muromachi periods

During the Kamakura period (1185–1333) and the following Muromachi period (1336–1573), Japanese Buddhist architecture made technological advances that made it diverge from its Chinese counterpart. In response to native requirements such as earthquake resistance and shelter against heavy rainfall and the summer heat and sun, the master carpenters of this time responded with a unique type of architecture, creating the ''Daibutsuyō'' and ''Zenshūyō'' styles. The ''Wayō'' style was combined with ''Daibutsuyō'' and the ''Zenshūyō'' to create the ''Shin-Ｗayō'' and the ''Setchūyō'' styles, and the number of temples in the pure ''Wayō'' style decreased after the 14th century.

The Kamakura period began with the transfer of power in Japan from the imperial court to the Kamakura shogunate. During the Genpei War (1180–1185), many traditional buildings in Nara and Kyoto were damaged. For example, Kōfuku-ji and Tōdai-ji were burned down by Taira no Shigehira of the Taira clan in 1180. Many of these temples and shrines were later rebuilt by the Kamakura shogunate to consolidate the ''shōgun''s authority.

Although less elaborate than during the Heian period, architecture in the Kamakura period was informed by a simplicity due to its association with the military order. New residences used a ''buke-zukuri'' style that was associated with buildings surrounded by narrow moats or stockades. Defense became a priority, with buildings grouped under a single roof rather than around a garden. The gardens of the Heian period houses often became training grounds.Bussagli (1989), p. 172

After the fall of the Kamakura shogunate in 1333, the Ashikaga shogunate was formed, having later its seat in the Kyoto district of Muromachi. The proximity of the shogunate to the imperial court led to a rivalry in the upper levels of society which caused tendencies toward luxurious goods and lifestyles. Aristocratic houses were adapted from the simple ''buke-zukuri'' style to resemble the earlier ''shinden-zukuri'' style. A good example of this ostentatious architecture is the Kinkaku-ji in Kyōto, which is decorated with lacquer and gold leaf, in contrast to its otherwise simple structure and plain bark roofs.

During the Muromachi period, ''shinden-zukuri'' style, which was the mainstream of the residences of Japanese nobles, declined, and ''shoin-zukuri'', which developed from ''buke-zukuri'' of samurai class residences, became the mainstream. ''Shoin-zukuri'' had a lasting impact on later Japanese housing and is the basis of modern Japanese housing. In the old architectural style, ''tatami'' mats were laid only in a part of the room, but in the ''shoin-zukuri'' style, ''tatami'' mats were laid all over the room. In this style, sliding doors called ''fusuma'' were used to separate rooms, and an inner window called ''shoji'', which was made by pasting paper permeable to sunlight on a wooden frame, was installed inside the wooden shutters. In the room, ''tokonoma'' (alcove for the display of art objects) and '' chigaidana'' (shelves built into the wall) were set up to decorate various things.Shoin-zukuri.
Kotobank.tatami.
Kotobank.

In an attempt to rein in the excess of the upper classes, the Zen masters introduced the tea ceremony. In architecture this promoted the design of ''chashitsu'' (tea houses) to a modest size with simple detailing and materials. A typically sized ''Chashitsu'' is 4 1/2 ''tatami'' mats in size.

In the garden, Zen principles replaced water with sand or gravel to produce the dry garden (''karesansui'') like the one at Ryōan-ji.Bussagli (1989), p. 177

File:Jyodoji-ono001.JPG, ''Jōdodō'' of Jōdo-ji, Ono, Hyōgo
Built in 1194
File:Koyasan Danjogaran Fudodo.JPG, Danjogaran Fudo-dō in Mt. Kōya, Wakayama
Built in 1197.
File:Sanjusangendo temple02s2040.jpg, Sanjūsangen-dō, Kyoto
Built in 1266
File:Kozanji Temple (Shimonoseki).JPG, ''Butsuden'' of Kōzan-ji, Shimonoseki, Yamaguchi
Built in 1320
File:Shofukuji Jizo Hall Left Front.JPG, Shōfuku-ji, Tokyo, Completed in 1407
File:GinkakujiTemple.jpg, Ginkaku-ji, Kyoto
Built in the 15th century
File:Negoroji03s3200.jpg, Pagoda of Negoro-ji in Iwade, Wakayama
Built in 1547.
File:RyoanJi-Dry garden.jpg, Ryōan-ji dry garden in Kyoto
File:Tenryuji Kyoto41n4592.jpg, Garden of Tenryū-ji in Kyoto

Azuchi-Momoyama period

During the Azuchi–Momoyama period (1568–1600) Japan underwent a process of unification after a long period of civil war. It was marked by the rule of Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi, men who built castles as symbols of their power; Nobunaga in Azuchi, the seat of his government, and Hideyoshi in Momoyama. The Ōnin War during the Muromachi period had led to rise of castle architecture in Japan. By the time of the Azuchi-Momoyama period each domain was allowed to have one castle of its own. Typically it consisted of a central tower or surrounded by gardens and fortified buildings. All of this was set within massive stone walls and surrounded by deep moats. The dark interiors of castles were often decorated by artists, the spaces were separated up using sliding ''fusuma'' panels and ''byōbu'' folding screens.

The ''Shoin-zukuri'' style in the Muromachi period continued to be refined. Verandas linked the interiors of residential buildings with highly cultivated exterior gardens. ''Fusuma'' and ''byōbu'' became highly decorated with paintings and often an interior room with shelving and alcove (''tokonoma'') were used to display art work (typically a hanging scroll).

During this period, sukiya-zukuri style villas appeared under the influence of a tea house called ''chashitsu'' (tea house).

Matsumoto, Kumamoto and Himeji (popularly known as the White Heron castle) are excellent examples of the castles of the period, while Nijō Castle in Kyōto is an example of castle architecture blended with that of an imperial palace, to produce a style that is more in keeping with the Chinese influence of previous centuries.

File:Himeji Castle 01s2048.jpg, Himeji Castle in Himeji, Hyōgo,
Completed in 1618
File:Matsumoto Castle05s5s4592.jpg, Matsumoto Castle in Matsumoto, Nagano,
Completed in 1600.
File:Kumamoto Castle 02n3200.jpg, Dry stone walls of Kumamoto Castle,
Completed in 1600.
File:Nijo Castle.jpg, Ninomaru Palace within Nijō Castle, Kyoto
File:Byobu.jpg, A six-panel byōbu from the 17th century

Edo period

The Tokugawa shogunate took the city of Edo (later to become part of modern-day Tōkyō) as their capital. They built an imposing fortress around which buildings of the state administration and residences for the provincial ''daimyōs'' were constructed. The city grew around these buildings connected by a network of roads and canals. By 1700 the population had swollen to one million inhabitants. The scarcity of space for residential architecture resulted in houses being built over two stories, often constructed on raised stone plinths.

Although ''machiya'' (townhouses) had been around since the Heian period they began to be refined during the Edo period. ''Machiya'' typically occupied deep, narrow plots abutting the street (the width of the plot was usually indicative of the wealth of the owner), often with a workshop or shop on the ground floor. Tiles rather than thatch were used on the roof and exposed timbers were often plastered in an effort to protect the building against fire. Ostentatious buildings that demonstrated the wealth and power of the feudal lords were constructed, such as the Kamiyashiki of Matsudaira Tadamasa or the Ōzone Shimoyashiki.

Edo suffered badly from devastating fires and the 1657 Great Fire of Meireki was a turning point in urban design. Initially, as a method of reducing fire spread, the government built stone embankments in at least two locations along rivers in the city. Over time these were torn down and replaced with ''dōzō'' storehouses that were used both as fire breaks and to store goods unloaded from the canals. The ''dōzō'' were built with a structural frame made of timber coated with a number of layers of earthen plaster on the walls, door and roof. Above the earthen roofs was a timber framework supporting a tiled roof. Although Japanese who had studied with the Dutch at their settlement in Dejima advocated building with stone and brick this was not undertaken because of their vulnerability to earthquakes. ''Machiya'' and storehouses from the later part of the period are characterised by having a black coloration to the external plaster walls. This colour was made by adding India ink to burnt lime and crushed oyster shell.

The clean lines of the civil architecture in Edo influenced the ''sukiya'' style of residential architecture. Katsura Detached Palace and Shugaku-in Imperial Villa on the outskirts of Kyōto are good examples of this style. Their architecture has simple lines and decor and uses wood in its natural state. The ''sukiya'' style was applied not only to villas but also to ''ryōtei'' (Japanese-style restaurants) and ''chashitsu'', and later it was also applied to residences.

In the very late part of the period ''sankin-kōtai'', the law requiring the ''daimyōs'' to maintain dwellings in the capital was repealed which resulted in a decrease in population in Edo and a commensurate reduction in income for the shogunate.

File:Matsue castle01bs4592.jpg, Tenshu of Matsue Castle in Matsue, Shimane Prefecture
Built in 1607
File:Hirosakijo.jpg, Tenshu of Hirosaki Castle in Hirosaki, Aomori
Completed in 1611
File:Genkyuen03s3000.jpg, Hikone Castle in Hikone, Shiga
Completed in 1622
File:Kiyomizu-dera in Kyoto-r.jpg, Hondo of Kiyomizu-dera, Kyoto, Built in 1633
File:Enryakuji Konponchudo04n4272.jpg, Konponchudo of Enryaku-ji in Ōtsu, Shiga
Built in 1641
File:NikkoYomeimon5005.jpg, Yomeimon of Tōshō-gū, Nikkō, Tochigi
File:Shokin-tei.jpg, Inside the Shokintei at Katsura Imperial Villa, Kyoto
Built in 17th century
File:Kochi Castle04s3872.jpg, Tenshu of Kōchi Castle in Kōchi, Kōchi Prefecture
Built in 1748
File:Engyoji05s4592.jpg, Three halls of Engyō-ji in Himeji, Hyōgo, Completed in 18th century
File:Edogura.jpg, Townhouse with black (edoguro) colouring to upper floor

Meiji, Taishō, and early Shōwa periods

Towards the end of the Tokugawa shogunate, Western influence in architecture began to show in buildings associated with the military and trade, especially naval and industrial facilities. After the Emperor Meiji was restored to power (known as the Meiji Restoration) Japan began a rapid process of Westernization which led to the need for new building types such as schools, banks and hotels.
Early Meiji Architecture was initially influenced by colonial architecture in Chinese treaty ports such as Hong Kong. In Nagasaki, the British trader Thomas Glover built his own house in just such a style using the skill of local carpenters. His influence helped the career of architect who designed the Osaka Mint in 1868, a long, low building in brick and stone with a central pedimented portico. In Tōkyō, Waters designed the Commercial Museum, thought to have been the city's first brick building.

In Tokyo, after the Tsukiji area burnt to the ground in 1872, the government designated the Ginza area as model of modernization. The government planned the construction of fireproof brick buildings, and larger, better streets connecting the Shimbashi Station and the foreign concession in Tsukiji, as well as to important government buildings. Designs for the area were provided by the British architect Thomas James Waters; the Bureau of Construction of the Ministry of Finance was in charge of construction. In the following year, a Western-style Ginza was completed. "Bricktown" buildings were initially offered for sale, later they were leased, but the high rent meant that many remained unoccupied. Nevertheless, the area flourished as a symbol of "civilization and enlightenment", thanks to the presence of newspapers and magazine companies, who led the trends of the day. The area was also known for its window displays, an example of modern marketing techniques. The "Bricktown" of Ginza served as a model for many other modernization schemes in Japanese cities.

One of the prime examples of early western architecture was the ''Rokumeikan'', a large two-story building in Tokyo, completed in 1883, which was to become a controversial symbol of Westernisation in the Meiji period. Commissioned for the housing of foreign guests by the Foreign Minister Inoue Kaoru, it was designed by , a prominent foreign government advisors in Meiji Japan (''o-yatoi gaikokujin''). The ''Ryōunkaku'' was Japan's first western-style skyscraper, constructed in 1890 in Asakusa. However traditional architecture was still employed for new buildings, such as the ''Kyūden'' of Tokyo Imperial Palace, albeit with token western elements such as a spouting water fountain in the gardens.

In contrast to Waters's neoclassical style building, Japanese carpenters developed a pseudo-Japanese style known as ''giyōfū'' chiefly using wood. A good example of which is Kaichi Primary School in Nagano Prefecture built in 1876. The master carpenter Tateishi Kiyoshige travelled to Tōkyō to see which Western building styles were popular and incorporated these in the school with traditional building methods. Constructed with a similar method to traditional () storehouses, the wooden building plastered inside and out incorporates an octagonal Chinese tower and has stone-like quoins to the corners. Traditional namako plasterwork was used at the base of the walls to give the impression that the building sits on a stone base. Another example was the First National Bank building in Tokyo, built in 1872.

The Japanese government also invited foreign architects to both work in Japan and teach new Japanese architects. One of these, the British architect went on to train many of the most prominent of the Japanese Meiji era architects, including Kingo Tatsuno, Tatsuzō Sone and Tokuma Katayama. Tatsuno's early works had a Venetian style influenced by John Ruskin, but his later works such as the Bank of Japan (1896) and Tōkyō Station (1914) have a more Beaux-Arts feel. On the other hand, Katayama was more influenced by the French Second Empire style which can be seen in the Nara National Museum (1894) and the Kyōto National Museum (1895).

In 1920, a group of young architects formed the first organization of modernist architects. They were known as the ''Bunriha'', literally "Secessionist group", inspired in part by the Vienna Secessionists. These architects were worried about the reliance on historical styles and decoration and instead encouraged artistic expression. They drew their influence from European movements like Expressionism and the Bauhaus and helped pave the way towards the introduction of the International Style of Modernism.Bognar (1995), p. 14

In the Taishō and early Shōwa periods two influential American architects worked in Japan. The first was Frank Lloyd Wright who designed the Imperial Hotel, Tokyo (1913–1923) and the Yodokō Guest House (1924), both of which used locally quarried Ōya stone. Wright had a number of Japanese apprentices under his tutelage, such as Arata Endo, who constructed the Kōshien Hotel in 1930.

The second was Antonin Raymond who worked for Wright on the Imperial Hotel before leaving to set up his own practice in Tōkyō. Although his early works like Tōkyō Women's Christian College show Wright's influence, he soon began to experiment with the use of in-situ reinforced concrete, detailing it in way that recalled traditional Japanese construction methods. Between 1933 and 1937 Bruno Taut stayed in Japan. His writings, especially those on Katsura Imperial Villa reevaluated traditional Japanese architecture whilst bringing it to a wider audience.Bognar (1995), p. 15

As in the Meiji era experience from abroad was gained by Japanese architects working in Europe. Among these were Kunio Maekawa and Junzo Sakakura who worked at Le Corbusier's atelier in Paris and Bunzō Yamaguchi and Chikatada Kurata who worked with Walter Gropius.

Some architects built their reputation upon works of public architecture. Togo Murano, a contemporary of Raymond, was influenced by Rationalism and designed the Morigo Shoten office building, Tōkyō (1931) and Ube Public Hall, Yamaguchi Prefecture (1937). Similarly, Tetsuro Yoshida's rationalist modern architecture included the Tōkyō Central Post Office (1931) and Ōsaka Central Post Office (1939).

Running contrary to modernism in Japan was the so-called Imperial Crown style (''teikan yōshiki''). Buildings in this style were characterised by having a Japanese-style roof such as the Tōkyō Imperial Museum (1937) by Hitoshi Watanabe and Nagoya City Hall and the Aichi Prefectural Government Office. The increasingly militaristic government insisted that major buildings be designed in a "Japanese Style" limiting opportunities for modernist design to works of infrastructure such as Bunzō Yamaguchi's Number 2 Power Plant for the Kurobe Dam, (1938).

A large number of buildings from the Meiji, Taishō and Shōwa eras were lost during and after World War II, such as the Rokumeikan. Taniguchi Yoshirō (谷口 吉郎, 1904–79), an architect, and Moto Tsuchikawa established Meiji Mura in 1965, close to Nagoya, where a large number of rescued buildings are re-assembled. A similar museum is the Edo-Tokyo Open Air Architectural Museum.

Colonial architecture

The colonial authorities constructed a large number of public buildings, many of which have survived. Examples include the large-scale concept of what is today Ketagalan Boulevard in central Zhongzheng District of Taipei that showcases the Office of the Governor-General, Taiwan Governor Museum, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei Guest House, Judicial Yuan, the Kangyo Bank and Mitsui Bussan Company buildings, as well as many examples of smaller houses found on Qidong Street.

In Korea under Japanese administration, public buildings such as train stations and city halls were also constructed in various styles. Although the largest Japanese colonial building, the immense Government-General Building, was demolished in 1995, many colonial buildings have been preserved. These include the former Keijo City Hall, today Seoul Metropolitan Library; the former Keijo station, today Old Seoul Station; the former Bank of Chosen, designed by Tatsuno Kingo, today the headquarters of the Bank of Korea; and the former branch of Mitsukoshi department store, today the flagship of Shinsegae department store.

After winning Dalian as the result of the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–05, Japan continued to build the Russian-built city with the modern buildings on "Large Square". With the conquest and establishment of the puppet state Manchukuo, massive funds and efforts were invested into the master plan for the construction of the capital city of Shinkyō (Hsinking). Many official buildings erected during the colonial period still stand today, including those of the Eight Grand Ministries of Manchukuo, the Imperial Palace, the headquarters of the Kwantung Army and Datong Avenue.

File:臺灣總督府臺北醫院.jpg, National Taiwan University Hospital in Taipei, built in 1921
File:Taipei Taiwan Presidential-Office-Building-01.jpg, Presidential Office Building in Taipei, built in 1919
File:Seoul-City.Hall-02.jpg, Seoul Metropolitan Library, built in 1925
File:Manchukuo State Council Building cropped.jpg, Manchukuo State Council building, Changchun
File:Краеведческий музей Южно-Сахалинска.jpg, The Museum of Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, completed in 1937
File:Yokohama Specie Bank Dalian.JPG, Bank of China Dalian branch, designed by Tsumaki Yorinaka in 1909
File:Taipei_Guest_House_Front_Near_View.jpg, Taipei Guest House in Taipei, built in 1901
File:Former Osaka Shosen Taipei Branch restoration 20190525b.jpg, Former Osaka Shosen (now Mitsui O.S.K. Lines) Office Building in Taipei, built in 1937
File:Kyoto National Museum 01.jpg, Kyoto National Museum in Kyōto, , built in 1895
File:Bank of Japan headquarters in Tokyo, Japan.jpg, Bank of Japan, Tokyo, , built in 1896
File:Osaka prefectural nakanoshima library01 1920.jpg, Osaka Prefectural Nakanoshima Library, Osaka, , built in 1904
File:Imperial Hotel Wright House.jpg, Imperial Hotel, Tōkyō, , built between 1913 and 1924
File:Sumitomo bld02s3200.jpg, Sumitomo Building, Osaka, , built in 1924

File:Diet of Japan Kokkai 2009.jpg, National Diet Building in Tōkyō, , , built in 1936
File:090408 aichi kenchou.jpg, Main building of Aichi Prefectural Office, , Jin Watanabe, built in 1938
File:Kurobe Daini Hydropowerstation.jpg, Kurobe Dam No 2 Power Plant, , built in 1938

Late Showa period

After the war and under the influence of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers, General Douglas MacArthur, Japanese political and religious life was reformed to produce a demilitarised and democratic country. Although a new constitution was established in 1947, it was not until the beginning of the Korean War that Japan (as an ally of the United States) saw a growth in its economy brought about by the manufacture of industrial goods. In 1946 the Prefabricated Housing Association was formed to try and address the chronic shortage of housing, and architects like Kunio Maekawa submitted designs. However, it was not until the passing of the Public Housing Act in 1951 that housing built by the private sector was supported in law by the government. Also in 1946, the War Damage Rehabilitation Board put forward ideas for the reconstruction of thirteen Japanese cities. Architect Kenzō Tange submitted proposals for Hiroshima and Maebashi.

In 1949, Tange's winning competition entry to design the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum gave him international acclaim. The project (completed in 1955) led to a series of commissions including the Kagawa Prefectural Office Building in Takamatsu (1958) and Old Kurashiki City Hall (1960). At this time both Tange and Maekawa were interested in the tradition of Japanese architecture and the influence of local character. This was illustrated at Kagawa with elements of Heian period design fused with the International Style.

In 1955, Le Corbusier was asked by the Japanese government to design the National Museum of Western Art in Tōkyō. He was assisted by his three former students: Maekawa, Sakakura and Takamasa Yoshizaka. The design was based upon Le Corbusier's museum in Ahmedabad, and both of the museums are square and raised on piloti.

Due largely to the influence of Tange, the 1960 World Design Conference was held in Tōkyō. A small group of Japanese designers who came to represent the Metabolist Movement presented their manifesto and a series of projects. The group included the architects Kiyonori Kikutake, Masato Ōtaka, Kisho Kurokawa and Fumihiko Maki. Originally known as the Burnt Ash School, the Metabolists associated themselves with idea of renewal and regeneration, rejecting visual representations of the past and promoting the idea that the individual, the house and the city were all parts of a single organism. Although the individual members of the group went in their own directions after a few years the enduring nature of their publications meant that they had a longer presence overseas. The international symbol of the Metabolists, the capsule, emerged as an idea in the late 1960s and was demonstrated in Kurokawa's Nakagin Capsule Tower in Tōkyō in 1972.

In the 1960s Japan saw both the rise and the expansion of large construction firms, including the Shimizu Corporation and Kajima. Nikken Sekkei emerged as a comprehensive company that often included elements of Metabolist design in its buildings.

The 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo saw a large boost to new design. Venues were constructed and the Yoyogi National Gymnasium, built between 1961 and 1964 by Kenzo Tange, became a landmark structure famous for its suspension roof design, recalling traditional elements of Shinto shrines. Other structures include the Nippon Budokan, the Komazawa Gymnasium and many others. The Olympic Games symbolised the re-emergence of Japan after the destruction of World War II, reflecting the new confidence in its architecture.

During the 1960s there were also architects who did not see the world of architecture in terms of Metabolism. For example, Kazuo Shinohara specialised in small residential projects in which he explored traditional architecture with simple elements in terms of space, abstraction and symbolism. In the Umbrella House (1961) he explored the spatial relationship between the ''doma'' (earth-paved internal floor) and the raised tatami floor in the living room and sleeping room. This relationship was explored further with the House with an Earthen floor (1963) where a tamped-down earthen floor was included in the kitchen area. His use of a roof to anchor his design for the House in White (1966) has been compared with Frank Lloyd Wright's Prairie Houses. Shinohara explored these abstractions as "Three Styles", which were periods of design that stretched from the early sixties to the mid seventies.

A former employee of Kenzo Tange was Arata Isozaki who was initially interested in the Metabolist Movement and produced innovative theoretical projects for the City in the Air (1961) and Future City (1962). However he soon moved away from this towards a more Mannerist approach similar to the work of James Stirling. This was particularly striking at the Oita Branch for Fukuoka Mutual (1967) with its mathematical grids, concrete construction and exposed services. In the Gunma Prefectural Museum (1971–74) he experimented with cubic elements (some of them twelve metres to a side) overlaid by a secondary grid expressed by the external wall panels and fenestration. This rhythm of panelling may have been influenced by Corbusier's detailing on the Museum of Western Art in Tōkyō.

Japanese cities where they lack European-like piazzas and squares often emphasise the relationship of people with the everyday workings of the street. Fumihiko Maki was one of a number of architects who were interested in the relationship of architecture and the city and this can be seen in works like Ōsaka Prefectural Sports Centre (1972) and Spiral

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