Western Ganga Dynasty

Western Ganga was an important ruling dynasty of ancient Karnataka in India which lasted from about 350 to 1000 CE. They are known as "Western Gangas" to distinguish them from the Eastern Gangas who in later centuries ruled over Kalinga (modern Odisha and Northern Andhra Pradesh). The general belief is that the Western Gangas began their rule during a time when multiple native clans asserted their freedom due to the weakening of the Pallava empire in South India, a geo-political event sometimes attributed to the southern conquests of Samudra Gupta. The Western Ganga sovereignty lasted from about 350 to 550 CE, initially ruling from Kolar and later, moving their capital to Talakadu on the banks of the Kaveri River in modern Mysore district.

After the rise of the imperial Chalukyas of Badami, the Gangas accepted Chalukya overlordship and fought for the cause of their overlords against the Pallavas of Kanchi. The Chalukyas were replaced by the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta in 753 CE as the dominant power in the Deccan. After a century of struggle for autonomy, the Western Gangas finally accepted Rashtrakuta overlordship and successfully fought alongside them against their foes, the Chola Dynasty of Tanjavur. In the late 10th century, north of Tungabhadra river, the Rashtrakutas were replaced by the emerging Western Chalukya Empire and the Chola Dynasty saw renewed power south of the Kaveri river. The defeat of the Western Gangas by Cholas around 1000 resulted in the end of the Ganga influence over the region.

Though territorially a small kingdom, the Western Ganga contribution to polity, culture and literature of the modern south Karnataka region is considered important. The Western Ganga kings showed benevolent tolerance to all faiths but are most famous for their patronage toward Jainism resulting in the construction of monuments in places such as Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli. The kings of this dynasty encouraged the fine arts due to which literature in Kannada and Sanskrit flourished. Chavundaraya's writing, ''Chavundaraya Purana'' of 978 CE, is an important work in Kannada prose. Many classics were written on various subjects ranging from religion to elephant management.

History

Multiple theories have been proposed regarding the ancestry of the founders of the Western Ganga dynasty (prior to the 4th century). Some mythical accounts point to a northern origin,(Rice in Adiga 2006, p88) while theories based on epigraphy suggest a southern origin. According to some records, the Western Gangas were of the Kanvayana gotra and traced their lineage to the Ikshvakus of the solar dynasty. Historians who propose the southern origin have further debated whether the early petty chieftains of the clan (prior to their rise to power) were natives of the southern districts of modern Karnataka,:”Indeed, the very lacklustre of the Ganga rulers who preceded the Cholas and Hoysalas suggests that they were essentially peasant chiefs who neither sought nor managed to break their ties with the dominant peasant folk of the territory. That peasantry still identifies itself with the ancient Ganga designation; they are called, Gangadikaras who in 1891 comprised forty-four per cent of the total population of the land-controlling peasantry of Mysore State (i.e. Vokkaligas). Gangadikara is a slight contraction of the term Gangavadikara, or "men of the Ganga country".:"The Gangadikara seem to be a more recent stratum, whose name reminds us of the Ganga-kings, who ruled in Mysore in the 10th century. We may regard their connections with the former ancient ruling house as very similar to those of the Arasu, the present-day aristocracy of Mysore, with the present- day ruling family".Adiga and Sheik Ali in Adiga (2006), p89Sarma (1992), pp1–3Ramesh (1984), pp1–2 the Kongu Nadu region in modern Tamil NaduBaji and Arokiaswamy in Adiga (2006), p89 or of the southern districts of modern Andhra Pradesh.Kamath (2001), p39Krishna Rao in Adiga (2006), p88 These regions encompass an area of the southern Deccan where the three modern states merge geographically. It is theorised that the Gangas may have taken advantage of the confusion caused by the invasion of southern India by the northern king Samudra Gupta prior to 350, and carved out a kingdom for themselves. The area they controlled was called Gangavadi and included regions of the modern districts of Mysore, Hassan Chamarajanagar, Tumkur, Kolar, Mandya and Bangalore in Karnataka state.Kamath (2001), pp39–40 At times, they also controlled some areas in modern Tamil Nadu (Kongu region starting from the 6th century rule of King Avinita) and Andhra Pradesh (Ananthpur region starting from the middle of the 5th century). The founding king of the dynasty was Konganivarma Madhava who made Kolar his capital around 350 and ruled for about twenty years.

By the time of Harivarma in 390, the Gangas had consolidated their kingdom with Talakad as their capital. Their move from the early capital Kolar may have been a strategic one with the intention of containing the growing Kadamba power.Sarma (1992), p4 By 430 they had consolidated their eastern territories comprising modern Bangalore, Kolar and Tumkur districts and by 470 they had gained control over Kongu region in modern Tamil Nadu, Sendraka (modern Chikkamagaluru and Belur), Punnata and Pannada regions (comprising modern Heggadadevanakote and Nanjangud) in modern Karnataka.Adiga 2006, p97, p100From the Cakra-Kedara grant, Kodunjeruvu grant (Adiga 2006, p99 In 529, King Durvinita ascended the throne after waging a war with his younger brother who was favoured by his father, King Avinita.Kamath (2001), p40 Some accounts suggest that in this power struggle, the Pallavas of Kanchi supported Avinita's choice of heir and the Badami Chalukya King Vijayaditya supported his father-in-law, Durvinita.Sheik Ali and Ramesh in Adiga (2006), p100–101 From the inscriptions it is known that these battles were fought in Tondaimandalam and Kongu regions (northern Tamil Nadu) prompting historians to suggest that Durvinita fought the Pallavas successfully.Adiga (2006), p101 Considered the most successful of the Ganga kings, Durvinita was well versed in arts such as music, dance, ayurveda and taming wild elephants. Some inscriptions sing paeans to him by comparing him to Yudhishthira and Manu – figures from Hindu mythology known for their wisdom and fairness.from the Nallala grant (Kamath 2001, p41)Adiga (2006), p109

Politically, the Gangas were feudatories and close allies who also shared matrimonial relations with the Chalukyas. This is attested by inscriptions which describe their joint campaigns against their arch enemy, the Pallavas of Kanchi.From the Aihole inscriptions and the Jangamarahalli inscription (Adiga 2006, 102) From the year 725 onwards, the Gangavadi territories came to be called as the "Gangavadi-96000" (''Shannavati Sahasra Vishaya'') comprising the eastern and western provinces of modern south Karnataka.(Adiga 2006, p103) King Sripurusha fought the Pallava King Nandivarman Pallavamalla successfully, bringing Penkulikottai in north Arcot under his control temporarily for which he earned the title ''Permanadi''.From the Shimoga records (N.L. Rao in Kamath 2001, p41)The title was given to a later Ganga King Rachamalla I (Ramesh in Adiga p115), the Agali grant and Devarahalli inscription calls Sripurusha ''Maharajadhiraja Paramamahesvara Bhatara'' (Adiga 2006, pp115–116) A contest with the Pandyas of Madurai over control of Kongu region ended in a Ganga defeat, but a matrimony between a Ganga princess and Rajasimha Pandya's son brought peace helping the Gangas retain control over the contested region.Sastri in Adiga 2006, p115From Salem plates of Sripurusha dated 771 and the Koramangala grant (Ramesh in Adiga 2006, p116)

In 753, when the Rashtrakutas replaced the Badami Chalukyas as the dominant force in the Deccan, the Gangas offered stiff resistance for about a century.Kamath (2001), p42From several Tumkur inscriptions (Adiga 2006, p117) King Shivamara II is mostly known for his wars with the Rashtrakuta Dhruva Dharavarsha, his subsequent defeat and imprisonment, his release from prison and eventually his death on the battle field. The Ganga resistance continued through the reign of Rashtrakuta Govinda III and by 819, a Ganga resurgence gained them partial control over Gangavadi under King Rachamalla.Adiga 2006, p118 Seeing the futility of waging war with the Western Ganga, Rashtrakuta Amoghavarsha I gave his daughter Chandrabbalabbe in marriage to Ganga prince Butuga I, son of King Ereganga Neetimarga. The Gangas thereafter became staunch allies of the Rashtrakutas, a position they maintained till the end of the Rashtrakuta dynasty of Manyakheta.from the Konnur inscriptions of 860 and Rajaramadu inscription (Adiga 2006, p119)From the Keregodi Rangapura plates and Chikka Sarangi inscription of 903 (Adiga 2006, p119)Kamath (2001), p43

After an uneventful period, Butuga II ascended the throne in 938 with the help of Rashtrakuta Amoghavarsha III (whose daughter he married).Kamath (2001), p44 He helped the Rashtrakutas win decisive victories in Tamilakam in the battle of Takkolam against the Chola Dynasty. With this victory, the Rashtrakutas took control of modern northern Tamil Nadu.Tirukkalukkunram and Laksmeshwar inscriptions – Kanchi and Tanjore were annexed by Krishna III who was an incarnation of death for the Chola Dynasty (Reu 1933, p83)Thapar 2003, p334Sastri 1955, p162 In return for their valour, the Gangas were awarded extensive territories in the Tungabhadra river valley.From the Kudlur inscription of King Marasimha II (Adiga 2006, p120) King Marasimha II who came to power in 963 aided the Rashtrakutas in victories against the Gurjara Pratihara King Lalla and the Paramara kings of Malwa in Central India.From the Kukkanur inscription (Adiga 2006, p122)These victories were recorded in a Kannada inscription of 964 near Jabalpur (Kamath 2001, p83) Chavundaraya, a minister in the Western Ganga court was a valiant commander, able administrator and an accomplished poet in Kannada and Sanskrit.Kamath (2001), p45Sastri (1955), pp356–357 He served King Marasimha II and his successors ably and helped King Rachamalla IV suppress a civil war in 975. Towards the end of the 10th century, the Rashtrakutas had been supplanted by the Western Chalukya Empire in Manyakheta. In the south, the Chola Dynasty who were seeing a resurgence of power under Rajaraja Chola I conquered Gangavadi around the year 1000, bringing the Western Ganga dynasty to an end. Thereafter, large areas of south Karnataka region came under Chola control for about a century.Kamath (2001), p118

Administration

The Western Ganga administration was influenced by principles stated in the ancient text ''arthashastra''. The ''praje gavundas'' mentioned in the Ganga records held responsibilities similar to those of the village elders (''gramavriddhas'') mentioned by Kautilya. Succession to the throne was hereditary but there were instances when this was overlooked.Kamath (2001), p46 The kingdom was divided into ''Rashtra'' (district) and further into ''Visaya'' (consisting of possibly 1000 villages) and ''Desa''. From the 8th century, the Sanskrit term ''Visaya'' was replaced by the Kannada term ''Nadu''. Examples of this change are Sindanadu-8000 and Punnadu-6000,Adiga (2006), p10 with scholars differing about the significance of the numerical suffix. They opine that it was either the revenue yield of the division computed in cash termsRice in Adiga (2006), p15) or the number of fighting men in that division or the number of revenue paying hamlets in that divisionSharma in Adiga (2006), p16 or the number of villages included in that territory.

Inscriptions have revealed several important administrative designations such as prime minister (''sarvadhikari''), treasurer (''shribhandari''), foreign minister (''sandhivirgrahi'') and chief minister (''mahapradhana''). All of these positions came with an additional title of commander (''dandanayaka''). Other designations were royal steward (''manevergade''), master of robes (''mahapasayita''), commander of elephant corps (''gajasahani''), commander of cavalry (''thuragasahani'') etc.Kamath (2001), p47 In the royal house, '' Niyogis'' oversaw palace administration, royal clothing and jewellery etc. and the ''Padiyara'' were responsible for court ceremonies including door keeping and protocol.Adiga (2006), p238

Officials at the local level were the ''pergade'', ''nadabova'', ''nalagamiga'', ''prabhu'' and ''gavunda''.Adiga (2006), pp161–177 The ''pergades'' were superintendents from all social classes such as artisans, gold smiths, black smiths etc. The ''pergades'' dealing with the royal household were called ''manepergade'' (house superintendent) and those who collected tolls were called ''Sunka vergades''.From the Kanatur inscription (Adiga 2006, p161) The ''nadabovas'' were accountants and tax collectors at the ''Nadu'' level and sometimes functioned as scribes.From the Kanatur inscription (Adiga 2006, p164) The ''nalagamigas'' were officers who organized and maintained defence at the ''Nadu'' level.From the Mavali inscription of the 8th century and Indravalli inscription (Adiga 2006), p165 The ''prabhu'' constituted a group of elite people drawn together to witness land grants and demarcation of land boundaries.Doddakunce inscription, the Karagada and Maruru inscription (Adiga 2006, p167–68) The ''gavundas'' who appear most often in inscriptions were the backbone of medieval polity of the southern Karnataka region. They were landlords and local elite whom the state utilized their services to collect taxes, maintain records of landownership, bear witness to grants and transactions and even raise militia when required.Bedirur inscriptions of 635 (Adiga 2006, p168)

Inscriptions that specify land grants, rights and ownership were descriptive of the boundaries of demarcation using natural features such as rivers, streams, water channels, hillocks, large boulders, layout of the village, location of forts (''kote'') if any in the proximity, irrigation canals, temples, tanks and even shrubs and large trees. Also included was the type of soil, the crops meant to be grown and tanks or wells to be excavated for irrigation.From the Kumsi inscription of 931 and Doddahomma inscription of 977 (Adiga 2006, pp21–22, p27, p29)From the Mavali inscription and Indivalli inscription (Adiga 2006, p31) Inscriptions mention wet land, cultivable land, forest and waste land.From the Devarahalli and Hosur copper plates (Adiga 2006, p33) There are numerous references to hamlets (''palli'') belonging to the hunter communities who resided in them (''bedapalli'').From inscriptions and literary writings such as ''Vaddaradhane'' (920) and ''Pampa Bharata'' (940) (Adiga 2006, p36–37) From the 6th century onwards, the inscriptions refer to feudal lords by the title ''arasa''. The ''arasas'' were either brahmins or from tribal background who controlled hereditary territories paying periodic tribute to the king.Adiga (2006), p208 The ''velavali'' who were loyal bodyguards of the royalty were fierce warriors under oath (''vele''). They moved with the royal family and were expected to fight for the master and be willing to lay down their lives in the process. If the king died, the ''velavali'' were required to self immolate on the funeral pyre of the master.Adiga (2006), pp233–234

Economy

The Gangavadi region consisted of the malnad region, the plains (Bayaluseemae) and the semi-malnad with lower elevation and rolling hills. The main crops of the malnad region were paddy, betel leaves, cardamom and pepper and the semi-malnad region with its lower altitude produced rice, millets such as ragi and corn, pulses, oilseeds and it was also the base for cattle farming.Adiga (2006), p6 The plains to the east were the flat lands fed by Kaveri, Tungabhadra and Vedavati rivers where cultivations of sugarcane, paddy, coconut, areca nut (''adeka totta''), betel leaves, plantain and flowers (''vara vana'') were common.from the Melkote copper plates and Mamballi inscriptions, Medutambihalli inscription of the 9th century (Adiga 2006, p53) Sources of irrigation were excavated tanks, wells, natural ponds and water bodies in the catchment area of dams (''Katta'').Adiga (2006), p42 Inscriptions attesting to irrigation of previously uncultivated lands seem to indicate an expanding agrarian community.Adiga (2006), p45

Soil types mentioned in records are black soil (''Karimaniya'') in the Sinda-8000 territory and to red soil (''Kebbayya mannu'')from the Narasimhapura plates (Adiga 2006), p46From the Doddahomma inscription of Rachaballa IV of 977 (Adiga 2006, p47) Cultivated land was of three types; wet land, dry land and to a lesser extent garden land with paddy being the dominant crop of the region. Wet lands were called ''kalani'', ''galde'', ''nir mannu'' or ''nir panya'' and was specifically used to denote paddy land requiring standing water.Kittel in Adiga (2006), p48 The fact that pastoral economies were spread throughout Gangavadi region comes from references to cowherds in many inscriptions. The terms ''gosahasra'' (a thousand cows), ''gasara'' (owner of cows), ''gosasi'' (donor of cows), ''goyiti'' (cowherdess), ''gosasa'' (protector of cows) attest to this.Belagi inscription of 964, Sasarvalli inscription of 1001 (Krishna and Adiga 2006, p55/56) Inscriptions indicate ownership of cows may have been as important as cultivable land and that there may have existed a social hierarchy based on this.Adiga (2006), p57 Inscriptions mention cattle raids attesting to the importance of the pastoral economy, destructive raids, assaults on women (''pendir-udeyulcal''), abduction of women by ''bedas'' (hunter tribes); all of which indicate the existing militarism of the age.From the Kodagu inscription of the 11th century, Guduve inscription of 1032, Kambadahalli inscription of 979 (Adiga 2006, p59, p60, p63)

Lands that were exempt from taxes were called ''manya'' and sometimes consisted of several villages. They were granted by local chieftains without any reference to the overlord, indicating a de-centralised economy. These lands, often given to heroes who perished in the line of duty were called ''bilavritti'' or ''kalnad''.From the Narasimhapura inscription of the 9th century (Sircar and Ramesh in Adiga 2006, pp210–211) When such a grant was made for the maintenance of temples at the time of consecration, it was called ''Talavritti''.Indian epigraphical glossary, Hecca inscription pF 939 for SriKanteshvara temple (Adiga 2006, p213) Some types of taxes on income were ''kara'' or ''anthakara'' (internal taxes), ''utkota'' (gifts due to the king), ''hiranya'' (cash payments) and ''sulika'' (tolls and duties on imported items). Taxes were collected from those who held the right to cultivate land; even if the land was not actually cultivated.From Nonamangala copper plates of the 5th century of King Avinita (Adiga 2006, p216)From the Kuppepalya inscription of the 8th century (Adiga 2006, p218)

''Siddhaya'' was a local tax levied on agriculture and ''pottondi'' was a tax levied on merchandise by the local feudal ruler. Based on context, ''pottondi'' also meant 1/10, ''aydalavi'' meant 1/5 and ''elalavi'' meant 1/7.Kotutu inscription of the 9th century, Rampura inscription of 905 (Adiga 2006, p219) ''Mannadare'' literally meant land tax and was levied together with shepherds tax (''Kurimbadere'') payable to the chief of shepherds. ''Bhaga'' meant a portion or share of the produce from land or the land area itself. Minor taxes such as ''Kirudere'' (due to the landlords) and ''samathadere'' (raised by the army officers or ''samantha'') are mentioned. In addition to taxes for maintenance of the local officer's retinue, villages were obligated to feed armies on the march to and from battles.Varuna inscription, (Adiga 2006, p223–224) ''Bittuvatta'' or ''niravari'' taxes comprised usually of a percentage of the produce and was collected for constructing irrigation tanks.Adiga (2006), p230

Culture

Religion

The Western Gangas gave patronage to all the major religions of the time; Jainism and the Hindu sects of Shaivism, Vedic Brahmanism and Vaishnavism. However scholars have argued that not all Gangas kings may have given equal priority to all the faiths. Some historians believe that the Gangas were ardent Jains.Dr. Lewis Rice, S. R. Sharma and M. V. Krishna Rao However, inscriptions contradict this by providing references to ''kalamukhas'' (staunch Shaiva ascetics), ''pasupatas'' and ''lokayatas'' (followers of ''Pasupatha'' doctrine) who flourished in Gangavadi, indicating that Shaivism was also popular. King Madhava and Harivarma were devoted to cows and brahmins, King Vishnugopa was a devout Vaishnava,Srikantha Shastri in Kamath (2001), p49 Madhava III's and Avinita's inscriptions describe lavish endowments to Jain orders and templesAdiga (2006), p249 and King Durvinita performed Vedic sacrifices prompting historians to claim he was a Hindu.Srikanta Sastri in

Jainism became popular in the dynasty in the 8th century when the ruler King Shivamara I constructed numerous Jain ''basadis''.From the Kulaganga and Narasimhapura copper plates (Adiga 2006, p255) King Butuga II and minister Chavundaraya were staunch Jains which is evident from the construction of the Gommateshwara monolith.From the Kudlur plates of Butuga II (Adiga 2006, p256) Jains worshipped the twenty four '' tirthankars'' (''Jinas'') whose images were consecrated in their temples. The worship of the footprint of spiritual leaders such as those of Bhadrabahu in Shravanabelagola from the 10th century is considered a parallel to Buddhism.P.B. Desai and Jaiswal in Adiga (2006), pp263–264 Some brahminical influences are seen in the consecration of the Gomateshwara monolith which is the statue of Bahubali, the son of '' Tirthankar Adinatha'' (just as Hindus worshipped the sons of Shiva).Adiga (2006), p264 The worship of subordinate deities such as ''yaksa'' and ''yaksi'', earlier considered as mere attendants of the ''tirthankars'' was seen from the 7th century to the 12th century.Adiga (2006), pp264–265

Vedic Brahminism was popular in the 6th and 7th centuries when inscriptions refer to grants made to ''Srotriya'' Brahmins.Adiga (2006), p253 These inscriptions also describe the ''gotra'' (lineage) affiliation to royal families and their adherence of such Vedic rituals as ''asvamedha'' (horse sacrifice) and ''hiranyagarbha''.From the Bendiganhalli and Bangalore copper plates, the Chaluvanahalli plates, Kutalur grant, Kadagattur and Nallala grants of King Durvinita, Kondunjeruvu grant of King Avinita (Adiga 2006, pp281–282) Brahmins and kings enjoyed a mutually beneficial relationship; rituals performed by the brahmins gave legitimacy to kings and the land grants made by kings to brahmins elevated them in society to the level of wealthy landowners.Adiga (2006), p282 Vaishnavism however maintained a low profile and not many inscriptions describe grants towards its cause.Adiga (2006), p313 Some Vaishnava temples were built by the Gangas such as the ''Narayanaswami'' temples at Nanjangud, Sattur and Hangala in modern Mysore district.From the Kalkunda inscription (Adiga 2006, pp314–316) The deity Vishnu was depicted with four arms holding a conch (''sanka''), discus (''cakra''), mace (''gada'') and lotus (''padma'').Adiga (2006), p317

From the beginning of the 8th century, patronage to Shaivism increased in every section of the society; the landed elite, landlords, assemblies (''samaya''), schools of learning (''aghraharas'')Adiga (2006), p291 and minor ruling families such as the Bana, Nolamba and Chalukya clans.From the Nandi copper plates of Rashtrakuta Govinda III of 800, Koyattur-12000 grant of King Dodda Naradhipa Bana in 810, the Ganiganur inscription, Nolamba King Mahendradhirajas grant of his house towards a Shaiva temple in 878, Baragur inscription of 914 of King Ayappadeva Nolamba, the Ninneshvaradeva temple built by King Dilipayya Nolamba in 942.Among minor Chalukya kings, Narasinga Chalukya of Mysore constructed the Narasingeshwara temple and Kings Goggi and Durga build the Buteshvara temple at Varuna in modern Mysore region – From the Kukkarahalli, Manalevadi, Aragodupalli and Torevalli inscriptions, (Adiga 2006, 294) The Shaiva temples contained a Shiva ''linga'' in the sanctum sanctorum along with images of the mother goddess, Surya (Sun god)This was popularised by the ''kalamukha'' monks (Adiga 2006, p292) and Nandi (a bull and attendant of Shiva) which was normally enshrined in a separate pavilion facing the sanctum.Adiga (2006), p301H.V. Stietencron in Adiga 2006, p303 The ''linga'' was man made and in some cases had etchings of Ganapati (son of Shiva) and Parvati (consort and wife of Shiva) on it. Due to the vigorous efforts of priests and ascetics, Shaiva monastic orders flourished in many places such as Nandi Hills, Avani and Hebbata in modern Kolar district.From Nandi copper plates of 800, Avani pillar inscription, Perbetta hero stones, 878 inscription of Nolamba Mahendradhiraja, Baragur inscription of 919, 942 Tumkur grant and Basavanahalli inscriptions (Adiga 2006, p304–305)

Society

The Western Ganga society in many ways reflected the emerging religious, political and cultural developments of those times. Women became active in local administration because Ganga kings distributed territorial responsibility to their queens such as the feudal queen Parabbaya-arasi of KundatturFrom the Kuntur inscription of the 10th century (Adiga 2006, p203) and the queens of King Sripurusha, Butuga II and feudal king Permadi.Karmarkar (1947), p66 Inheritance of fiscal and administrative responsibility by the son-in-law, the wife or by the daughter is evident. The position of prime minister of King Ereganga II and position of ''nalgavunda'' (local landlord) bestowed upon Jakkiabbe, the wife of a fallen hero are examples. When Jakkiabbe took to asceticism, her daughter inherited the position.from the Bandalike inscription of 919 (Adiga 2006, p203)From the Shravanabelagola inscription (Adiga 2006, p204)

The devadasi system (''sule'' or courtesan) in temples was prevalent and was modelled after the structures in the royal palace.Adiga (2006), p398 Contemporaneous literature such a '' Vaddaradhane'' makes a mention of the chief queen (''Dharani Mahadevi'') accompanied by lower ranking queens (''arasiyargal'') and courtesans of the women's royal quarter (''pendarasada suleyargal''). Some of the courtesans and concubines employed in the harem of the kings and chieftains were well respected, examples being Nandavva at whose instance a local chief made land grant to a Jain temple.From the Perur plates (Adiga 2006, p398) Education in the royal family was closely supervised and included such subjects as political science, elephant and horse riding, archery, medicine, poetry, grammar, drama, literature, dance, singing and use of musical instruments. Brahmins enjoyed an influential position in society and were exempt from certain taxes and customs due on land. In turn they managed public affairs such as teaching, local judiciary, functioned as trustees and bankers, managed schools, temples, irrigation tanks, rest houses, collected taxes due from villages and raised money from public subscriptions.Karmarkar (1947), pp. 72, 74

By virtue of a Hindu belief that killing of a brahmin (''Bramhatya'') was a sin, capital punishment was not applicable to them.Altekar (1934), p329 Upper caste kshatriyas (''satkshatriya'') were also exempt from capital punishment due to their higher position in the caste system. Severe crimes committed were punishable by the severing of a foot or hand.From the notes of Alberuni and Bouchet (Karmarkar 1947, p103) Contemporary literary sources reveal up to ten castes in the Hindu caste system; three among kshatriya, three among brahmin, two among vaishya and two among shudras.From the notes of Yuan Chwang (Karmarkar 1947, p103) Family laws permitted a wife or daughter or surviving relatives of a deceased person to claim properties such as his home, land, grain, money etc. if there were no male heirs. If no claimants to the property existed, the state took possession of these properties as ''Dharmadeya'' (charitable asset).From a modern Bijapur inscription of 1178 (Karmarkar, 1947, p104) Intercaste marriage, child marriage, marriage of a boy to maternal uncles daughter, ''Svayamvara'' marriage (where the bride garlands her choice of a groom from among many aspirants) were all in vogue.The ''Svayamvara'' marriage of Chalukya King Vikramaditya VI to Chandaladevi in the 11th century being an example (Karmarkar, 1947 p105) Memorials containing hero stones (''virkal'') were erected for fallen heroes and the concerned family received monetary aid for maintenance of the memorial.Karmarkar (1947), p109

The presence of numerous ''Mahasatikals'' (or ''Mastikal'' – hero stones for a woman who accepted ritual death upon the demise of her husband) indicates the popularity of Sati among royalty.From the writings of Marco Polo, Ibn Batuta, Bernier and Tavernier (Karmarkar 1947, p110) Ritual death by '' sallekhana'' and by ''jalasamadhi'' (drowning in water) were also practiced.Karmarkar (1947), p110 Popular clothing among men was the use of two unrestricted garments, a Dhoti as a lower garment and a plain cloth as upper garment while women wore Saris with stitched petticoats. Turbans were popular with men of higher standing and people used umbrellas made with bamboo or reeds.Karmarkar (1947), p111 Ornaments were popular among men and women and even elephants and horses were decorated. Men wore finger rings, necklaces (''honnasara'' and ''honnagala sara''), bracelets (''Kaduga'') and wristlets (''Kaftkina''). Women wore a nose jewel (''bottu''), nose ring (''mugutti''), bangles (''bale'' or ''kankana'') and various types of necklaces (''honna gante sara'' and ''kati sutra''). During leisure, men amused themselves with horse riding, watching wrestling bouts, cock fights and ram fights.Karmarkar (1947), p112 There existed a large and well organised network of schools for imparting higher education and these schools were known by various names such as ''agraharas'', ''ghatikas'', ''brahmapura'' or ''matha''.Karmarkar (1947), p113 Inscriptions mention schools of higher education at Salotgi, Balligavi, Talagunda, Aihole, Arasikere and other places.

Literature

The Western Ganga rule was a period of brisk literary activity in Sanskrit and Kannada, though many of the writings are now considered extinct and are known only from references made to them. Chavundaraya's writing, ''Chavundaraya Purana'' (or ''Trishashtilakshana mahapurana'') of 978 CE, is an early existing work in prose style in Kannada and contains a summary of the Sanskrit writings, '' Adipurana'' and ''Uttarapurana'' which were written a century earlier by Jinasena

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