Transitivity (grammatical Category)

In linguistics, transitivity is a property of verbs that relates to whether a verb can take objects and how many such objects a verb can take. It is closely related to valency, which considers other verb arguments in addition to direct objects. The obligatory noun phrases and prepositional phrases determine how many arguments a predicate has. Obligatory elements are considered arguments while optional ones are never counted in the list of arguments.

Traditional grammar makes a binary distinction between intransitive verbs, which cannot take a direct object (such as ''fall'' or ''sit'' in English), and transitive verbs, which take a direct object (such as ''throw'', ''injure'', or ''kiss'' in English). In practice, many languages (including English) also have verbs that have two objects (ditransitive verbs) or even verbs that can be used as both a transitive verb and an intransitive verb (ambitransitive verbs, for example ''She walked the dog'' and ''She walked with a dog'').

In functional grammar, transitivity is considered to be a ''continuum'' rather than a binary category as in traditional grammar. The "continuum" view takes a more semantic approach. One way it does this is by taking into account the degree to which an action affects its object (so that the verb ''see'' is described as having "lower transitivity" than the verb ''kill'').

History

The notion of transitivity, as well as other notions that today are the basics of linguistics, was first introduced by the Stoics and the Peripatetic school, but they probably referred to the whole sentence containing transitive or intransitive verbs, not just to the verb. The discovery of the Stoics was later used and developed by the philologists of the Alexandrian school and later grammarians.

Formal analysis

Many languages, such as Hungarian, mark transitivity through morphology; transitive verbs and intransitive verbs behave in distinctive ways. In languages with polypersonal agreement, an intransitive verb will agree with its subject only, while a transitive verb will agree with both subject and direct object.

In other languages the distinction is based on syntax. It is possible to identify an intransitive verb in English, for example, by attempting to supply it with an appropriate direct object:

*''He kissed ''—transitive verb.
*''She injured ''—transitive verb.
*'' did you throw?''—transitive verb.

By contrast, an intransitive verb coupled with a direct object will result in an ungrammatical utterance:
*''What did you fall?''
*''I sat a chair.''

Conversely (at least in a traditional analysis), using a transitive verb in English without a direct object will result in an incomplete sentence:
*''I kissed'' (...)
*''You injured'' (...)
*''Where is she now?'' *''She's injuring.''

English is unusually lax by comparison with other Indo-European languages in its rules on transitivity; what may appear to be a transitive verb can be used as an intransitive verb, and vice versa. ''Eat'' and ''read'' and many other verbs can be used either transitively or intransitively. Often there is a semantic difference between the intransitive and transitive forms of a verb: ''the water is boiling'' versus ''I boiled the water''; ''the grapes grew'' versus ''I grew the grapes''. In these examples, known as ergative verbs, the role of the subject differs between intransitive and transitive verbs.

Even though an intransitive verb may not take a ''direct'' object, it often may take an appropriate indirect object:

*''I laughed ''

What are considered to be intransitive verbs can also take cognate objects, where the object is considered integral to the action, for example ''She slept a troubled sleep''.

Languages that express transitivity through morphology

The following languages of the below language families (or hypothetical language families) have this feature:

In the Uralo-Altaic language family:
* Mordvinic languages
* The three Ugric languages
* Northern Samoyedic languages
* Turkic languages
* Mongolic languages
* Korean
* Japanese
In Indo-European (Indo-Aryan) language familyː

* Hindi-Urdu