This article about the development of themes in Italian Renaissance painting is an extension to the article

Italian Renaissance painting Italian Renaissance painting is the painting of the period beginning in the late 13th century and flourishing from the early 15th to late 16th centuries, occurring in the Italian Peninsula, which was at that time divided into many political stat ...

, for which it provides additional pictures with commentary. The works encompassed are from

Giotto Giotto di Bondone (; – January 8, 1337), known mononymously as Giotto ( , ) and Latinised as Giottus, was an Italian painter and architect from Florence during the Late Middle Ages. He worked during the Gothic/Proto-Renaissance period. Giot ...

in the early 14th century to

Michelangelo Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni (; 6 March 1475 – 18 February 1564), known as Michelangelo (), was an Italian sculptor, painter, architect, and poet of the High Renaissance. Born in the Republic of Florence, his work was insp ...

's ''

Last Judgement The Last Judgment, Final Judgment, Day of Reckoning, Day of Judgment, Judgment Day, Doomsday, Day of Resurrection or The Day of the Lord (; ar, یوم القيامة, translit=Yawm al-Qiyāmah or ar, یوم الدین, translit=Yawm ad-Dīn, ...

'' of the 1530s. The themes that preoccupied painters of the

Italian Renaissance The Italian Renaissance ( it, Rinascimento ) was a period in Italian history covering the 15th and 16th centuries. The period is known for the initial development of the broader Renaissance culture that spread across Europe and marked the trans ...

were those of both subject matter and execution – what was painted and the style in which it was painted. The artist had far more freedom of both subject and style than did a

Medieval In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the Post-classical, post-classical period of World history (field), global history. It began with t ...

painter. Certain characteristic elements of

Renaissance painting Renaissance art (1350 – 1620 AD) is the painting, sculpture, and decorative arts of the period of European history known as the Renaissance, which emerged as a distinct style in Italy in about AD 1400, in parallel with developments which occ ...

evolved a great deal during the period. These include perspective, both in terms of how it was achieved and the effect to which it was applied, and realism, particularly in the depiction of humanity, either as symbolic, portrait or narrative element.

Themes

The ''

Flagellation of Christ The Flagellation of Christ, sometimes known as Christ at the Column or the Scourging at the Pillar, is a scene from the Passion of Christ very frequently shown in Christian art, in cycles of the Passion or the larger subject of the '' Life of C ...

'' by

Piero della Francesca Piero della Francesca (, also , ; – 12 October 1492), originally named Piero di Benedetto, was an Italian painter of the Early Renaissance. To contemporaries he was also known as a mathematician and geometer. Nowadays Piero della Francesca i ...

(above) demonstrates in a single small work many of the themes of Italian Renaissance painting, both in terms of compositional elements and subject matter. Immediately apparent is Piero's mastery of perspective and light. The architectural elements, including the tiled floor which becomes more complex around the central action, combine to create two spaces. The inner space is lit by an unseen light source to which Jesus looks. Its exact location can be pinpointed mathematically by an analysis of the diffusion and the angle of the shadows on the coffered ceiling. The three figures who are standing outside are lit from a different angle, from both daylight and light reflected from the pavement and buildings. The artistic execution of the figures depicted is tied to the painting's immediate historical context. The figure of Pontius Pilate (seated, on the far left) is a portrait of the visiting Emperor of

Byzantium Byzantium () or Byzantion ( grc, Βυζάντιον) was an ancient Greek city in classical antiquity that became known as Constantinople in late antiquity and Istanbul today. The Greek name ''Byzantion'' and its Latinization ''Byzantium'' cont ...

Flagellation Flagellation (Latin , 'whip'), flogging or whipping is the act of beating the human body with special implements such as whips, rods, switches, the cat o' nine tails, the sjambok, the knout, etc. Typically, flogging has been imposed on ...

is also called "scourging". The term "scourge" was applied to the

plague Plague or The Plague may refer to: Agriculture, fauna, and medicine *Plague (disease), a disease caused by ''Yersinia pestis'' * An epidemic of infectious disease (medical or agricultural) * A pandemic caused by such a disease * A swarm of pes ...

. Outside of the hall in which Christ is being flagellated, in the foreground of the painting, stand three men representing those who buried the body of Christ. The two older men,

Nicodemus Nicodemus (; grc-gre, Νικόδημος, Nikódēmos) was a Pharisee and a member of the Sanhedrin mentioned in three places in the Gospel of John: * He first visits Jesus one night to discuss Jesus' teachings (). * The second time Nicodem ...

and Joseph of Arimathaea, are believed to be portraits of acquaintances of Piero della Francesca who had recently lost their sons, one of them to the plague. The third figure perhaps a portrait of one of the sons, or else represent both of them in a single idealized figure, painted in a similar style to Piero's angels in other paintings. The third man is the young disciple

John John is a common English name and surname: * John (given name) * John (surname) John may also refer to: New Testament Works * Gospel of John, a title often shortened to John * First Epistle of John, often shortened to 1 John * Second ...

Elements of Renaissance painting

Renaissance painting differed from the painting of the Late Medieval period in its emphasis upon the close observation of nature, particularly with regards to human anatomy, and the application of scientific principles to the use of perspective and light.

Linear perspective

Primarily through architecture, Renaissance artists were able to practice the art of three-dimensional illusion using linear perspective, which gave their works a greater sense of depth. The pictures in the gallery below show the development of linear perspective in buildings and cityscapes. * In

's fresco, the building is like a stage set with one side open to the viewer. * In

Paolo Uccello Paolo Uccello ( , ; 1397 – 10 December 1475), born Paolo di Dono, was an Italians, Italian (Florentine) Florentine painting, painter and mathematician who was notable for his pioneering work on visual Perspective (graphical), perspective in art. ...

's fresco, the townscape gives an impression of depth. *

Masaccio Masaccio (, , ; December 21, 1401 – summer 1428), born Tommaso di Ser Giovanni di Simone, was a Florentine artist who is regarded as the first great Italian painter of the Quattrocento period of the Italian Renaissance. According to Vasari, ...

's ''

Holy Trinity The Christian doctrine of the Trinity (, from 'threefold') is the central dogma concerning the nature of God in most Christian churches, which defines one God existing in three coequal, coeternal, consubstantial divine persons: God the F ...

'' was painted with carefully calculated mathematical proportions, in which he was probably assisted by the architect

Brunelleschi Filippo Brunelleschi ( , , also known as Pippo; 1377 – 15 April 1446), considered to be a founding father of Renaissance architecture, was an Italian architect, designer, and sculptor, and is now recognized to be the first modern engineer, p ...

. *

Fra Angelico Fra Angelico (born Guido di Pietro; February 18, 1455) was an Italian painter of the Early Renaissance, described by Vasari in his '' Lives of the Artists'' as having "a rare and perfect talent".Giorgio Vasari, ''Lives of the Artists''. Pengu ...

uses the simple motif of a small

loggia In architecture, a loggia ( , usually , ) is a covered exterior gallery or corridor, usually on an upper level, but sometimes on the ground level of a building. The outer wall is open to the elements, usually supported by a series of columns ...

accurately drafted to create an intimate space. *

Gentile Bellini Gentile Bellini (c. 1429 – 23 February 1507) was an Italian painter of the school of Venice. He came from Venice's leading family of painters, and at least in the early part of his career was more highly regarded than his younger brother Giova ...

has painted a vast space, the

Piazza San Marco Piazza San Marco (; vec, Piasa San Marco), often known in English as St Mark's Square, is the principal public square of Venice, Italy, where it is generally known just as ''la Piazza'' ("the Square"). All other urban spaces in the city (exc ...

Venice Venice ( ; it, Venezia ; vec, Venesia or ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto Regions of Italy, region. It is built on a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and linked by over 400 ...

, in which the receding figures add to the sense of perspective. *

Leonardo da Vinci Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (15 April 14522 May 1519) was an Italian polymath of the High Renaissance who was active as a painter, Drawing, draughtsman, engineer, scientist, theorist, sculptor, and architect. While his fame initially res ...

did detailed and measured drawings of the background Classical ruins preparatory to commencing the unfinished ''

Adoration of the Magi The Adoration of the Magi or Adoration of the Kings is the name traditionally given to the subject in the Nativity of Jesus in art in which the three Magi, represented as kings, especially in the West, having found Jesus by following a star, ...

''. *

Domenico Ghirlandaio Domenico di Tommaso Curradi di Doffo Bigordi (, , ; 2 June 1448 – 11 January 1494), professionally known as Domenico Ghirlandaio, also spelled as Ghirlandajo, was an Italian Renaissance painter born in Florence. Ghirlandaio was part of ...

created an exceptionally complex and expansive setting on three levels, including a steeply descending ramp and a jutting wall. Elements of the landscape, such as the church on the right, are viewed partly through other structures. *

Raphael Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino, better known as Raphael (; or ; March 28 or April 6, 1483April 6, 1520), was an Italian painter and architect of the High Renaissance. List of works by Raphael, His work is admired for its clarity of form, ease of ...

's design for '' Fire in the Borgo'' shows buildings around a small square in which the background events are highlighted by the perspective. File:Giotto di Bondone - No. 3 Scenes from the Life of Joachim - 3. Annunciation to St Anne - WGA09171.jpg,

, ''Annunciation to St. Anne'',

Scrovegni Chapel The Scrovegni Chapel ( it, Cappella degli Scrovegni ), also known as the Arena Chapel, is a small church, adjacent to the Augustinian order, Augustinian monastery, the ''Monastero degli Eremitani'' in Padua, Italy, Padua, region of Veneto, I ...

. File:Paolo Uccello 043.jpg,

, ''The Presentation of the Virgin''. File:Masaccio 003.jpg,

, ''

The Trinity The Christian doctrine of the Trinity (, from 'threefold') is the central dogma concerning the nature of God in most Christian churches, which defines one God existing in three coequal, coeternal, consubstantial divine persons: God the Fa ...

'', Santa Maria Novella. File:Fra Angelico 043.jpg,

, ''The Annunciation'', San Marco's, Florence. File:Accademia - Procession in piazza San Marco by Gentile Bellini.jpg,

, ''Procession of the True Cross''. File:Leonardo Magi.jpg,

, ''

The Adoration of the Magi The Adoration of the Magi or Adoration of the Kings is the name traditionally given to the subject in the Nativity of Jesus in art in which the Biblical Magi, three Magi, represented as kings, especially in the West, having found Jesus by fol ...

''. File:Domenico Ghirlandaio 004.jpg,

, ''The Visitation'',

Tornabuoni Chapel The Tornabuoni Chapel (Italian: ''Cappella Tornabuoni'') is the main chapel (or chancel) in the church of Basilica di Santa Maria Novella, Santa Maria Novella, Florence, Italy. It is famous for the extensive and well-preserved fresco cycle on its ...

. File:Raphael8.jpg,

, completed by

Giulio Romano Giulio Romano (, ; – 1 November 1546), is the acquired name of Giulio Pippi, who was an Italian painter and architect. He was a pupil of Raphael, and his stylistic deviations from High Renaissance classicism help define the sixteenth-centu ...

, '' Fire in the Borgo''.

Landscape

The depiction of landscape was encouraged by the development of linear perspective and the inclusion of detailed landscapes in the background of many

Early Netherlandish painting Early Netherlandish painting, traditionally known as the Flemish Primitives, refers to the work of artists active in the Burgundian and Habsburg Netherlands during the 15th- and 16th-century Northern Renaissance period. It flourished especiall ...

s of the 15th century. Also through this influence came an awareness of

atmospheric perspective Aerial perspective, or atmospheric perspective, refers to the effect the atmosphere has on the appearance of an object as viewed from a distance. As the distance between an object and a viewer increases, the contrast between the object and its b ...

and the observation of the way distant things are affected by light. * Giotto uses a few rocks to give the impression of a mountain setting. * Paolo Uccello has created a detailed and surreal setting as a stage for many small scenes. * In

Carpaccio Carpaccio (, , ) is a dish of meat or fish (such as beef, veal, venison, salmon or tuna), thinly sliced or pounded thin, and served raw, typically as an appetizer. It was invented in 1963 by Giuseppe Cipriani from Harry's Bar in Venice, Ita ...

's ''Deposition of the Body of Christ'', the desolate rocky landscape echoes the tragedy of the scene. * Mantegna's landscape has a sculptural, three-dimensional quality that is suggestive of a real physical space. The details of the rocks, their strata and fractures, suggest that he studied the

geological Geology () is a branch of natural science concerned with Earth and other astronomical objects, the features or rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Modern geology significantly overlaps all other Eart ...

formations of the red

limestone Limestone ( calcium carbonate ) is a type of carbonate sedimentary rock which is the main source of the material lime. It is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of . Limestone forms whe ...

prevalent in areas of Northern Italy. *

Antonello da Messina Antonello da Messina, properly Antonello di Giovanni di Antonio, but also called Antonello degli Antoni and Anglicized as Anthony of Messina ( 1430February 1479), was an Italian painter from Messina, active during the Early Italian Renaissance. ...

sets the grim scene of the ''

Crucifixion Crucifixion is a method of capital punishment in which the victim is tied or nailed to a large wooden cross or beam and left to hang until eventual death from exhaustion and asphyxiation. It was used as a punishment by the Persians, Carthagin ...

'' in contrast to the placid countryside which rolls into the far distance, becoming paler and bluer as it recedes. *

Giovanni Bellini Giovanni Bellini (; c. 1430 – 26 November 1516) was an Italian Renaissance painter, probably the best known of the Bellini family of Venetian painters. He was raised in the household of Jacopo Bellini, formerly thought to have been his father ...

has created a detailed landscape with a pastoral scene between the foreground and background mountains. There are numerous levels in this landscape, making it the equivalent of Ghirlandaio's complex cityscape (above). *

Perugino Pietro Perugino (, ; – 1523), born Pietro Vannucci, was an Italian Renaissance painter of the Umbrian school, who developed some of the qualities that found classic expression in the High Renaissance. Raphael was his most famous pupil. Ear ...

has set the ''Adoration of the Magi'' against the familiar hilly landscape of

Umbria it, Umbro (man) it, Umbra (woman) , population_note = , population_blank1_title = , population_blank1 = , demographics_type1 = , demographics1_footnotes = , demographics1_title1 = , demographics1_info1 = , ...

. * Leonardo da Vinci, displays a theatrical use of

in his view of the precipitous mountains around

Lago di Garda Lake Garda ( it, Lago di Garda or ; lmo, label=Eastern Lombard, Lach de Garda; vec, Ƚago de Garda; la, Benacus; grc, Βήνακος) is the largest lake in Italy. It is a popular holiday location in northern Italy, about halfway between ...

at the foothills of the

Alps The Alps () ; german: Alpen ; it, Alpi ; rm, Alps ; sl, Alpe . are the highest and most extensive mountain range system that lies entirely in Europe, stretching approximately across seven Alpine countries (from west to east): France, Sw ...

in Northern Italy. File:Giotto di Bondone - Joachims Dream - Capella degli Scrovegni.jpg,

, ''Joachim's Dream''. File:Paolo Uccello 038.jpg,

, ''Franciscan Life''. File:Vittore Carpaccio - Preparation of Christ's Tomb - Google Art Project.jpg,

, ''The Deposition''. File:Andrea Mantegna 036.jpg, Mantegna, ''Agony in the Garden''. File:Antonello da Messina 027.jpg,

, ''

The Crucifixion The crucifixion and death of Jesus occurred in 1st-century Judea, most likely in AD 30 or AD 33. It is described in the four canonical gospels, referred to in the New Testament epistles, attested to by other ancient sources, and considere ...

''. File:Giovanni_Bellini_St_Francis_in_Ecstasy.jpg,

, ''St. Francis in Ecstasy''. File:Pietro Perugino 006.jpg,

, ''

'', 1496. File:Leonardo da Vinci - Virgin and Child with St Anne C2RMF retouched.jpg,

, ''The Virgin and Child and St Anne''.

Light

Light and shade exist in a painting in two forms. Tone is simply the lightness and darkness of areas of a picture, graded from white to black. Tonal arrangement is a very significant feature of some paintings.

Chiaroscuro Chiaroscuro ( , ; ), in art, is the use of strong contrasts between light and dark, usually bold contrasts affecting a whole composition. It is also a technical term used by artists and art historians for the use of contrasts of light to achi ...

is the modelling of apparent surfaces within a picture by the suggestion of light and shadow. While tone was an important feature of paintings of the Medieval period, chiaroscuro was not. It became increasingly important to painters of the 15th century, transforming the depiction of three-dimensional space. *

Taddeo Gaddi Taddeo Gaddi (c. 1290, in Florence – 1366, in Florence) was a medieval Italian painter and architect. He was the son of Gaddo di Zanobi, called Gaddo Gaddi. He was a member of Giotto's workshop from 1313 until the master's death in 1337. A ...

's ''Annunciation to the Shepherds'' is the first known large painting of a night scene. The internal light source of the picture is the angel. * In

's painting, daylight, which appears to come from the actual window of the friary cell which this fresco adorns, gently illuminates the figures and defines the architecture. * In his ''Emperor's Dream'',

takes up the theme of the night scene illuminated by an angel and applies his scientific knowledge of the diffusion of light. The tonal pattern thus created is a significant element in the composition of the painting. * In his ''

Agony in the Garden The Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane is an episode in the life of Jesus. After the Last Supper, Jesus enters a garden where he experiences great anguish and prays to be delivered from his impending death on the cross ("Take this cup from me") ...

'',

uses the fading sunset on a cloudy evening to create an atmosphere of tension and impending tragedy. * In

Domenico Veneziano Domenico Veneziano (c. 1410 – May 15, 1461) was an Italian painter of the early Renaissance, active mostly in Perugia and Tuscany. Little is known of his birth, though he is thought to have been born in Venice, hence his last name. He then moved ...

's formal portrait, the use of chiaroscuro to model the form is slight. However, the painting relies strongly on the tonal contrasts of the pale face, mid-tone background and dark garment with patterned bodice for effect. *

Filippino Lippi Filippino Lippi (April 1457 – 18 April 1504) was an Italian painter working in Florence, Italy during the later years of the Early Renaissance and first few years of the High Renaissance. Biography Filippino Lippi was born in Prato, Tusc ...

uses chiaroscuro to model the face of the sitter and define the details of his simple garment. The light and shadow on the edge of the window define the angle of the light. * The suggested authorship of this early-16th-century portrait includes Ridolfo del Ghirlandaio,

Mariotto Albertinelli Mariotto di Bindo di Biagio Albertinelli (13 October 1474 – 5 November 1515) was an Italian Renaissance painter active in Florence. He was a close friend and collaborator of Fra Bartolomeo.Ludovico Borgo and Margot Borgo.Albertinelli, Mariotto ...

and

Giuliano Bugiardini Giuliano di Piero di Simone Bugiardini (29 January 1475 – 17 February 1555) was an Italian Renaissance painter. He was born and was mainly active in Florence."Bugiardini, Giuliano." Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press. ...

. The painting combines many of the lighting effects of the other works in this gallery. The form is modelled by the light and shade, as if by a setting sun, which gives an element of drama, enhanced by the landscape. The tonal pattern created by the dark garment, the white linen and position of the hand is a compositional feature of the painting. * In

's ''

John the Baptist John the Baptist or , , or , ;Wetterau, Bruce. ''World history''. New York: Henry Holt and Company. 1994. syc, ܝܘܿܚܲܢܵܢ ܡܲܥܡܕ݂ܵܢܵܐ, Yoḥanān Maʿmḏānā; he, יוחנן המטביל, Yohanān HaMatbil; la, Ioannes Bapti ...

'', elements of the painting, including the corners of the model's eyes and mouth, are disguised by shadow, creating an air of ambiguity and mystery. File:Gaddi Taddeo Announcement.jpg,

, ''The Annunciation''. File:Fra Angelico 049.jpg,

, ''The Annunciation''. File:Piero della Francesca 017 a.jpg,

, '' The Emperor's Dream''. File:Giovanni Bellini 002.jpg,

, '' The Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane''. File:Antonio_del_Pollaiuolo_-_Profile_Portrait_of_a_Young_Lady_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg,

, ''Portrait of a Lady''. File: Lippi,_Filippino_-_Portrait_of_a_Youth_-_National_Gallery_of_Art.jpg,

, ''Portrait of a Young Man''. File:Giuliano Bugiardini, ritratto di donna, 1506-1510.jpg, Ascribed to

and others, ''Portrait of a Lady'', c.1510 File:Leonardo da Vinci - Saint John the Baptist C2RMF retouched.jpg,

, ''

''.

Anatomy

While remaining largely dependent upon topographic observation, the knowledge of anatomy was advanced by Leonardo da Vinci's meticulous dissection of 30 corpses. Leonardo, among others, impressed upon students the necessity of the close observation of life and made the drawing of live models an essential part of a student's formal study of the art of painting. *

Cimabue Cimabue (; ; – 1302), Translated with an introduction and notes by J.C. and P Bondanella. Oxford: Oxford University Press (Oxford World’s Classics), 1991, pp. 7–14. . also known as Cenni di Pepo or Cenni di Pepi, was an Italian painter a ...

's ''

'', extensively destroyed by flood in 1966, shows the formal arrangement, with curving body and drooping head that was prevalent in late Medieval art. The anatomy is strongly stylised to conform with traditional iconic formula. *

abandoned the traditional formula and painted from observation. *

Massacio Masaccio (, , ; December 21, 1401 – summer 1428), born Tommaso di Ser Giovanni di Simone, was a Florentine artist who is regarded as the first great Italian painter of the Quattrocento period of the Italian Renaissance. According to Vasari, ...

's figure of Christ is foreshortened as if viewed from below, and shows the upper torso strained as if with the effort of breathing. * In

's ''Deposition'' the artist, while not attempting to suggest the brutal realities of the crucifixion, has attempted to give the impression of death. * In

's ''Baptism'', the robust figure of Jesus is painted with a simplicity and lack of sharply defined muscularity that belies its naturalism. * The figure of Jesus in this painting, which is the combined work of

Verrocchio Andrea del Verrocchio (, , ; – 1488), born Andrea di Michele di Francesco de' Cioni, was a sculptor, Italian painter and goldsmith who was a master of an important workshop in Florence. He apparently became known as ''Verrocchio'' after the ...

and the young Leonardo, has in all probability been drafted by Verrocchio. The contours retain the somewhat contorted linearity of Gothic art. Much of the torso, however, is thought to have been painted by Leonardo and reveals a strong knowledge of anatomical form. * Leonardo's picture of

St. Jerome Jerome (; la, Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus; grc-gre, Εὐσέβιος Σωφρόνιος Ἱερώνυμος; – 30 September 420), also known as Jerome of Stridon, was a Christian priest, confessor, theologian, and historian; he is comm ...

shows the results of detailed study of the shoulder girdle, known from a page of drawings. *

used human anatomy to great expressive effect. He was renowned for his ability in the creation of expressive poses and was imitated by many other painters and sculptors. File:Cimabue 025.jpg,

. ''The Crucifix of Santa Croce'', 1287 File:Giotto di Bondone 083.jpg,

, ''The Crucifix of Santa Maria Novella'', c.1300 File:Masaccio Crucifixion.jpg,

, ''Crucifixion of Santa Maria del Carmine'' (

Pisa Pisa ( , or ) is a city and ''comune'' in Tuscany, central Italy, straddling the Arno just before it empties into the Ligurian Sea. It is the capital city of the Province of Pisa. Although Pisa is known worldwide for its leaning tower, the cit ...

), c. 1420 File:Giovanni Bellini - Pietà, 1460 circa.jpg,

, ''The Deposition'' File:Piero, battesimo di cristo 04.jpg,

, ''The Baptism of Christ'' File:Andrea_del_Verrocchio,_Leonardo_da_Vinci_-_Baptism_of_Christ_-_Uffizi.jpg,

and

Leonardo Leonardo is a masculine given name, the Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese equivalent of the English, German, and Dutch name, Leonard Leonard or ''Leo'' is a common English masculine given name and a surname. The given name and surname originate ...

, ''The Bapism of Christ'' File:Leonardo, san girolamo.jpg,

, ''St Jerome'', File:Michelangelo, Creation of Adam 03.jpg,

, ''Adam'', c.1510

Realism

The observation of nature meant that set forms and symbolic gestures which in Medieval art, and particularly the Byzantine style prevalent in much of Italy, were used to convey meaning, were replaced by the representation of human emotion as displayed by a range of individuals. *In this ''Resurrection'',

shows the sleeping soldiers with faces hidden by helmets or foreshortened to emphasise the relaxed posture. *In contrast,

Andrea Castagno Andrea del Castagno () or Andrea di Bartolo di Bargilla (; – 19 August 1457) was an List of Italian painters, Italian painter from Florence, influenced chiefly by Masaccio and Giotto di Bondone. His works include frescoes in Sant'Apollonia i ...

has painted a life-sized image of the condotierre, Pippo Spano, alert and with his feet over the edge of the painted niche which frames him. *

Filippo Lippi Filippo Lippi ( – 8 October 1469), also known as Lippo Lippi, was an Italian painter of the Quattrocento (15th century) and a Carmelite Priest. Biography Lippi was born in Florence in 1406 to Tommaso, a butcher, and his wife. He was orp ...

in this early work shows a very naturalistic group of children crowding around the Virgin Mary, but looking with innocent curiosity at the viewer. One of the children has

Down syndrome Down syndrome or Down's syndrome, also known as trisomy 21, is a genetic disorder caused by the presence of all or part of a third copy of chromosome 21. It is usually associated with physical growth delays, mild to moderate intellectual dis ...

. *

depicts the grief resulting from loss of innocence as

Adam and Eve Adam and Eve, according to the creation myth of the Abrahamic religions, were the first man and woman. They are central to the belief that humanity is in essence a single family, with everyone descended from a single pair of original ancestors. ...

are expelled from the presence of God. *

painted several versions of '' Ecce Homo'', the tormented Christ as he was presented to the people by the Roman Governor. Such paintings usually show Christ in a tragic but heroic role, minimising the depiction of suffering. Antonello's depictions are starkly realistic. * In his '' Lamentation over the Dead christ'', Mantegna has here depicted the dead body of Jesus with daring foreshortening, as if the viewer were standing at the end of the slab. * In this detail from a larger painting, Mantegna shows a little child, wearing a tummy-binder and holey slippers, turning away and chewing its fingers while the infant Christ is circumcised. *

Giorgione Giorgione (, , ; born Giorgio Barbarelli da Castelfranco; 1477–78 or 1473–74 – 17 September 1510) was an Italian painter of the Venetian school during the High Renaissance, who died in his thirties. He is known for the elusive poetic qualit ...

paints a natural and unglamorised portrait of an old woman, unusual in its depiction of her illkempt hair and open mouth with crooked teeth. File:Giotto di Bondone 039.jpg,

, ''The Resurrection''. File:Andrea del Castagno 004.jpg,

, ''Pippo Spano''. File:Filippo Lippi Madonna San Trivulzio.jpg,

Fra Filippo Lippi Filippo Lippi ( – 8 October 1469), also known as Lippo Lippi, was an Italian painter of the Quattrocento (15th century) and a Carmelite Priest. Biography Lippi was born in Florence in 1406 to Tommaso, a butcher, and his wife. He was orp ...

, ''the Madonna Trivulzio''. File:Masaccio Adam and Eve detail.jpg,

, ''Adam and Eve'' from the

Brancacci Chapel The Brancacci Chapel (in Italian language, Italian, "Cappella dei Brancacci") is a chapel in the Church of Santa Maria del Carmine di Firenze, Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence, central Italy. It is sometimes called the "Sistine Chapel of the ...

. File:Antonello da Messina 002.jpg,

, '' Ecce Homo''. File:Andrea Mantegna - Beweinung Christi.jpg, Mantegna, ''

The Dead Christ ''The Dead Christ'' or ''The Redeemer in Death'' is a statue of Jesus Christ executed in white Carrara marble by the Irish sculptor John Hogan in Rome. Hogan created three versions of the statue in the early 19th century: * the first (1829) is l ...

''. File:Andrea Mantegna 004.jpg, Mantegna, detail from ''the Circumcision of Christ''. File:Giorgione - La Vecchia.jpg,

, ''Portrait of an elderly woman''.

Figure composition

Among the preoccupations of artists commissioned to do large works with multiple figures were how to make the subject, usually narrative, easily read by the viewer, natural in appearance and well composed within the picture space. *

combines three separate narrative elements into this dramatic scene set against the dehumanising helmets of the guards.

Judas Judas Iscariot (; grc-x-biblical, Ἰούδας Ἰσκαριώτης; syc, ܝܗܘܕܐ ܣܟܪܝܘܛܐ; died AD) was a disciple and one of the original Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ. According to all four canonical gospels, Judas betraye ...

betrays

Jesus Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label=Hebrew/Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth (among other names and titles), was a first-century Jewish preacher and religious ...

to the soldiers by kissing him. The High Priest signals to a guard to seize him. Peter slices the ear off the high priest's servant as he steps forward to lay hands on Jesus. Five figures dominate the foreground, surrounding Jesus so that only his head is visible. Yet by skillful arrangement of color and the gestures of the men, Giotto makes the face of Jesus the focal point of the painting. * In ''The Death of Adam'',

has set the dying patriarch so that he is cast into relief against the black garment worn by one of his family. His importance to the story is further emphasised by the arch of figures formed around him and the diagonals of the arms which all lead to his head. p * ''The Resurrection of the Son of Theophilus'' is a remarkably cohesive whole, considering that it was begun by

, left unfinished, vandalised, and eventually completed by

. Masaccio painted the central section. *

Antonio Antonio is a masculine given name of Etruscan origin deriving from the root name Antonius. It is a common name among Romance language-speaking populations as well as the Balkans and Lusophone Africa. It has been among the top 400 most popular male ...

and

Piero del Pollaiuolo Piero del Pollaiuolo ( , , ; also spelled Pollaiolo; in Florence – 1496 in Rome), also known as Piero Benci, was an Italian Renaissance painter from Florence. His brother was the artist Antonio del Pollaiuolo and the two frequently worked ...

, in this highly systemised painting, have taken the

cross-bow A crossbow is a ranged weapon using an elastic launching device consisting of a bow-like assembly called a ''prod'', mounted horizontally on a main frame called a ''tiller'', which is hand-held in a similar fashion to the stock of a long fire ...

used by the archers in the foreground, as the compositional structure. Within this large triangular shape, divided vertically, the figures alternate between front and back views. *

Botticelli Alessandro di Mariano di Vanni Filipepi ( – May 17, 1510), known as Sandro Botticelli (, ), was an Italian painter of the Early Renaissance. Botticelli's posthumous reputation suffered until the late 19th century, when he was rediscovered ...

's long, narrow painting of '' Mars and Venus'' is based on a W with the figures mirroring each other. The lovers, who shortly before were united, are now separated by sleep. The three small fawns who process across the painting hold the composition together. *

s mastery of complex figure composition, as in his ''

The Entombment The burial of Jesus refers to the entombment of the body of Jesus after crucifixion, before the eve of the sabbath described in the New Testament. According to the canonical gospel narratives, he was placed in a tomb by a councillor of the san ...

'' was to inspire many artists for centuries. In this panel painting the figure of Christ, though vertical, is slumped and a dead weight at the centre of the picture, while those who try to carry the body lean outwards to support it. * At first glance, Signorelli's ''Fall of the Damned'' is an appalling and violent jumble of bodies, but by the skilful placement of the figures so that the lines, rather than intersecting, flow in an undulating course through the picture, the composition is both unified and resolved into a large number of separate actions. The colours of the devils also serve to divide the picture into the tormentors and the tormented. * ''The Battle of Ostia'' was executed by

's assistants, probably to his design. The foreground of the painting is organised into two overlapping arched shapes, the larger showing captives being subdued, while to the left and slightly behind, they are forced to kneel before the Pope. While the Pope rises above the second group and dominates it, the first group is dominated by a soldier whose colour and splendid headdress acts like a visual stepping stone to the Pope. At the edges of this group two stooping figures mirror each other, creating a tension in which one pushes away from the edge of the painting and the other pulls upward at its centre. File:Giotto - Scrovegni - -31- - Kiss of Judas.jpg,

, ''The Kiss of Judas'' from the

. File:Piero della Francesca 035.jpg,

, ''The Death of Adam'', from ''The legend of the True Cross''. File:Masaccio - Raising of the Son of Theophilus crop.JPG,

and

, ''The Resurrection of the Son of Theophilus'' from the

. File:Antonio Pollaiuolo 003 cropframe.JPG,

and

, ''The Martyrdom of St. Sebastian''. File:Entombment Michelangelo.jpg,

, ''

''. File:Venus and Mars National Gallery.jpg,

, '' Venus and Mars''. File:Luca Signorelli 001.jpg, Signorelli, ''The Fall of the Damned'' from

Orvieto Cathedral Orvieto Cathedral ( it, Duomo di Orvieto; Cattedrale di Santa Maria Assunta) is a large 14th-century Roman Catholic cathedral dedicated to the Assumption of the Virgin Mary and situated in the town of Orvieto in Umbria, central Italy. Since 1986 ...

. File:Raphael Ostia.jpg, Assistants of

, ''The Battle of Ostia'', Raphael's Stanze

Major works

Altarpieces

Through the Renaissance period, the large

altarpiece An altarpiece is an artwork such as a painting, sculpture or relief representing a religious subject made for placing at the back of or behind the altar of a Christian church. Though most commonly used for a single work of art such as a painting o ...

had a unique status as a commission. An altarpiece was destined to become a focal point, not only visually in the religious building it occupied, but also in the devotions of the worshippers.

's ''Madonna of the Rocks'', now in the

National Gallery, London The National Gallery is an art museum in Trafalgar Square in the City of Westminster, in Central London, England. Founded in 1824, it houses a collection of over 2,300 paintings dating from the mid-13th century to 1900. The current Director o ...

but previously in a chapel in

Milan Milan ( , , Lombard: ; it, Milano ) is a city in northern Italy, capital of Lombardy, and the second-most populous city proper in Italy after Rome. The city proper has a population of about 1.4 million, while its metropolitan city h ...

, is one of many images that was used in the petitioning of the

Blessed Virgin Mary Mary; arc, ܡܪܝܡ, translit=Mariam; ar, مريم, translit=Maryam; grc, Μαρία, translit=María; la, Maria; cop, Ⲙⲁⲣⲓⲁ, translit=Maria was a first-century Jews, Jewish woman of Nazareth, the wife of Saint Joseph, Jose ...

against plague. The significance of these images to those who commissioned them, who worshipped in their location, and who created them is lost when they are viewed in an art gallery. * The two ''Enthroned Madonnas'' by

and

Duccio di Buoninsegna Duccio di Buoninsegna ( , ; – ) was an Italian painter active in Siena, Tuscany, in the late 13th and early 14th century. He was hired throughout his life to complete many important works in government and religious buildings around Italy. Ducc ...

demonstrate the variations on a theme that was formalised and constrained by tradition. Although the positions of the Madonna and Child are very similar, the artists have treated most of the features differently. Cimabue's throne is front-on and uses perspective to suggest its solidity. The angels, their faces, wings and haloes, are arranged to form a rich pattern. The gold leaf detailing of the Madonna's garment picks out the folds in a delicate network. The Child sits regally, with his feet set at the same angle as his mother's. * In Duccio's ''

Rucellai Madonna The ''Rucellai Madonna'' is a panel painting representing the Virgin and Child enthroned with Angels by the Sienese painter Duccio di Buoninsegna. The original contract for the work is dated 1285; the painting was probably delivered in 1286. The ...

'', the largest of its kind at 4.5 metres high, the throne is set diagonally and the Child, much more of a baby despite his gesture, sits diagonally opposed to his mother. While the positioning of the kneeling angels is quite simplistic, they have a naturalism in their repeated postures and are varied by the beautiful colour combinations of their robes. On the Madonna's robe the gold border makes a meandering line, defining the form and contours, and enlivening the whole composition with a single decorative detail. *

's ''

Ognissanti Madonna ''Madonna Enthroned'', also known as the ''Ognissanti Madonna'', or just ''Madonna Ognissanti'', is a painting by the Italian late medieval artist Giotto di Bondone, housed in the Uffizi Gallery of Florence, Italy. The painting has a traditional ...

'' is now housed in the same room of the

Uffizi The Uffizi Gallery (; it, Galleria degli Uffizi, italic=no, ) is a prominent art museum located adjacent to the Piazza della Signoria in the Historic Centre of Florence in the region of Tuscany, Italy. One of the most important Italian museums ...

as Cimabue's and Duccio's, where the advances that he made in both drawing from the observation of nature, and in his use of perspective can be easily compared with the earlier masters. While the painting conforms to the model of an altarpiece, the figures within it do not follow the traditional formula. The Madonna and Child are solidly three-dimensional. This quality is enhanced by the canopied throne which contributes the main decorative element, while gold borders are minimised. The angels, which mirror each other, each have quite individual drapery. * A hundred years later,

, still within the constraints of the formal altarpiece, confidently creates a three-dimensional figure draped in heavy robes, her chubby Christ Child sucking on his fingers. The lutes played by the little angels are both steeply foreshortened. * In

's painting the figures lack the emphasis on mass of Masaccio's. Angelico was renowned for his delicacy in depicting the Madonna. The appeal of such paintings is demonstrated in the way the adoring angels are clustered around. As in Masaccio's painting, the Madonna's halo is decorated with

pseudo-kufic Pseudo-Kufic, or Kufesque, also sometimes Pseudo-Arabic, is a style of decoration used during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance,Encyclopaedia BritannicaBeautiful Gibberish: Fake Arabic in Medieval and Renaissance Art/ref> consisting of imitation ...

script, probably to suggest her

Middle Eastern The Middle East ( ar, الشرق الأوسط, ISO 233: ) is a geopolitical region commonly encompassing Arabia (including the Arabian Peninsula and Bahrain), Asia Minor (Asian part of Turkey except Hatay Province), East Thrace (European ...

origin. * In the hands of

the formal gold frame is transformed into a classical niche, drawn in perfect linear perspective and defined by daylight. The assorted saints cluster round in a natural way, while the Madonna sits on a realistic throne on a small podium covered by an

oriental carpet An oriental rug is a heavy textile made for a wide variety of utilitarian and symbolic purposes and produced in " Oriental countries" for home use, local sale, and export. Oriental carpets can be pile woven or flat woven without pile, using v ...

, while the donor

Federico da Montefeltro Federico da Montefeltro, also known as Federico III da Montefeltro KG (7 June 1422 – 10 September 1482), was one of the most successful mercenary captains (''condottieri'') of the Italian Renaissance, and lord of Urbino from 1444 (as Duke fr ...

kneels at her feet. A concession to tradition is that the Madonna is of a larger scale than the other figures. * In Bellini's painting, while on one hand, the figures and the setting give the effect of great realism, Bellini's interest in Byzantine icons is displayed in the hierarchical enthronement and demeanour of the Madonna. * The

ese painter

Bergognone Ambrogio Borgognone (variously known as ''Ambrogio da Fossano'', ''Ambrogio di Stefano da Fossano'', ''Ambrogio Stefani da Fossano'' or as ''il Bergognone'' or ''Ambrogio Egogni''

has drawn on aspects of the work of Mantegna and Bellini to create this painting in which the red robe and golden hair of Catherine of Alexandria are effectively balanced by the contrasting black and white of Catherine of Siena, and framed by a rustic arch of broken bricks. * In

Andrea Mantegna Andrea Mantegna (, , ; September 13, 1506) was an Italian painter, a student of Roman archeology, and son-in-law of Jacopo Bellini. Like other artists of the time, Mantegna experimented with perspective, e.g. by lowering the horizon in order ...

's ''

Madonna della Vittoria The ''Madonna della Vittoria'' is a painting by the Italian Renaissance painter Andrea Mantegna; the painting was executed in 1496. History On 6 July 1495 the French army of Charles VIII of France, retreating from Italy after the French Invasio ...

'', the Madonna may occupy the central position, framed in her garlanded gazebo, but the focus of attention is

Francesco II Gonzaga Francesco II (or IV) Gonzaga (10 August 1466 – ) was the ruler of the Italian city of Mantua from 1484 until his death. Biography Francesco was born in Mantua, the son of Marquess Federico I Gonzaga. Francesco had a career as a condottiero ac ...

whose achievements are acknowledged not only by the Madonna and Christ Child but by the heroic saints, Michael and George. *

abandoned any sort of formal canopy and surrounded the Madonna and Child with the grandeur of nature into which he set the figures in a carefully balanced yet seemingly informal trapezoid composition. * The ''

Sistine Madonna The ''Sistine Madonna'', also called the ''Madonna di San Sisto'', is an oil painting by the Italian artist Raphael. The painting was commissioned in 1512 by Pope Julius II for the church of San Sisto, Piacenza, and probably executed ''c.'' 151 ...

'' by

uses the formula not of an altarpiece but the formal portrait, with a frame of green curtains through which a vision can be seen, witnessed by

Pope Sixtus II Pope Sixtus II ( el, Πάπας Σίξτος Β΄), also written as Pope Xystus II, was bishop of Rome from 31 August 257 until his death on 6 August 258. He was martyred along with seven deacons, including Lawrence of Rome, during the persecutio ...

for whom the work is named. The clouds around the Virgin are composed of cherubic faces, while the two iconic cherubs so beloved with the late 20th century fashion for angels, prop themselves on the sill. This work became the model for Murillo and many other painters. *

Andrea del Sarto Andrea del Sarto (, , ; 16 July 1486 – 29 September 1530) was an Italian painter from Florence, whose career flourished during the High Renaissance and early Mannerism. He was known as an outstanding fresco decorator, painter of altar-pieces, ...

, while using figures to a very natural and lifelike effect, abandons in the ''Madonna of the Harpies'' practical reality by setting the Madonna on a Classical plinth as if she were a statue. Every figure is in a state of instability, marked by the forward thrust of the Madonna's knee against which she balances a book. This painting is showing the trends that were to be developed in Mannerist painting. File:Cimabue Trinita Madonna.jpg,

, ''The Trinita Madonna'', c.1280 File:Madonna Rucellai.jpg,

Duccio Duccio di Buoninsegna ( , ; – ) was an Italian painter active in Siena, Tuscany, in the late 13th and early 14th century. He was hired throughout his life to complete many important works in government and religious buildings around Italy. Ducc ...

, ''

'' 1285 File:Giotto Madonna In Glory Tempera on Panel 1305-10 582px.jpg,

, ''

'', 1310. File:Masaccio. Madonna and Child. 1426. National Gallery, London.jpg,

, ''The Madonna of the Pisa polytych'', 1420s,

London London is the capital and largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a estuary down to the North Sea, and has been a majo ...

File:Fra Angelico 001.jpg,

, ''The Madonna of San Domenico'',

Fiesole Fiesole () is a town and ''comune'' of the Metropolitan City of Florence in the Italian region of Tuscany, on a scenic height above Florence, 5 km (3 miles) northeast of that city. It has structures dating to Etruscan and Roman times. Sin ...

, 1428-1430. File:Piero della Francesca 046.jpg,

, ''

Brera Madonna The ''Brera Madonna'' (also known as the ''Pala di Brera'', the Montefeltro Altarpiece or Brera Altarpiece) is a painting by the Italian Renaissance master Piero della Francesca, executed in 1472–1474. It is housed in the Pinacoteca di Brera of ...

'' 1460s. File:Accademia - Pala di San Giobbe by Giovanni Bellini.jpg,

San Giobbe Altarpiece The ''San Giobbe Altarpiece'' (Italian: ''Pala di San Giobbe'') is a c. 1487 oil painting by the Italian Renaissance master Giovanni Bellini. Inspired by a plague outbreak in 1485, this sacra conversazione painting is unique in that it was designed ...

, c. 1487. File:Bergognone_007.jpg,

Ambrogio Bergognone Ambrogio Borgognone (variously known as ''Ambrogio da Fossano'', ''Ambrogio di Stefano da Fossano'', ''Ambrogio Stefani da Fossano'' or as ''il Bergognone'' or ''Ambrogio Egogni''

''The Madonna of St. Catherine'', from

Pavia Pavia (, , , ; la, Ticinum; Medieval Latin: ) is a town and comune of south-western Lombardy in northern Italy, south of Milan on the lower Ticino river near its confluence with the Po. It has a population of c. 73,086. The city was the capit ...

1490-1505?. File:Madone_VictoireMantegna.jpg,

, ''

'', 1496,

Paris Paris () is the capital and most populous city of France, with an estimated population of 2,165,423 residents in 2019 in an area of more than 105 km² (41 sq mi), making it the 30th most densely populated city in the world in 2020. S ...

File:Leonardo da Vinci Virgin of the Rocks (National Gallery London).jpg,

, '' The Madonna of the Rocks'',

1483-1508. File:Raffael, Sixtinska madonnan.jpg,

, ''The Sistine Madonna'', 1513-14. File:Andrea del Sarto 003.jpg,

, ''The Madonna of the Harpies'', 1517

Fresco cycles

The largest, most time-consuming paid work that an artist could do was a scheme of

fresco Fresco (plural ''frescos'' or ''frescoes'') is a technique of mural painting executed upon freshly laid ("wet") lime plaster. Water is used as the vehicle for the dry-powder pigment to merge with the plaster, and with the setting of the plaste ...

es for a church, private palace or commune building. Of these, the largest unified scheme in Italy which remains more-or-less intact is that created by a number of different artists at the end of the Medieval period at the Basilica of St. Francis of Assisi. It was followed by

's Proto-Renaissance scheme at Padua and many others ranging from

Benozzo Gozzoli Benozzo Gozzoli (4 October 1497) was an Italian Renaissance painter from Florence. A pupil of Fra Angelico, Gozzoli is best known for a series of murals in the Magi Chapel of the Palazzo Medici-Riccardi, depicting festive, vibrant processions wi ...

Magi Chapel The Magi Chapel is a chapel in the Palazzo Medici Riccardi of Florence, Italy. Its walls are almost entirely covered by a famous cycle of frescoes by the Renaissance master Benozzo Gozzoli, painted around 1459 for the Medici family, the effective ...

for the

Medici The House of Medici ( , ) was an Italian banking family and political dynasty that first began to gather prominence under Cosimo de' Medici, in the Republic of Florence during the first half of the 15th century. The family originated in the Muge ...

's supreme accomplishment for

Pope Julius II Pope Julius II ( la, Iulius II; it, Giulio II; born Giuliano della Rovere; 5 December 144321 February 1513) was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 1503 to his death in February 1513. Nicknamed the Warrior Pope or th ...

at the

Sistine Chapel The Sistine Chapel (; la, Sacellum Sixtinum; it, Cappella Sistina ) is a chapel in the Apostolic Palace, the official residence of the pope in Vatican City. Originally known as the ''Cappella Magna'' ('Great Chapel'), the chapel takes its name ...

. *

painted the large, free-standing

Padua Padua ( ; it, Padova ; vec, Pàdova) is a city and ''comune'' in Veneto, northern Italy. Padua is on the river Bacchiglione, west of Venice. It is the capital of the province of Padua. It is also the economic and communications hub of the ...

with the ''

Life of the Virgin The Life of the Virgin, showing narrative scenes from the life of Mary, the mother of Jesus, is a common subject for pictorial cycles in Christian art, often complementing, or forming part of, a cycle on the Life of Christ. In both cases the nu ...

'' and the ''

Life of Christ The life of Jesus in the New Testament is primarily outlined in the four canonical gospels, which includes his genealogy and Nativity of Jesus, nativity, Ministry of Jesus, public ministry, Passion of Jesus, passion, prophecy, Resurrection of ...

''. Breaking from medieval tradition, it set a standard of naturalism. * The two large frescoes of ''Allegories of Good and Bad Government'' painted by

Ambrogio Lorenzetti Ambrogio Lorenzetti (; – 9 June 1348) or Ambruogio Laurati was an Italian painter of the Sienese school. He was active from approximately 1317 to 1348. He painted ''The Allegory of Good and Bad Government'' in the Sala dei Nove (Salon of Nine ...

for the Commune of Siena are completely secular and show detailed views of a townscape with citizens, emphasising the importance of civic order. * By contrast,

Santa Maria Novella Santa Maria Novella is a church in Florence, Italy, situated opposite, and lending its name to, the city's main railway station. Chronologically, it is the first great basilica in Florence, and is the city's principal Dominican church. The chu ...

, completed a huge fresco of ''the Triumph of the Church'', which shows the role of the church in the work of

Salvation Salvation (from Latin: ''salvatio'', from ''salva'', 'safe, saved') is the state of being saved or protected from harm or a dire situation. In religion and theology, ''salvation'' generally refers to the deliverance of the soul from sin and its c ...

, and in particular, the role of the Dominicans, who also appear symbolically as ''the Hounds of Heaven'', shepherding the people of God. The painting includes a view of

Florence Cathedral Florence Cathedral, formally the (; in English Cathedral of Saint Mary of the Flower), is the cathedral of Florence, Italy ( it, Duomo di Firenze). It was begun in 1296 in the Gothic style to a design of Arnolfo di Cambio and was structurally c ...

. *

and

Masolino , death_date = ''c.'' 1447 , death_place = Florence , nationality = Italian , field = Painting, fresco , training = , movement = Italian Renaissance , works = frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel , patrons ...

collaborated on the

fresco cycle which is most famous for Masaccio's lifelike innovations, Masolino's more elegant style is seen in this townscape which skillfully combines two episodes of ''the Life of St. Peter''. *

's fresco cycle in the church of San Francesco, Arezzo, closely follows the Legend of the True Cross as written by

Jacobus de Voragine Jacobus de Voragine (c. 123013/16 July 1298) was an Italian chronicler and archbishop of Genoa. He was the author, or more accurately the compiler, of the ''Golden Legend'', a collection of the legendary lives of the greater saints of the medie ...

in the ''

Golden Legend The ''Golden Legend'' (Latin: ''Legenda aurea'' or ''Legenda sanctorum'') is a collection of hagiographies by Jacobus de Voragine that was widely read in late medieval Europe. More than a thousand manuscripts of the text have survived.Hilary ...

''. The pictures reveal his studies of light and perspective, and the figures have an almost monolithic solidity. *

's fresco cycle for the private chapel of the Medici Palace is a late work in the

International Gothic International Gothic is a period of Gothic art which began in Burgundy, France, and northern Italy in the late 14th and early 15th century. It then spread very widely across Western Europe, hence the name for the period, which was introduced by th ...

style, a fanciful and richly ornamental depiction of the Medici with their entourage as the

Three Wise Men 3 is a number, numeral, and glyph. 3, three, or III may also refer to: * AD 3, the third year of the AD era * 3 BC, the third year before the AD era * March, the third month Books * ''Three of Them'' (Russian: ', literally, "three"), a 1901 n ...

. * The elaborate cycle for the

House of Este The House of Este ( , , ) is a European dynasty of North Italian origin whose members ruled parts of Italy and Germany for many centuries. The original House of Este's elder branch, which is known as the House of Welf, included dukes of Bavaria ...

Palazzo Schifanoia Palazzo Schifanoia is a Renaissance palace in Ferrara, Emilia-Romagna (Italy) built for the Este family. The name "Schifanoia" is thought to originate from "schivar la noia" meaning literally to "escape from boredom" which describes accurately ...

at Ferrara, executed in part by

Francesco del Cossa Francesco del Cossa (c. 1430 – c. 1477) was an Italian Renaissance painter of the School of Ferrara, who after 1470 worked in Bologna. Cossa is best known for his frescoes, especially his collaboration with Cosimo Tura on a cycle of the mont ...

, was also fanciful in its depictions of Classical deities and Zodial signs which are combined with scenes of the life of the family. * Mantegna's paintings for the Gonzaga also show family life but have a preponderance of highly realistic elements and skillfully utilise the real architecture of the room they decorate, the mantelpiece forming a plinth for the figures and the real ceiling pendentives being apparently supported on painted pilasters. * While in the Brancacci Chapel, historians seek to identify the faces of Masaccio, Masolino and perhaps Donatello among the apostles,

at the

Sassetti Chapel The Sassetti Chapel (Italian: Cappella Sassetti) is a chapel in the basilica of Santa Trinita in Florence, Italy. It is especially notable for its frescoes of the ''Stories of St. Francis'', considered Domenico Ghirlandaio's masterwork. History F ...

makes no attempt to disguise his models. Each fresco in this religious cycle has two sets of figures: those who tell the story and those who are witness to it. In this scene of ''the Birth of the Virgin Mary'', a number of the noble women of Florence have come in, as if to congratulate the new mother. * '' The Punishment of the Sons of Korah'' by

is one of episodes the ''Life of Moses'' series, which, together with ''The Life of Christ'', was commissioned in the 1480s as decoration to the

. The artists

and

Cosimo Rosselli Cosimo Rosselli (; 1439–1507) was an Italian painter of the Quattrocento, active mainly in his birthplace of Florence, but also in Pisa earlier in his career and in 1481–82 in the Sistine Chapel in Rome, where he painted some of the large ...

all worked on the carefully designed and harmonious scheme. *

's painting of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, which he executed alone over a period of five years, with narratives from

Genesis Genesis may refer to: Bible * Book of Genesis, the first book of the biblical scriptures of both Judaism and Christianity, describing the creation of the Earth and of mankind * Genesis creation narrative, the first several chapters of the Book of ...

, prophetic figures and the Ancestors of Christ, was destined to become one of the most famous artworks in the world. * Simultaneously,

and a number of his assistants painted the papal chambers known as ''

Raphael Rooms The four Raphael Rooms ( it, Stanze di Raffaello) form a suite of reception rooms in the Apostolic Palace, now part of the Vatican Museums, in Vatican City. They are famous for their frescoes, painted by Raphael and his workshop. Together with ...

''. In ''

The School of Athens ''The School of Athens'' ( it, Scuola di Atene) is a fresco by the Italian Renaissance artist Raphael. The fresco was painted between 1509 and 1511 as a part of Raphael's commission to decorate the rooms now known as the , in the Apostolic Pala ...

'' Raphael depicts famous people of his day, including Leonardo, Michelangelo, Bramante and himself, as philosophers of ancient Athens. File:Giotto - Scrovegni - -23- - Baptism of Christ.jpg,

, the

, 1305-1310 File:Ambrogio Lorenzetti Allegory of Good Govt right.jpg,

, ''The Allegory of Good Government'',

Siena Siena ( , ; lat, Sena Iulia) is a city in Tuscany, Italy. It is the capital of the province of Siena. The city is historically linked to commercial and banking activities, having been a major banking center until the 13th and 14th centuri ...

, 1338. File:Way-of-salvation-church-militant-triumphant-andrea-di-bonaiuto-1365.jpg,

Andrea di Bonaiuto Andrea di Bonaiuto da Firenze or Andrea da Firenze (I) (active 1343 – 1377) was an Italian painter active in Florence. He was probably born in Florence where he was active from 1343.Santa Maria Novella Santa Maria Novella is a church in Florence, Italy, situated opposite, and lending its name to, the city's main railway station. Chronologically, it is the first great basilica in Florence, and is the city's principal Dominican church. The chu ...

, 1350. File:Masolino Brancacci Chapel 01.jpg,

, the

. 1424-1427. File:Piero della Francesca 003.jpg,

, the

Legend of the True Cross ''The History of the True Cross'' or ''The Legend of the True Cross'' is a sequence of frescoes painted by Piero della Francesca in the Basilica of San Francesco in Arezzo. It is his largest work, and generally considered one of his finest, a ...

Arezzo Arezzo ( , , ) , also ; ett, 𐌀𐌓𐌉𐌕𐌉𐌌, Aritim. is a city and ''comune'' in Italy and the capital of the province of the same name located in Tuscany. Arezzo is about southeast of Florence at an elevation of above sea level. ...

, 1450s. File:Gozzoli magi.jpg,

, the

Florence Florence ( ; it, Firenze ) is a city in Central Italy and the capital city of the Tuscany region. It is the most populated city in Tuscany, with 383,083 inhabitants in 2016, and over 1,520,000 in its metropolitan area.Bilancio demografico an ...

, 1459. File:Francesco del Cossa 008 a.jpg,

Ferrara Ferrara (, ; egl, Fràra ) is a city and ''comune'' in Emilia-Romagna, northern Italy, capital of the Province of Ferrara. it had 132,009 inhabitants. It is situated northeast of Bologna, on the Po di Volano, a branch channel of the main stream ...

, c.1470. File:Andrea Mantegna - The Court of Gonzaga - WGA14000.jpg,

, ''The Court of the Gonzagas'',

Mantua Mantua ( ; it, Mantova ; Lombard language, Lombard and la, Mantua) is a city and ''comune'' in Lombardy, Italy, and capital of the Province of Mantua, province of the same name. In 2016, Mantua was designated as the Italian Capital of Culture ...

, 1471-1474. File:Birth of St Mary in Santa Maria Novella in Firenze by Domenico Ghirlandaio.jpg,

, the

, 1483-1486. File:Sandro_Botticelli_031_a.jpg,

Vatican Vatican may refer to: Vatican City, the city-state ruled by the pope in Rome, including St. Peter's Basilica, Sistine Chapel, Vatican Museum The Holy See * The Holy See, the governing body of the Catholic Church and sovereign entity recognized ...

, 1480s. File:DiluvioU.jpg,

, the

Sistine Chapel ceiling The Sistine Chapel ceiling ( it, Soffitto della Cappella Sistina), painted in fresco by Michelangelo between 1508 and 1512, is a cornerstone work of High Renaissance Renaissance art, art. The Sistine Chapel is the large papal chapel built with ...

, 1508-1511. File:Sanzio 01.jpg,

, ''the

School of Athens A school is an educational institution designed to provide learning spaces and learning environments for the teaching of students under the direction of teachers. Most countries have systems of formal education, which is sometimes compulsor ...

'' in the Stanze,

, 1509-10.

Subjects

Devotional images of the

Madonna and Child In art, a Madonna () is a representation of Mary, either alone or with her child Jesus. These images are central icons for both the Catholic and Orthodox churches. The word is (archaic). The Madonna and Child type is very prevalent in ...

were produced in very large numbers, often for private clients. Scenes of the Life of Christ, the

, or Lives of the Saints were also made in large numbers for churches, particularly scenes associated with the Nativity and the

Passion of Jesus In Christianity, the Passion (from the Latin verb ''patior, passus sum''; "to suffer, bear, endure", from which also "patience, patient", etc.) is the short final period in the life of Jesus Christ. Depending on one's views, the "Passion" m ...

. The

Last Supper Image:The Last Supper - Leonardo Da Vinci - High Resolution 32x16.jpg, 400px, alt=''The Last Supper'' by Leonardo da Vinci - Clickable Image, Depictions of the Last Supper in Christian art have been undertaken by artistic masters for centuries, ...

was commonly depicted in religious refectories. During the Renaissance an increasing number of patrons had their likeness committed to posterity in paint. For this reason there exists a great number of Renaissance portraits for whom the name of the sitter is unknown. Wealthy private patrons commissioned artworks as decoration for their homes, of increasingly secular subject matter.

Devotional paintings

The Madonna

These small intimate pictures, which are now nearly all in museums, were most often done for private ownership, but might occasionally grace a small altar in a chapel. * ''The Madonna adoring the Christ Child with two Angels'' has always been particularly popular on account of the expressive little boy angel supporting the Christ Child. Paintings of

's such as this were to particularly influence

. *

separates the Madonna and Christ Child from the viewer by a stone sill, also used in many portraits. The rose and the cherries represent spiritual love and sacrificial love. *

's ''Madonna and Child'' is superficially very like that of Verrocchio, but it is much less formal and both the mother and the child appear to be moving rather than posing for the painter. The foreshortened elbow of the Child as he reaches for his mother's breast occurs in Raphael's work and can be seen in a different form in Michelangelo's ''Doni Tondo''. * The figures placed at opposing diagonals seen in this early ''Madonna and Child'' by

was a compositional theme that was to recur in many of his works and be imitated by his pupils and by Raphael. *

was influenced by

Greek Orthodox The term Greek Orthodox Church (Greek language, Greek: Ἑλληνορθόδοξη Ἐκκλησία, ''Ellinorthódoxi Ekklisía'', ) has two meanings. The broader meaning designates "the Eastern Orthodox Church, entire body of Orthodox (Chalced ...

icon An icon () is a religious work of art, most commonly a painting, in the cultures of the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and Catholic churches. They are not simply artworks; "an icon is a sacred image used in religious devotion". The most ...

s. The gold cloth in this painting takes the place of the gold leaf background. The arrangement is formal, yet the gestures, and in particular the mother's adoring gaze, give a human warmth to this picture. *

Vittore Carpaccio Vittore Carpaccio (British English, UK: Help:IPA/English, /kɑːrˈpætʃ(i)oʊ/, American English, US: Help:IPA/English, /-ˈpɑːtʃ-/, Italian: Help:IPA/Italian, itˈtoːre karˈpattʃo c. 1460/66 – 1525/26) was an Italians, Italian pai ...

's ''Madonna and Child'' is very unusual in showing the Christ Child as a toddler fully dressed in contemporary clothing. The meticulous detail and domesticity are suggestive of

. *

's Doni Tondo is the largest of these works, but was a private commission. The highly unusual composition, the contorted form of the Madonna, the three heads all near the top of the painting and the radical foreshortening were all very challenging features, and Agnolo Doni was not sure that he wished to pay for it. *

has skillfully set opposing forces into play, and united the Madonna and Child with a loving gaze. File:Fra Filippo Lippi - Madonna and Child with two Angels - Uffizi.jpg,

, ''The Madonna and Child with Two Angels'', c. 1450 File:Andrea del Verrocchio - Mary with the Child - Google Art Project.jpg,

Andrea del Verrocchio Andrea del Verrocchio (, , ; – 1488), born Andrea di Michele di Francesco de' Cioni, was a sculptor, Italian painter and goldsmith who was a master of an important workshop in Florence. He apparently became known as ''Verrocchio'' after the su ...

, ''Madonna with Child'', 1470s File:Antonello da Messina 033.jpg,

, ''The Benson Madonna'', 1465-1470. File:Leonardo da Vinci Benois Madonna.jpg,

, ''The Benois Madonna'', 1470s. File:GiovBellini.jpg,

, ''The Carrara Madonna'', 1487. File:Vittore Carpaccio 067 a.jpg,

, ''The Madonna and Child with St. John the Baptist'', c. 1500. File:Tondo Doni, por Miguel Ángel.jpg,

, ''The Doni Tondo'', 1504. File:Raffael 005.jpg,

, ''The Bridgewater Madonna'', 1505.

Secular paintings

Portraits

During the latter half of the 15th century, there was a proliferation of portraits. Although the subjects of some of them were later remembered for their achievements or their noble lineage, the identities of many have been lost and that of even the most famous portrait of all time,

's ''

Mona Lisa The ''Mona Lisa'' ( ; it, Gioconda or ; french: Joconde ) is a half-length portrait painting by Italian artist Leonardo da Vinci. Considered an archetypal masterpiece of the Italian Renaissance, it has been described as "the best known ...

'', is open to speculation and controversy. * The advantage of a profile portrait such as

's ''

Portrait of Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta The ''Portrait of Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta'' is a painting attributed to the Italian Renaissance master Piero della Francesca (c. 1451). It portrays the condottiero and lord of Rimini and Fano Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta, and is housed i ...

'' is that it identifies the subject like a facial signature. The proportions of the face, the respective angles of the forehead, nose and brow, the position and shape of the eye and the set of the jaw remain recognisable through life. Moreover, once a profile likeness has been taken, it can be used to cast a medal or sculpt an image in relief. * Pollaiuolo has conformed to the formula, emphasising this young woman's profile with a fine line which also defines the delicate shape of her nostrils and the corners of her mouth. But he has added a three-dimensional quality by the subtle use of

chiaroscuro Chiaroscuro ( , ; ), in art, is the use of strong contrasts between light and dark, usually bold contrasts affecting a whole composition. It is also a technical term used by artists and art historians for the use of contrasts of light to achi ...

and the treatment of the rich Florentine brocade of her sleeve. *

Alesso Baldovinetti Alesso or Alessio Baldovinetti (14 October 1427 – 29 August 1499) was an Italian early Renaissance painter and draftsman. Biography Baldovinetti was born in Florence to a rich noble family of merchants. In 1448 he was registered as a member of ...

, on the other hand, has used the profile of this strong-featured girl to create a striking pattern of a highlighted contour against the darker background. The background is a lively shape adding to the compositional structure of the painting. The little black fillet on her forehead responds to the dynamic pattern of the embroidered sleeve. *

's portrait, although turned to three-quarter view with strong tonal modelling, has much to do with Baldovinetti's painting in its striking arrangement of shapes in the red garment, the hat and the dark hair and the pattern that they form against the background. *

's portrait, some years earlier than Botticelli's, bears it a passing similarity. But this painting does not rely heavily on the skilful arrangement of clearly contoured shapes. Antonello has used the advantages of oil paint, as against Botticelli's

tempera Tempera (), also known as egg tempera, is a permanent, fast-drying painting medium consisting of colored pigments mixed with a water-soluble binder medium, usually glutinous material such as egg yolk. Tempera also refers to the paintings done ...

, to achieve a subtle and detailed likeness in which the bushy eyebrows, the imperfections of the skin and the shadow of the beard have been rendered with photographic precision. *

Ghirlandaio Ghirlandaio is the surname of a family of Renaissance Italian painters: * Domenico Ghirlandaio (1449–1494), painter of fresco cycles and Michelangelo's teacher * Davide Ghirlandaio (1452–1525), younger brother of Domenico * Benedetto Ghirlandai ...

's tempera portrait of an old man with his grandson combines the meticulous depiction of the old man's enlarged nose and parchment-like skin with a tenderness usually reserved for portrayals of ''The Madonna and Child''. Ghirlandaio takes this analogy further by setting the scene against a window and landscape. *

Pintoricchio Pinturicchio, or Pintoricchio (, ; born Bernardino di Betto; 1454–1513), also known as Benetto di Biagio or Sordicchio, was an Italian painter during the Renaissance. He acquired his nickname (meaning "little painter") because of his smal ...

's portrait of a boy sets him high in the picture frame, reducing his scale in proportion to the area in contrast to the usual way of showing adults. The painting is set against a landscape such as used by Leonardo and Bellini. Pinturicchio's main fame lay in his skillfully characterised portraits like this. * In the ''

'' Leonardo employed the technique of ''sfumato'', delicately graded chiaroscuro that models the surface contours, while allowing details to disappear in the shadows. The technique gives an air of mystery to this painting which has brought it lasting fame. The beautiful hands become almost a decorative element. *

's portrait of

Leonardo Loredan Leonardo Loredan (; vec, Lunardo Loredan ; 16 November 1436 – 22 June 1521) was a Venetian nobleman and statesman who reigned as the 75th Doge of Venice from 1501 until his death in 1521. A wartime ruler, his dogeship was one of the most imp ...

, the elected

Doge of Venice The Doge of Venice ( ; vec, Doxe de Venexia ; it, Doge di Venezia ; all derived from Latin ', "military leader"), sometimes translated as Duke (compare the Italian '), was the chief magistrate and leader of the Republic of Venice between 726 a ...

, has an official air and could hardly be more formal. Yet the face is characterised with what one might hope for in the Doge, wisdom, humour and decisiveness. Although a more elaborate painting, it has much in common with Baldovinetti's sense of design. * The subject of

Titian Tiziano Vecelli or Vecellio (; 27 August 1576), known in English as Titian ( ), was an Italians, Italian (Republic of Venice, Venetian) painter of the Renaissance, considered the most important member of the 16th-century Venetian school (art), ...

's portrait is unknown, and its considerable fame rests solely on its beauty and unusual composition in which the face is supported and balanced by the large blue sleeve of quilted satin. The sleeve is almost the same colour as the background; its rich tonality gives it form. The white linen of the shirt enlivens the composition, while the man's eyes pick up the colour of the sleeve with penetrating luminosity. * Superficially,

's portrait has many of the same elements as Titian's. But it is handled very differently, being much broader in treatment, and less compelling in subject. The painting has achieved an immediacy, as if the sitter has paused for a moment and is about to return to what he is doing. *

, in this much-copied portrait of

, set a standard for the painting of future popes. Unlike the contemporary portraits here by Bellini, Titian and del Sarto, Raphael has abandoned the placement of the figure behind a shelf or barrier and has shown the Pope as if seated in his own apartment. Against the green cloth decorated with the keys of

St. Peter ) (Simeon, Simon) , birth_date = , birth_place = Bethsaida, Gaulanitis, Syria, Roman Empire , death_date = Between AD 64–68 , death_place = probably Vatican Hill, Rome, Italia, Roman Empire , parents = John (or Jonah; Jona) , occupation ...

, the red velvet papal garments make a rich contrast, the white beard being offset by the pleated white linen. On the uprights of the chair, the acorn finials are the symbol of the Pope's family, the ''

della Rovere The House of Della Rovere (; literally "of the oak tree") was a noble family Nobility is a social class found in many societies that have an aristocracy. It is normally ranked immediately below royalty. Nobility has often been an estat ...

''. File:Piero, ritratto di sigismondo malatesta.jpg,

, portrait of

Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta (19 June 1417 – 7 October 1468) was an Italian condottiero and nobleman, a member of the House of Malatesta and lord of Rimini and Fano from 1432. He was widely considered by his contemporaries as one of the mo ...

, c. 1450. File:Antonio Pollaiuolo 005.jpg,

Antonio del Pollaiuolo Antonio del Pollaiuolo ( , , ; 17 January 1429/14334 February 1498), also known as Antonio di Jacopo Pollaiuolo or Antonio Pollaiuolo (also spelled Pollaiolo), was an Italian painter, sculptor, engraver, and goldsmith during the Italian Renai ...

, ''Portrait of a woman'', c. 1470. File:Alesso Baldovinetti 002 cropframe.JPG,

, '' Portrait of a Lady in Yellow'', c. 1465. File:BOTTICELLI Portrait Lorenzo di Ser Piero Lorenzi.jpg,

, ''Portrait of Lorenzo di Ser Piero Lorenzi'', 1490-1495. File:Antonello da Messina 060.jpg,

, ''Portrait of a man'', 1476. File:Domenico ghirlandaio, ritratto di nonno con nipote.jpg,

, ''Portrait of an old man and his grandson'', 1488. File:Pintoricchio 021.jpg,

, ''Portrait of a boy'', c. 1500. File:Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, from C2RMF retouched.jpg,

, ''The Mona Lisa'', 1503-1507. File:Bellini.doge.600pix.jpg,

, ''

Portrait of Doge Leonardo Loredan The ''Portrait of Doge Leonardo Loredan'' ( it, Ritratto del doge Leonardo Loredan) is a painting by Italian Renaissance master Giovanni Bellini, dating from . It portrays Leonardo Loredan, the Doge of Venice from 1501 to 1521, in his ceremonial ...

'', 1501-1505. File:Titian - Portrait of a man with a quilted sleeve.jpg,

, ''The Man with the blue sleeve'', c. 1510. File:Andrea del Sarto - Portrait of a Man.jpg,

, ''Portrait of a man'', c. 1510. File:Pope Julius II.jpg,

, ''Pope Julius II'', 1511-12.

The nude

These four famous paintings demonstrate the advent and acceptance of the nude as a subject for the artist in its own right. * In

's ''

Birth of Venus ''The Birth of Venus'' ( it, Nascita di Venere ) is a painting by the Italian artist Sandro Botticelli, probably executed in the mid 1480s. It depicts the goddess Venus arriving at the shore after her birth, when she had emerged from the sea ...

'', the nude figure, although central to the painting, is not of itself the subject. The subject of the painting is a story from

Classical mythology Classical mythology, Greco-Roman mythology, or Greek and Roman mythology is both the body of and the study of myths from the ancient Greeks and ancient Romans as they are used or transformed by cultural reception. Along with philosophy and polit ...

. The fact that the Goddess Venus rose naked from the sea provides justification for the nude study that dominates the centre of the work. * Painted thirty years later, the exact meaning of

's picture is unclear. Had the subject been painted by an

Impressionist Impressionism was a 19th-century art movement characterized by relatively small, thin, yet visible brush strokes, open composition, emphasis on accurate depiction of light in its changing qualities (often accentuating the effects of the passage ...

painter, it would be quite unnecessary to ascribe a meaning. But in this Renaissance work, there is the presence of a mirror, an object that is usually symbolic and which suggests an allegory. The young lady's nakedness is a sign not so much of seduction, as innocence and vulnerability. However, she decks herself out in an extremely rich headdress, stitched with pearls, and having not one, but two mirrors, sees only herself reflected endlessly. The mirror, often a symbol of prophecy, here becomes an object of vanity, with the young woman in the role of

Narcissus Narcissus may refer to: Biology * ''Narcissus'' (plant), a genus containing daffodils and others People * Narcissus (mythology), Greek mythological character * Narcissus (wrestler) (2nd century), assassin of the Roman emperor Commodus * Tiberiu ...

. *

's painting possibly predates Bellini's by ten years. It has always been known as '' The Sleeping Venus'' but there is nothing in the painting to confirm that it is, indeed, Venus. The painting is remarkable for its lack of symbolism and the emphasis on the body simply as an object of beauty. It is believed to have been completed by Titian. *

's ''

Venus of Urbino The ''Venus of Urbino'' (also known as ''Reclining Venus'') is an oil painting by the Italian painter Titian, which seems to have been begun in 1532 or 1534, and was perhaps completed in 1534, but not sold until 1538. It depicts a nude young wom ...

'', on the other hand, was painted for the pleasure of the Duke of Urbino, and as in Botticelli's ''Birth of Venus'', painted for a member of the Medici family, the model looks directly at the viewer. The model may very well have been the mistress of the client. Venus of Urbino is not simply a body beautiful in its own right. She is an individual and highly seductive young woman, who is not in the nude state indicative of heavenly perfection, but is simply naked, having taken off her clothes but left on some of her jewellery. File:El nacimiento de Venus, por Sandro Botticelli.jpg,

, ''The Birth of Venus'', 1482-1486. File:Giovanni Bellini - Giovane donna nuda allo specchio.jpg,

, ''The Mirror'', c. 1510. File:Giorgione Venus sleeping.jpg,

, ''Sleeping Venus'', c. 1500. File:Tizian 102.jpg,

, ''

'', 1530s.

Classical mythology

Paintings of classical mythology were invariably done for the important salons in the houses of private patrons. Botticelli's most famous works are for the Medici, Raphael painted ''Galatea'' for Agostino Chigi and Bellini's '' Feast of the Gods'' was, with several works by Titian, in the home of

Alfonso I d'Este Alfonso d'Este (21 July 1476 – 31 October 1534) was Duke of Ferrara during the time of the War of the League of Cambrai. Biography He was the son of Ercole I d'Este, Duke of Ferrara and Eleanor of Naples and became duke on Ercole's death in ...

* Pollaiuolo's ''Hercules and the Hydra'' typifies many paintings of mythological subjects which lent themselves to interpretation that was both Humanist and Christian. In this work good overcomes evil, and courage is glorified. The figure of Hercules has resonances with the Biblical character of

Samson Samson (; , '' he, Šīmšōn, label= none'', "man of the sun") was the last of the judges of the ancient Israelites mentioned in the Book of Judges (chapters 13 to 16) and one of the last leaders who "judged" Israel before the institution o ...

who also was renowned for his strength and slew a lion. * In

's ''

Pallas and the Centaur ''Pallas and the Centaur'' is a painting by the Italian Renaissance painter Sandro Botticelli, c. 1482. It is now in the Uffizi Gallery in Florence. It has been proposed as a companion piece to his '' Primavera'', though it is a different shape. ...

'', Wisdom, personified by Athena, leads the cowering Centaur by the forelock, so learning and refinement are able to overcome brute instinct, which is the characteristic symbolised by the centaur. *

's ''

Galatea Galatea is an ancient Greek name meaning "she who is milk-white". Galatea, Galathea or Gallathea may refer to: In mythology * Galatea (Greek myth), three different mythological figures In the arts * ''Aci, Galatea e Polifemo'', cantata by H ...

'', though Classical in origin, has a specifically Christian resonance that would have been recognised by those who were familiar with the story. It is about the nature of love. While all around her aspire to earthly love and succumb to the arrows shot by the trio of cupids, Galatea has chosen spiritual love and turns her eyes to Heaven. * Three large works remain that were painted for a single room for the Este by Bellini and his successor

. Of these, Titian's ''

Bacchus and Ariadne ''Bacchus and Ariadne'' (1522–1523) is an oil painting by Titian. It is one of a cycle of paintings on mythological subjects produced for Alfonso I d'Este, Duke of Ferrara, for the Camerino d'Alabastro – a private room in his palazzo in ...

'' represents a moment in a narrative. The other two paintings are jolly drinking scenes with a number of narrative elements introduced in a minor way, in order that characters might be identifiable. This painting does not appear to have any higher allegorical sentiment attached to it. It appears to be simply a very naturalistic portrayal of a number of the ancient gods and their associates, eating, drinking and enjoying the party. File:Antonio_del_Pollaiolo_-_Ercole_e_l'Idra_e_Ercole_e_Anteo_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg,

, ''Hercules and the Hydra'', c. 1470. File:Sandro Botticelli 063.jpg,

, ''Pallas Athena and the Centaur'', c.1481. File:Raffael 012.jpg,

, ''The Triumph of Galatea'', 1511 File:Feastofthegods.jpg, Bellini, background repainted by

, ''

The Feast of the Gods ''The Feast of the Gods'' (Italian: ''Il festino degli dei'') is an oil painting by the Italian Renaissance master Giovanni Bellini, with substantial additions in stages to the left and center landscape by Dosso Dossi and Titian. It is one of the ...

'', 1514.

Sources

General

* Giorgio Vasari, ''Lives of the Artists'', (1568), 1965 edition, trans George Bull, Penguin, * Frederick Hartt, ''A History of Italian Renaissance Art'', (1970) Thames and Hudson, * R.E. Wolf and R. Millen, ''Renaissance and Mannerist Art'', (1968) Abrams, ISBN unknown * Keith Chistiansen, ''Italian Painting'', (1992) Hugh Lauter Levin/Macmillan, * Helen Gardner, ''Art through the Ages'', (1970) Harcourt, Brace and World, * Michael Baxandall, ''Painting and Experience in Fifteenth Century Italy'', (1974) Oxford University Press, * Margaret Aston, ''The Fifteenth Century, the Prospect of Europe'', (1979) Thames and Hudson, * Ilan Rachum, ''The Renaissance, an Illustrated Encyclopedia'', (1979) Octopus, * Diana Davies, ''Harrap's Illustrated Dictionary of Art and Artists'', (1990) Harrap Books, * Luciano Berti, ''Florence: the city and its art'', (1971) Scala, ISBN unknown * Luciano Berti, ''The Ufizzi'', (1971) Scala, Florence. ISBN unknown * Michael Wilson, ''The National Gallery, London'', (1977) Scala, * Hugh Ross Williamson, ''Lorenzo the Magnificent'', (1974) Michael Joseph,

Painters

* John White, ''Duccio'', (1979) Thames and Hudson, * Cecilia Jannella, ''Duccio di Buoninsegna'', (1991) Scala/Riverside, * Sarel Eimerl, ''The World of Giotto'', (1967) Time/Life, * Mgr. Giovanni Foffani, ''Frescoes by Giusto de' Menabuoi'', (1988) G. Deganello, ISBN unknown * Ornella Casazza, ''Masaccio and the Brancacci Chapel'', (1990) Scala/Riverside, * Annarita Paolieri, ''Paolo Uccello, Domenico Veneziano, Andrea del Castagno'', (1991) Scala/Riverside, * Alessandro Angelini, ''Piero della Francesca'', (1985) Scala/Riverside, * Peter Murray and Pier Luigi Vecchi, ''Piero della Francesca'', (1967) Penguin, * Umberto Baldini, ''Primavera'', (1984) Abrams, * Ranieri Varese, ''Il Palazzo di Schifanoia'', (1980) Specimen/Scala, ISBN unknown * Angela Ottino della Chiesa, ''Leonardo da Vinci'', (1967) Penguin, * Jack Wasserman, ''Leonardo da Vinci'', (1975) Abrams, * Massimo Giacometti, ''The Sistine Chapel'', (1986) Harmony Books, * Ludwig Goldschieder, ''Michelangelo'', (1962) Phaidon, ISBN unknown * Gabriel Bartz and Eberhard König, ''Michelangelo'', (1998) Könemann, * David Thompson, ''Raphael, the Life and Legacy'', (1983) BBC, * Jean-Pierre Cuzin, ''Raphael, his Life and Works'', (1985) Chartwell, * Mariolina Olivari, ''Giovanni Bellini'', (1990) Scala. ISBN unknown * Cecil Gould, ''Titian'', (1969) Hamlyn, ISBN unknown

References

{{DEFAULTSORT:Thematic Development Of Italian Renaissance Painting

Italian Renaissance Italian art Renaissance paintings Iconography pt:Pintura da Renascença Italiana

Themes

Elements of Renaissance painting

Linear perspective

Landscape

Light

Anatomy

Realism

Figure composition

Major works

Altarpieces

Fresco cycles

Subjects

Devotional paintings

The Madonna

Secular paintings

Portraits

The nude

Classical mythology

See also

Sources

General

Painters

References