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''Psilocybe'' ( ) is a
genus Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus com ...
of gilled
mushrooms A mushroom or toadstool is the fleshy, spore-bearing Sporocarp (fungi), fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground, on soil, or on its food source. ''Toadstool'' generally denotes one poisonous to humans. The standard for the na ...
, growing worldwide, in the family
Hymenogastraceae The Hymenogastraceae is a family of fungi in the order Agaricales with both agaric and false-truffle shaped fruitbodies. Formerly, prior to molecular analyses, the family was restricted to the false-truffle genera. The mushroom genus ''Psilocybe' ...
. Most or nearly all species contain the
psychedelic Psychedelics are a subclass of hallucinogenic drugs whose primary effect is to trigger non-ordinary states of consciousness (known as psychedelic experiences or "trips").Pollan, Michael (2018). ''How to Change Your Mind: What the New Science of ...
compounds
psilocybin Psilocybin ( , ) is a naturally occurring psychedelic prodrug compound produced by more than 200 species of fungi. The most potent are members of the genus ''Psilocybe'', such as '' P. azurescens'', '' P. semilanceata'', and '' P.&nbs ...
and
psilocin Psilocin (also known as 4-HO-DMT, 4-hydroxy DMT, psilocine, psilocyn, or psilotsin) is a substituted tryptamine alkaloid and a serotonergic psychedelic substance. It is present in most psychedelic mushrooms together with its phosphorylated counte ...
.


Taxonomy


Taxonomic history

A 2002 study of the
molecular phylogeny Molecular phylogenetics () is the branch of phylogeny that analyzes genetic, hereditary molecular differences, predominantly in DNA sequences, to gain information on an organism's evolutionary relationships. From these analyses, it is possible to ...
of the agarics indicated that the genus ''Psilocybe'' as then defined was
polyphyletic A polyphyletic group is an assemblage of organisms or other evolving elements that is of mixed evolutionary origin. The term is often applied to groups that share similar features known as homoplasies, which are explained as a result of converg ...
, falling into two distinct
clades A clade (), also known as a monophyletic group or natural group, is a group of organisms that are monophyletic – that is, composed of a common ancestor and all its lineal descendants – on a phylogenetic tree. Rather than the English term, t ...
that are not directly related to each other. The blue-staining
hallucinogenic Hallucinogens are a large, diverse class of psychoactive drugs that can produce altered states of consciousness characterized by major alterations in thought, mood, and perception as well as other changes. Most hallucinogens can be categorize ...
species constituted one clade and the non-bluing species the other. The previous
type species In zoological nomenclature, a type species (''species typica'') is the species name with which the name of a genus or subgenus is considered to be permanently taxonomically associated, i.e., the species that contains the biological type specimen ...
of the genus, ''Psilocybe '' (now Deconica montana), was in the non-bluing clade, but in 2010 the type species was changed to '' P. semilanceata'', a member of the bluing clade. A 2006 molecular phylogenetic study of the
Agaricales The fungal order Agaricales, also known as gilled mushrooms (for their distinctive gills) or euagarics, contains some of the most familiar types of mushrooms. The order has 33 extant families, 413 genera, and over 13,000 described species, alo ...
by Matheny and colleagues, further demonstrated the separation of the bluing and non-bluing clades of ''Psilocybe'' in a larger, strongly supported phylogenetic tree of the Agaricales. ''Psilocybe'' had been placed
taxonomically In biology, taxonomy () is the scientific study of naming, defining ( circumscribing) and classifying groups of biological organisms based on shared characteristics. Organisms are grouped into taxa (singular: taxon) and these groups are given ...
in the agaric family
Strophariaceae The Strophariaceae are a family of fungi in the order Agaricales. Under an older classification, the family covered 18 genera and 1316 species. The species of Strophariaceae have red-brown to dark brown spore prints, while the spores themselves a ...
based upon its
spore In biology, a spore is a unit of sexual or asexual reproduction that may be adapted for dispersal and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavourable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many plants, algae, f ...
and
pileipellis The pileipellis is the uppermost layer of hyphae in the pileus of a fungal fruit body In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants that is formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which flowe ...
morphology. The phylogenetic study by Matheny ''et al.'', placed the non-bluing ''Psilocybe'' and its close relatives in a basal position within the Strophariaceae, a
sister taxon In phylogenetics, a sister group or sister taxon, also called an adelphotaxon, comprises the closest relative(s) of another given unit in an evolutionary tree. Definition The expression is most easily illustrated by a cladogram: Taxon A and t ...
to a clade containing the other genera within that family. The bluing ''Psilocybe'', however, form a clade that is sister to ''
Galerina ''Galerina'' is a genus of small brown-spore saprobic fungi (colloquially often ''mushrooms''), with over 300 species found throughout the world from the far north to remote Macquarie Island in the Southern Ocean. The genus is most noted for some ...
'' in the newly revised family,
Hymenogastraceae The Hymenogastraceae is a family of fungi in the order Agaricales with both agaric and false-truffle shaped fruitbodies. Formerly, prior to molecular analyses, the family was restricted to the false-truffle genera. The mushroom genus ''Psilocybe' ...
that used to be restricted to secotioid, false-truffles. The phylogenetic study by Moncalvo, ''et al.'' confirmed that the agaric genus ''Melanotus'' is simply a subgroup of the non-bluing ''Psilocybe'', all of which are placed in ''
Deconica ''Deconica'' is a genus of mushroom-forming fungi in the family Strophariaceae. It was formerly considered synonymous with ''Psilocybe'' until molecular studies showed that genus to be polyphyletic, made of two major clades: one containing bluin ...
'', and also pointed to a close relationship between the latter genus and the genera ''
Kuehneromyces ''Kuehneromyces'' is a genus of agaric fungi in the family Strophariaceae. The genus was circumscribed by mycologists Rolf Singer and Alexander H. Smith in 1946. The genus name of ''Kuehneromyces'' is in honour of Robert Kühner (1903-1996), who ...
'' and ''
Phaeogalera ''Phaeogalera'' is a small genus of slender, fleshy bog and swamp-inhabiting mushrooms with large, brownish spores with a germ pore and a hymenium lacking chrysocystidia. ''Phaeogalera'' resemble ''Galerina'' in their habitat, macroscopic appear ...
''.


Modern classification

In 2007, a paper by Redhead ''et al.'' proposed conserving the genus ''Psilocybe'' with ''Psilocybe semilanceata'' as its type species. The suggestion was accepted by unanimous vote of the
Nomenclature Committee for Fungi International Botanical Congress (IBC) is an international meeting of botanists in all scientific fields, authorized by the International Association of Botanical and Mycological Societies (IABMS) and held every six years, with the location rotati ...
of the International Botanical Congress in 2010, meaning that ''P. semilanceata'' (a member of the bluing clade) now serves as the type species of the genus. Since ''P. semilanceata'' is now the type species of the genus, the bluing hallucinogenic clade remained in the genus ''Psilocybe'' (
Hymenogastraceae The Hymenogastraceae is a family of fungi in the order Agaricales with both agaric and false-truffle shaped fruitbodies. Formerly, prior to molecular analyses, the family was restricted to the false-truffle genera. The mushroom genus ''Psilocybe' ...
) while the non-bluing clade were transferred to the genus ''
Deconica ''Deconica'' is a genus of mushroom-forming fungi in the family Strophariaceae. It was formerly considered synonymous with ''Psilocybe'' until molecular studies showed that genus to be polyphyletic, made of two major clades: one containing bluin ...
'' (
Strophariaceae The Strophariaceae are a family of fungi in the order Agaricales. Under an older classification, the family covered 18 genera and 1316 species. The species of Strophariaceae have red-brown to dark brown spore prints, while the spores themselves a ...
). However, it has been demonstrated that '' P. fuscofulva'', a species that used to be known as ''P. atrobrunnea'', belongs to the genus ''Psilocybe'' s.s. but does not contain psychotropic compounds. Negative results have also been published for '' P. fimetaria''.


Etymology

The genus name ''Psilocybe'' is a compound of the
Greek Greek may refer to: Greece Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group. *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family. **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
elements ψιλός (''psilós'') "bare" / "naked" and κύβη (''kúbe'') "head" / "swelling", giving the meaning "bare-headed" (i.e.
bald Hair loss, also known as alopecia or baldness, refers to a loss of hair from part of the head or body. Typically at least the head is involved. The severity of hair loss can vary from a small area to the entire body. Inflammation or scarrin ...
) referring to the mushroom's detachable pellicle (loose skin over the cap), which can resemble a bald pate.


Description

''Psilocybe''
fruit bodies The sporocarp (also known as fruiting body, fruit body or fruitbody) of fungi is a multicellular structure on which spore-producing structures, such as basidia or asci, are borne. The fruitbody is part of the sexual phase of a fungal life cyc ...
are typically small, nondescript mushrooms with a typical "
little brown mushroom Mushroom hunting, mushrooming, mushroom picking, mushroom foraging, and similar terms describe the activity of gathering mushrooms in the wild, typically for culinary use. This practice is popular throughout most of Europe, Australia, Japan, ...
"
morphology Morphology, from the Greek and meaning "study of shape", may refer to: Disciplines * Morphology (archaeology), study of the shapes or forms of artifacts * Morphology (astronomy), study of the shape of astronomical objects such as nebulae, galaxies ...
. Macroscopically, they are characterized by their small to occasionally medium size, brown to yellow-brown coloration, with a typically
hygrophanous The adjective hygrophanous refers to the color change of mushroom tissue (especially the pileus surface) as it loses or absorbs water, which causes the pileipellis to become more transparent when wet and opaque when dry. When identifying hygrop ...
cap A cap is a flat headgear, usually with a visor. Caps have crowns that fit very close to the head. They made their first appearance as early as 3200 BC. Caps typically have a visor, or no brim at all. They are popular in casual and informal se ...
, and a
spore print 300px, Making a spore print of the mushroom ''Volvariella volvacea'' shown in composite: (photo lower half) mushroom cap laid on white and dark paper; (photo upper half) cap removed after 24 hours showing pinkish-tan spore print. A 3.5-centimeter ...
-color that ranges from lilac-brown to dark purple-brown (though rusty-brown colored varieties are known in at least one species). Hallucinogenic species typically have a blue-staining reaction when the fruit body is bruised. Microscopically, they are characterized by
pileipellis The pileipellis is the uppermost layer of hyphae in the pileus of a fungal fruit body In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants that is formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which flowe ...
with hyphae that run parallel to the pileus surface, forming a ''cutis'', by their lack of
chrysocystidia A cystidium (plural cystidia) is a relatively large cell found on the sporocarp of a basidiomycete (for example, on the surface of a mushroom gill), often between clusters of basidia. Since cystidia have highly varied and distinct shapes that ar ...
, and by
spores In biology, a spore is a unit of sexual or asexual reproduction that may be adapted for dispersal and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavourable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many plants, algae, f ...
that are smooth, ellipsoid to rhomboid to subhexagonal in shape, with a distinct apical
germ pore A germ pore is a small pore in the outer wall of a fungal spore through which the germ tube exits upon germination. It can be apical or eccentric in its location, and, on light microscopy, may be visualized as a lighter coloured area on the cell ...
. Ecologically, all species of ''Psilocybe'' are saprotrophs, growing on various kinds of decaying organic matter.


Distribution and habitat

Geographically, species in this genus are found throughout the world in most
biome A biome () is a biogeographical unit consisting of a biological community that has formed in response to the physical environment in which they are found and a shared regional climate. Biomes may span more than one continent. Biome is a broader ...
s. The greatest species diversity seems to be in the
neotropics The Neotropical realm is one of the eight biogeographic realms constituting Earth's land surface. Physically, it includes the tropics, tropical Ecoregion#Terrestrial, terrestrial ecoregions of the Americas and the entire South American temperat ...
, from
Mesoamerica Mesoamerica is a historical region and cultural area in southern North America and most of Central America. It extends from approximately central Mexico through Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and northern Costa Rica. W ...
through
Brazil Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 million people, Brazil is the world's fifth-largest country by area ...
and
Chile Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in the western part of South America. It is the southernmost country in the world, and the closest to Antarctica, occupying a long and narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east a ...
. ''Psilocybe'' are found in a variety of
habitat In ecology, the term habitat summarises the array of resources, physical and biotic factors that are present in an area, such as to support the survival and reproduction of a particular species. A species habitat can be seen as the physical ...
s and substrates. Many of the species found in
temperate regions In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (23.5° to 66.5° N/S of Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ranges throughout t ...
, such as ''
Psilocybe cyanescens ''Psilocybe cyanescens'' (sometimes referred to as wavy caps or as the potent Psilocybe) is a species of potent psychedelic mushroom. The main compounds responsible for its psychedelic effects are psilocybin and psilocin. It belongs to the fam ...
'', seem to have an affinity for
landscaped Landscape architecture is the design of outdoor areas, landmarks, and structures to achieve environmental, social-behavioural, or aesthetic outcomes. It involves the systematic design and general engineering of various structures for constructio ...
areas
mulch A mulch is a layer of material applied to the surface of soil. Reasons for applying mulch include conservation of soil moisture, improving fertility and health of the soil, reducing weed growth and enhancing the visual appeal of the area. A m ...
ed with
woodchips Woodchips are small- to medium-sized pieces of wood formed by cutting or chipping larger pieces of wood such as trees, branches, logging residues, stumps, roots, and wood waste. Woodchips may be used as a biomass solid fuel and are raw material ...
and are actually rather rare in natural settings removed from human habitation. Contrary to popular belief, only a minority of ''Psilocybe'' species, such as '' P. cubensis'' and '' P. subcubensis'', grow directly on
feces Feces ( or faeces), known colloquially and in slang as poo and poop, are the solid or semi-solid remains of food that was not digested in the small intestine, and has been broken down by bacteria in the large intestine. Feces contain a relati ...
. Many other species are found in habitats such as
moss Mosses are small, non-vascular flowerless plants in the taxonomic division Bryophyta (, ) '' sensu stricto''. Bryophyta (''sensu lato'', Schimp. 1879) may also refer to the parent group bryophytes, which comprise liverworts, mosses, and hor ...
y,
grass Poaceae () or Gramineae () is a large and nearly ubiquitous family of monocotyledonous flowering plants commonly known as grasses. It includes the cereal grasses, bamboos and the grasses of natural grassland and species cultivated in lawns an ...
y, or
forest A forest is an area of land dominated by trees. Hundreds of definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, and ecological function. The United Nations' ...
humus In classical soil science, humus is the dark organic matter in soil that is formed by the decomposition of plant and animal matter. It is a kind of soil organic matter. It is rich in nutrients and retains moisture in the soil. Humus is the Lati ...
soil Soil, also commonly referred to as earth or dirt, is a mixture of organic matter, minerals, gases, liquids, and organisms that together support life. Some scientific definitions distinguish ''dirt'' from ''soil'' by restricting the former te ...
s.


Psychoactivity


Biochemistry and pharmacology

The
psilocybin Psilocybin ( , ) is a naturally occurring psychedelic prodrug compound produced by more than 200 species of fungi. The most potent are members of the genus ''Psilocybe'', such as '' P. azurescens'', '' P. semilanceata'', and '' P.&nbs ...
molecule is indirectly responsible for the hallucinogenic properties of the ''Psilocybe''. This compound, as well as all other
indole Indole is an aromatic heterocyclic organic compound with the formula C8 H7 N. It has a bicyclic structure, consisting of a six-membered benzene ring fused to a five-membered pyrrole ring. Indole is widely distributed in the natural environmen ...
alkaloids, are derived from the amino acid
tryptophan Tryptophan (symbol Trp or W) is an α-amino acid that is used in the biosynthesis of proteins. Tryptophan contains an α-amino group, an α- carboxylic acid group, and a side chain indole, making it a polar molecule with a non-polar aromatic ...
, being the only amino acid with the indole-amine ring. Tryptophan is converted to
tryptamine Tryptamine is an indolamine metabolite of the essential amino acid, tryptophan. The chemical structure is defined by an indole ─ a fused benzene and pyrrole ring, and a 2-aminoethyl group at the second carbon (third aromatic atom, with the f ...
by
decarboxylation Decarboxylation is a chemical reaction that removes a carboxyl group and releases carbon dioxide (CO2). Usually, decarboxylation refers to a reaction of carboxylic acids, removing a carbon atom from a carbon chain. The reverse process, which is t ...
. Two methylation steps occur producing DMT, another psychedelic compound. Hydroxylation of this compound produces the more potent hallucinogen
psilocin Psilocin (also known as 4-HO-DMT, 4-hydroxy DMT, psilocine, psilocyn, or psilotsin) is a substituted tryptamine alkaloid and a serotonergic psychedelic substance. It is present in most psychedelic mushrooms together with its phosphorylated counte ...
, followed by phosphorylation yielding
psilocybin Psilocybin ( , ) is a naturally occurring psychedelic prodrug compound produced by more than 200 species of fungi. The most potent are members of the genus ''Psilocybe'', such as '' P. azurescens'', '' P. semilanceata'', and '' P.&nbs ...
. After ingestion of the psilocybin compound
alkaline phosphatase The enzyme alkaline phosphatase (EC 3.1.3.1, alkaline phosphomonoesterase; phosphomonoesterase; glycerophosphatase; alkaline phosphohydrolase; alkaline phenyl phosphatase; orthophosphoric-monoester phosphohydrolase (alkaline optimum), systematic ...
s present in the body's digestive system, kidneys, and possibly in the blood readily cleave the phosphoryl ester bond from psilocybin, yielding the hydroxyl compound, psilocin. Psilocin is the chemical primarily responsible for the hallucinogenic effects of the ''Psilocybe''. The blue-staining species of ''Psilocybe'' are characterized by the presence of psilocin and psilocybin. This blue-staining reaction occurs after the fruit body has been injured, particularly near the base of the stalk. This reaction is thought to be due to the
oxidation Redox (reduction–oxidation, , ) is a type of chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of substrate change. Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase in the oxidation state, while reduction is the gain of electrons or a d ...
of psilocybin after the outer surface of the fruit body has been breached. The degree of bluing in a ''Psilocybe'' fruit body roughly correlates with the concentration of psilocin in the mushroom. Psilocybin is chemically far more stable than psilocin, the latter compound being largely lost when the mushroom is heated or dried. The chemical structure of
serotonin Serotonin () or 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) is a monoamine neurotransmitter. Its biological function is complex and multifaceted, modulating mood, cognition, reward, learning, memory, and numerous physiological processes such as vomiting and vas ...
, an innate indole alkaloid
neurotransmitter A neurotransmitter is a signaling molecule secreted by a neuron to affect another cell across a synapse. The cell receiving the signal, any main body part or target cell, may be another neuron, but could also be a gland or muscle cell. Neuro ...
that regulates our mood and therefore happiness, is nearly identical to that of psilocin. The latter differs mainly by the hydroxyl group moving one carbon and the addition of two methyl groups that make the molecule
lipophilic Lipophilicity (from Greek λίπος "fat" and φίλος "friendly"), refers to the ability of a chemical compound to dissolve in fats, oils, lipids, and non-polar solvents such as hexane or toluene. Such non-polar solvents are themselves lipop ...
(fat soluble), ergo capable of crossing the
lipid membrane The lipid bilayer (or phospholipid bilayer) is a thin polar membrane made of two layers of lipid molecules. These membranes are flat sheets that form a continuous barrier around all cells. The cell membranes of almost all organisms and many vir ...
sheaths of the
central nervous system The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the nervous system consisting primarily of the brain and spinal cord. The CNS is so named because the brain integrates the received information and coordinates and influences the activity of all par ...
. After psilocybin has been ingested and dephosphorylated, to psilocin, the mechanism it uses in the brain has a direct agonist effect on the 5-HT
serotonin receptor 5-HT receptors, 5-hydroxytryptamine receptors, or serotonin receptors, are a group of G protein-coupled receptor and ligand-gated ion channels found in the central and peripheral nervous systems. They mediate both excitatory and inhibitory neur ...
s. To explain this effect, the psilocin molecule essentially mimics the serotonin molecule, binding to the 5-HT receptors and initiating the same response as the serotonin. This effect explains the euphoria experienced by ingestion of this "agonist." Initially, hallucinogens were thought to blockade these serotonin neurotransmitters, but persistent research led to this agonist effect conclusion. Woolley and Campbell conducted research to determine whether the depletion of the hormone serotonin had a direct effect on mental disorders and that hallucinations might be due to an excess of serotonin. Their results led them to study chemicals analogous to serotonin. They found that the psychoactive chemicals psilocybin and psilocin exhibited serotonin-like effects, however as dosage increased, these compounds acted as serotonin antagonists, psilocybin being comparable to the most potent antagonist yet discovered. This is a plausible basis for the psychological effects of these hallucinogenic compounds. Even though these chemicals are psychoactive and therefore the
basidiomycete Basidiomycota () is one of two large divisions that, together with the Ascomycota, constitute the subkingdom Dikarya (often referred to as the "higher fungi") within the kingdom Fungi. Members are known as basidiomycetes. More specifically, Basi ...
deemed toxic, there have been no reports of fatalities or induced internal organ damage directly associated with ingestion of these chemicals. Misidentification of the fruit body could lead to ingestion of a lethal fungus. Some psychoactive species contain
baeocystin Baeocystin is a zwitterionic alkaloid and analog of psilocybin. It is found as a minor compound in most psilocybin mushrooms together with psilocybin, norbaeocystin, aeruginascin, and psilocin. Baeocystin is an ''N''-demethylated derivative of ps ...
,
norbaeocystin Norbaeocystin is a psilocybin mushroom alkaloid and analog of psilocybin. It is found as a minor compound in most psilocybin mushrooms together with psilocin, psilocybin, aeruginascin, and baeocystin, from which it is a derivative. Norbaeocystin ...
and β‐carboline monoamine oxidase inhibitors in addition to psilocin and psilocybin.


Medical and psychiatric aspects

The medicinal uses of the ''Psilocybe'' was recorded by Native Americans of Central America. Shamans, or curanderas would avidly ingest the "sacred mushrooms" for the extrasensory perceptual effects it gave them in order to better assess problems faced in their society. The observed effects of the alkaloids found in these mushrooms has given rise to research into their possible uses for psychiatric medicine. For details on contemporary research, see: Psilocybin: Medical research.


History and ethnography

Hallucinogenic species of ''Psilocybe'' have a long history of use among the native peoples of Mesoamerica for religious communion, divination, and healing, from
pre-Columbian In the history of the Americas, the pre-Columbian era spans from the original settlement of North and South America in the Upper Paleolithic period through European colonization, which began with Christopher Columbus's voyage of 1492. Usually, th ...
times up to the present day. Hallucinogenic ''Psilocybe'' were known to the aboriginal
Mexicans Mexicans ( es, mexicanos) are the citizens of the United Mexican States. The most spoken language by Mexicans is Spanish language, Spanish, but some may also speak languages from 68 different Languages of Mexico, Indigenous linguistic groups ...
as ''teonanácatl'' (literally "divine mushroom") and were reportedly served at the coronation of
Moctezuma II Moctezuma Xocoyotzin ( – 29 June 1520; oteːkˈsoːmaḁ ʃoːkoˈjoːt͡sĩn̥), nci-IPA, Motēuczōmah Xōcoyōtzin, moteːkʷˈsoːma ʃoːkoˈjoːtsin variant spellings include Motewksomah, Motecuhzomatzin, Montezuma, Moteuczoma, Motecu ...
in 1502. After the
Spanish conquest of the Americas Spain began colonizing the Americas under the Crown of Castile and was spearheaded by the Spanish . The Americas were invaded and incorporated into the Spanish Empire, with the exception of Brazil, British America, and some small region ...
, the use of hallucinogenic plants and mushrooms, like other pre-
Christian Christians () are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words ''Christ'' and ''Christian'' derive from the Koine Greek title ''Christós'' (Χρι ...
traditions, was forcibly suppressed and driven underground. By the 20th century, hallucinogenic mushroom use was thought by non- Native Americans to have disappeared entirely. However, in 1955, Valentina Wasson and R. Gordon Wasson became the first Westerners to actively participate in an indigenous mushroom ceremony. The Wassons did much to publicize their discovery, even publishing an article on their experiences in ''
Life Life is a quality that distinguishes matter that has biological processes, such as signaling and self-sustaining processes, from that which does not, and is defined by the capacity for growth, reaction to stimuli, metabolism, energ ...
'' in 1957. In 1956,
Roger Heim Roger Heim (February 12, 1900 – September 17, 1979) was a French botanist specialising in mycology and tropical phytopathology. He was known for his studies describing the anatomy of the mushroom hymenium, the systematics and phylogeny of high ...
identified the hallucinogenic mushroom that the Wassons had brought back from Mexico as ''Psilocybe'' and in 1958,
Albert Hofmann Albert Hofmann (11 January 1906 – 29 April 2008) was a Swiss chemist known for being the first to synthesize, ingest, and learn of the psychedelic effects of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). Hofmann's team also isolated, named and synthesiz ...
first reported psilocin and psilocybin as the active compound in these mushrooms. There is some skepticism as to whether or not these "sacred mushrooms" were actually in the genus ''Psilocybe''. However, according to Heim's research in Mexico, he identified three species of ''Psilocybe'' that he believed were used in these native ceremonies. The species identified by Heim were; ''P. mexicana, P. caerulescens'', and ''P. zapotecorum''. are a variety of ''Psilocybe'' mushrooms that make up the ''teonanácatl'' group of hallucinogenic mushrooms, including ''P. cubensis''. Isauro Nava Garcia, a Mazotec man, provided guidance to Heim while Heim conducted his field and culture work. Garcia was an avid observer of the fungi in his environment while identifying specific characteristics about the fruit body of the ''Psilocybe'' his ancestors utilized, as well as knowing where they could be found. At present, hallucinogenic mushroom use has been reported among a number of groups spanning from central Mexico to Oaxaca, including groups of
Nahua The Nahuas () are a group of the indigenous people of Mexico, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua. They comprise the largest indigenous group in Mexico and second largest in El Salvador. The Mexica (Aztecs) were of Nahua ethnicity, a ...
,
Mixtecs The Mixtecs (), or Mixtecos, are indigenous Mesoamerican peoples of Mexico inhabiting the region known as La Mixteca of Oaxaca and Puebla as well as La Montaña Region and Costa Chica Regions of the state of Guerrero. The Mixtec Culture w ...
, Mixe, Mazatecs, Zapotecs, and others. The popularization of
entheogens Entheogens are psychoactive substances that induce alterations in perception, mood, consciousness, cognition, or behavior for the purposes of engendering spiritual development or otherwiseRätsch, Christian, ''The Encyclopedia of Psychoacti ...
by Wasson,
Timothy Leary Timothy Francis Leary (October 22, 1920 – May 31, 1996) was an American psychologist and author known for his strong advocacy of psychedelic drugs. Evaluations of Leary are polarized, ranging from bold oracle to publicity hound. He was "a her ...
, and others has led to an explosion in the use of hallucinogenic ''Psilocybe'' throughout the world. By the early 1970s, a number of psychoactive ''Psilocybe'' species were described from temperate North America, Europe, and Asia and were widely collected. Books describing methods of cultivating ''P. cubensis'' in large quantities were also published. The relatively easy availability of hallucinogenic ''Psilocybe'' from wild and cultivated sources has made it among the most widely used of the
hallucinogenic drugs Hallucinogens are a large, diverse class of psychoactive drugs that can produce altered states of consciousness characterized by major alterations in thought, mood, and perception as well as other changes. Most hallucinogens can be categorize ...
.


Legal status

The purified chemicals psilocybin and psilocin are listed as Schedule'' ''II drugs under the United Nations 1971
Convention on Psychotropic Substances The Convention on Psychotropic Substances of 1971 is a United Nations treaty designed to control psychoactive drugs such as #Amphetamine-type stimulants, amphetamine-type stimulants, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, and Psychedelic drug, psychede ...
. However, the UN drug treaties do not apply to cultivation, preparation, or international transport of psilocybin mushrooms. Internationally, the two chemicals are generally considered controlled substances. However, there is much ambiguity about what is considered a "container" of these compounds in several countries (e.g. Brazil), the chemicals themselves are listed as controlled substances, but the mushrooms that contain the chemicals are not, therefore deemed legal. In the United States, possession of ''Psilocybe'' mushroom fruiting bodies is illegal in every state except for Florida. This is because the Supreme Court of Florida does not believe that these mushrooms could "reasonably be found to be containers of the schedule I substance, psilocybin". In the United States there is no federal law mentioning the possession of ''Psilocybe'' spores, this is because only the psilocybin and psilocin compounds are considered Schedule I drugs and there is no presence of these compounds in the spores themselves, only in the fruiting body of the cultivated spores. However, there are several US states that have actually prohibited possession of these spores because they can be cultivated to produce these hallucinogenic, Schedule'' ''I drugs. These states includes California, Georgia, and Idaho. However, possession of the spores by a qualified mycologist in California is legal if being put to use for research purposes, which must be approved by Research Advisory Panel. If not authorized by law, possession of spores or cultivation of fruiting bodies of the ''Psilocybe'' is punishable to not more than one year in county jail or state prison. Psilocybin mushrooms as well as other "soft drugs" which are stronger than cannabis but not synthetic, are legally available through
smart shop A smart shop (or smartshop) is a retail establishment that specializes in the sale of psychoactive substances, usually including psychedelics, as well as related literature and paraphernalia. The name derives from the name " smart drugs", a clas ...
s in the Netherlands. Only the
truffle A truffle is the fruiting body of a subterranean ascomycete fungus, predominantly one of the many species of the genus ''Tuber''. In addition to ''Tuber'', many other genera of fungi are classified as truffles including ''Geopora'', ''Peziz ...
form of magic mushrooms (such as '' P. tampanensis'') are currently legal, but these still contain the active ingredients and produce similar effect as the caps and stalks.


Notable species

* ''
Psilocybe cubensis ''Psilocybe cubensis ''is a species of psychedelic mushroom whose principal active compounds are psilocybin and psilocin. Commonly called shrooms, magic mushrooms, golden halos, cubes, or gold caps, it belongs to the fungus family Hymenogastrace ...
'' (''Stropharia cubensis''); the most commonly cultivated and consumed ''Psilocybe'', due to ease of cultivation and large size of fruit bodies; also commonly collected throughout the
tropics The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the Equator. They are defined in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere at N and the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere at S. The tropics are also referred to ...
and
subtropics The subtropical zones or subtropics are geographical and climate zones to the north and south of the tropics. Geographically part of the temperate zones of both hemispheres, they cover the middle latitudes from to approximately 35° north and ...
, nicknamed the commercial psilocybe. * ''
Psilocybe cyanescens ''Psilocybe cyanescens'' (sometimes referred to as wavy caps or as the potent Psilocybe) is a species of potent psychedelic mushroom. The main compounds responsible for its psychedelic effects are psilocybin and psilocin. It belongs to the fam ...
''; Native to the
Pacific Northwest The Pacific Northwest (sometimes Cascadia, or simply abbreviated as PNW) is a geographic region in western North America bounded by its coastal waters of the Pacific Ocean to the west and, loosely, by the Rocky Mountains to the east. Though ...
of North America, but also found in
western Europe Western Europe is the western region of Europe. The region's countries and territories vary depending on context. The concept of "the West" appeared in Europe in juxtaposition to "the East" and originally applied to the ancient Mediterranean ...
; nicknamed the ''wavy-cap'' or ''wavies''. * ''
Psilocybe semilanceata ''Psilocybe semilanceata'', commonly known as the liberty cap, is a species of fungus which produces the psychoactive compounds psilocybin, psilocin and baeocystin. It is both one of the most widely distributed psilocybin mushrooms in nature, ...
''; The most common psilocybin-containing mushroom. Found in northern temperate climates; nicknamed the ''liberty cap''. * ''
Psilocybe azurescens ''Psilocybe azurescens'' is a species of psychedelic mushroom whose main active compounds are psilocybin and psilocin. It is among the most potent of the tryptamine-bearing mushrooms, containing up to 1.8% psilocybin, 0.5% psilocin, and 0.4% ba ...
'', a highly potent species native to the U.S. states of
Washington Washington commonly refers to: * Washington (state), United States * Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States ** A metonym for the federal government of the United States ** Washington metropolitan area, the metropolitan area centered o ...
and
Oregon Oregon () is a U.S. state, state in the Pacific Northwest region of the Western United States. The Columbia River delineates much of Oregon's northern boundary with Washington (state), Washington, while the Snake River delineates much of it ...
, but popular in outdoor cultivation, and expanding its range as a result; nicknamed '.


See also

*
María Sabina María Sabina Magdalena García (22 July 1894 – 22 November 1985) was a Mazatec ''curandera'', shaman and poet who lived in Huautla de Jiménez, a town in the Sierra Mazateca area of the Mexican state of Oaxaca in southern Mexico."Sabina Rothe ...


References


Cited books

* *


Further reading

* * * * * * * *


External links


Taxonomy


MushroomExpert.com Taxonomy in Transition: The Strophariaceae
- Taxonomic issues of ''Psilocybe'' and other stropharioid fungi.

- taxonomy and characteristics of non-bluing ''Psilocybe''.


History and ethnography


Timeline of mushroom use
at Erowid.org


Legal aspects


Psilocybin Mushrooms: Legal Status
– Erowid
EMCDDA Thematic Paper: Hallucinogenic mushrooms - an emerging trend case study
June 26, 2006


Other


The Shroomery
Detailed information about psilocybe mushrooms including identification, cultivation and spores, psychedelic images, trip reports, a dosage calculator and an active community.

from The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Substances

– Toxicology of psilocybin mushrooms.
A Worldwide Geographical Distribution of the Neurotropic Fungi

Psilocybe Mushrooms – Studies in Ethnomycology
{{Authority control Entheogens Agaricales genera Psychoactive fungi Psychedelic tryptamine carriers Taxa named by Elias Magnus Fries