![Transrapid-emsland](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Transrapid-emsland.jpg)
Maglev (derived from ''
magnetic levitation
Magnetic levitation (maglev) or magnetic suspension is a method by which an object is suspended with no support other than magnetic fields. Magnetic force is used to counteract the effects of the gravitational force and any other forces.
The ...
''), is a system of
train
In rail transport, a train (from Old French , from Latin , "to pull, to draw") is a series of connected vehicles that run along a railway track and Passenger train, transport people or Rail freight transport, freight. Trains are typically pul ...
transportation that uses two sets of
electromagnet
An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by an electric current. Electromagnets usually consist of wire wound into a coil. A current through the wire creates a magnetic field which is concentrated in the ...
s: one set to repel and push the train up off the
track
Track or Tracks may refer to:
Routes or imprints
* Ancient trackway, any track or trail whose origin is lost in antiquity
* Animal track, imprints left on surfaces that an animal walks across
* Desire path, a line worn by people taking the shorte ...
, and another set to move the elevated train ahead, taking advantage of the lack of
friction
Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material elements sliding against each other. There are several types of friction:
*Dry friction is a force that opposes the relative lateral motion of t ...
. Such trains rise approximately off the track. There are both high speed, intercity maglev systems (over ), and low speed, urban maglev systems ( to ) being built and under construction and development.
With maglev technology, the train travels along a guideway of electromagnets which control the train's stability and speed. While the propulsion and levitation require no moving parts, the
bogie
A bogie ( ) (in some senses called a truck in North American English) is a chassis or framework that carries a wheelset, attached to a vehicle—a modular subassembly of wheels and axles. Bogies take various forms in various modes of transp ...
s can move in relation to the main body of the vehicle and some technologies require support by retractable wheels at low speeds under . This compares with
electric multiple unit
An electric multiple unit or EMU is a multiple-unit train consisting of self-propelled carriages using electricity as the motive power. An EMU requires no separate locomotive, as electric traction motors are incorporated within one or a numbe ...
s that may have several dozen parts per bogie. Maglev trains can therefore in some cases be quieter and smoother than conventional trains and have the potential for much higher speeds.
Maglev vehicles have set
several speed records, and maglev trains can accelerate and decelerate much faster than conventional trains; the only practical limitation is the safety and comfort of the passengers, although
wind resistance
In fluid dynamics, drag (sometimes called air resistance, a type of friction, or fluid resistance, another type of friction or fluid friction) is a force acting opposite to the relative motion of any object moving with respect to a surrounding flu ...
at very high speeds can cause running costs that are four to five times that of conventional high-speed rail (such as the
Tokaido Shinkansen
The is a Japanese high-speed rail line that is part of the nationwide Shinkansen network. Along with the Sanyo Shinkansen, it forms a continuous high-speed railway through the Taiheiyō Belt, also known as the Tokaido corridor. Opened in 1964, ...
). The power needed for levitation is typically not a large percentage of the overall energy consumption of a high-speed maglev system. Overcoming drag, which makes all open-air land transport more
energy intensive at higher speeds, takes the most energy.
Vactrain
A vactrain (or vacuum tube train) is a proposed design for very-high-speed rail transportation. It is a maglev (magnetic levitation) line using partly evacuated tubes or tunnels. Reduced air resistance could permit vactrains to travel at very hig ...
technology has been proposed as a means to overcome this limitation. Maglev systems have been much more expensive to construct than conventional train systems, although the simpler construction of maglev vehicles makes them cheaper to manufacture and maintain.
The
Shanghai maglev train, also known as the Shanghai Transrapid, has a top speed of . The line is the fastest operational high-speed maglev train, designed to connect
Shanghai Pudong International Airport
Shanghai Pudong International Airport is one of two international airports serving Shanghai and a major aviation hub of East Asia. Pudong Airport serves both international flights and a smaller number of domestic fights, while the city's othe ...
and the outskirts of central
Pudong
Pudong is a district of Shanghai located east of the Huangpu, the river which flows through central Shanghai. The name ''Pudong'' was originally applied to the Huangpu's east bank, directly across from the west bank or Puxi, the historic city ...
,
Shanghai
Shanghai (; , , Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ) is one of the four direct-administered municipalities of the People's Republic of China (PRC). The city is located on the southern estuary of the Yangtze River, with the Huangpu River flow ...
. It covers a distance of in just over 8minutes. For the first time, the launch generated wide public interest and media attention, propelling the popularity of the mode of transportation.
Despite over a century of research and development, maglev transport systems are now operational in just three countries (Japan, South Korea and China). The incremental benefits of maglev technology have often been considered hard to justify against cost and risk, especially where there is an existing or proposed conventional high-speed train line with spare passenger carrying capacity, such as
high-speed rail in Europe
High-speed rail (HSR) has developed in Europe as an increasingly popular and efficient means of transport. The first high-speed rail lines on the continent, built in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, improved travel times on intra-national corridors. ...
.
Development
In the late 1940s, the British electrical engineer
Eric Laithwaite
Eric Roberts Laithwaite (14 June 1921 – 27 November 1997) was a British electrical engineer, known as the "Father of Maglev" for his development of the linear induction motor and maglev rail system.
Biography
Eric Roberts Laithwaite wa ...
, a professor at
Imperial College London
Imperial College London (legally Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine) is a public research university in London, United Kingdom. Its history began with Prince Albert, consort of Queen Victoria, who developed his vision for a cu ...
, developed the first full-size working model of the
linear induction motor
A linear induction motor (LIM) is an alternating current (AC), asynchronous linear motor that works by the same general principles as other induction motors but is typically designed to directly produce motion in a straight line. Characteristic ...
. He became professor of heavy electrical engineering at Imperial College in 1964, where he continued his successful development of the linear motor. Since linear motors do not require physical contact between the vehicle and guideway, they became a common fixture on advanced transportation systems in the 1960s and 1970s. Laithwaite joined one such project, the
Tracked Hovercraft
Tracked Hovercraft was an experimental high speed train developed in the United Kingdom during the 1960s. It combined two British inventions, the hovercraft and linear induction motor, in an effort to produce a train system that would provide ...
, although the project was cancelled in 1973.
The linear motor was naturally suited to use with maglev systems as well. In the early 1970s, Laithwaite discovered a new arrangement of magnets, the
magnetic river Magnetic river is an electrodynamic magnetic levitation (maglev) system designed by Fredrick Eastham and Eric Laithwaite in 1974. It consists of a thin conductive plate on an AC linear induction motor. Due to the transverse flux and the geometry, ...
, that allowed a single linear motor to produce both lift and forward thrust, allowing a maglev system to be built with a single set of magnets. Working at the
British Rail Research Division
The British Rail Research Division was established in 1964 directly under the control of the British Railways Board, moving into purpose-built premises at the Railway Technical Centre in Derby. The intention was to improve railway reliability an ...
in
Derby
Derby ( ) is a city and unitary authority area in Derbyshire, England. It lies on the banks of the River Derwent in the south of Derbyshire, which is in the East Midlands Region. It was traditionally the county town of Derbyshire. Derby gai ...
, along with teams at several civil engineering firms, the "transverse-flux" system was developed into a working system.
The first commercial maglev
people mover
A people mover or automated people mover (APM) is a type of small scale automated guideway transit system. The term is generally used only to describe systems serving relatively small areas such as airports, downtown districts or theme parks. ...
was simply called "
MAGLEV
Maglev (derived from '' magnetic levitation''), is a system of train transportation that uses two sets of electromagnets: one set to repel and push the train up off the track, and another set to move the elevated train ahead, taking advantage ...
" and officially opened in 1984 near
Birmingham
Birmingham ( ) is a city and metropolitan borough in the metropolitan county of West Midlands in England. It is the second-largest city in the United Kingdom with a population of 1.145 million in the city proper, 2.92 million in the West ...
, England. It operated on an elevated section of monorail track between
Birmingham Airport
Birmingham Airport , formerly ''Birmingham International Airport'', is an international airport located east-southeast of Birmingham city centre, west-northwest of Coventry slightly north of Bickenhill village, in the Metropolitan Borou ...
and
Birmingham International railway station
Birmingham International is a railway station located in Solihull in the West Midlands, to the east of the city of Birmingham, England.
The station is on the Rugby–Birmingham–Stafford Line 14 km (8½ miles) east of Birmingham New Stree ...
, running at speeds up to . The system was closed in 1995 due to reliability problems.
History
First maglev patent
High-speed transportation patents were granted to various inventors throughout the world.
[, 21 January 1972. Page 10 Column 1 Line 15 to Page 10 Column 2 Line 25.] The first relevant patent, (2 December 1902), issued to Albert C. Albertson, used magnetic levitation to take part of the weight off of the wheels while using conventional propulsion.
Early United States patents for a
linear motor
A linear motor is an electric motor that has had its stator and rotor "unrolled", thus, instead of producing a torque (rotation), it produces a linear force along its length. However, linear motors are not necessarily straight. Characteristicall ...
propelled train were awarded to German inventor
Alfred Zehden. The inventor was awarded (14 February 1905) and (21 August 1907). In 1907, another early electromagnetic transportation system was developed by F. S. Smith.
[, 2 July 1907.] In 1908,
Cleveland
Cleveland ( ), officially the City of Cleveland, is a city in the U.S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Cuyahoga County. Located in the northeastern part of the state, it is situated along the southern shore of Lake Erie, across the U.S. ...
mayor
Tom L. Johnson filed a patent for a wheel-less "high-speed railway" levitated by an induced magnetic field.
[, 17 March 1914] Jokingly known as "Greased Lightning," the suspended car operated on a 90-foot test track in Johnson's basement "absolutely noiseless
yand without the least vibration." A series of German patents for magnetic levitation trains propelled by linear motors were awarded to
Hermann Kemper
Hermann Kemper (5 April 1892 in Nortrup – 13 July 1977) was a German engineer and pioneer in magnetic levitation.
Herman Kemper began his research on magnetic levitation in 1922. In 1933, Kemper constructed a working circuit for hovering on ...
between 1937 and 1941. An early maglev train was described in , "Magnetic system of transportation", by G. R. Polgreen on 25 August 1959. The first use of "maglev" in a United States patent was in "Magnetic levitation guidance system"
[; 26 March 1973.] by Canadian Patents and Development Limited.
New York, United States, 1968
In 1959, while delayed in traffic on the
Throgs Neck Bridge
The Throgs Neck Bridge is a suspension bridge in New York City, carrying six lanes of Interstate 295 (New York), Interstate 295 (I-295) over the East River where it meets the Long Island Sound. The bridge connects the Throggs Neck section of t ...
,
James Powell, a researcher at
Brookhaven National Laboratory
Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) is a United States Department of Energy national laboratory located in Upton, Long Island, and was formally established in 1947 at the site of Camp Upton, a former U.S. Army base and Japanese internment c ...
(BNL), thought of using magnetically levitated transportation.
Powell and BNL colleague
Gordon Danby
Gordon Thompson Danby (November 8, 1929 – August 2, 2016) was a Canadian-American physicist notable (together with Dr. James R. Powell) for his work on superconducting Maglev, for which he shared the Franklin Institute 'Medal 2000 for Engineer ...
worked out a maglev concept using static magnets mounted on a moving vehicle to induce electrodynamic lifting and stabilizing forces in specially shaped loops, such as
figure-of-8 coils on a guideway. These were patented in 1968–1969.
Japan, 1969–present
Japan operates two independently developed maglev trains. One is
HSST (and its descendant, the
Linimo line) by
Japan Airlines
, also known as JAL (''Jaru'') or , is an international airline and Japan's flag carrier and largest airline as of 2021 and 2022, headquartered in Shinagawa, Tokyo. Its main hubs are Tokyo's Narita International Airport and Haneda Airport, as w ...
and the other, which is more well known, is
SCMaglev
The SCMaglev (superconducting maglev, formerly called the MLU) is a magnetic levitation (maglev) railway system developed by Central Japan Railway Company (JR Central) and the Railway Technical Research Institute.
On 21 April 2015, a manned sev ...
by the
Central Japan Railway Company.
The development of the latter started in 1969. Maglev trains on the
Miyazaki test track regularly hit by 1979. After an accident which destroyed the train, a new design was selected. In
Okazaki, Japan (1987), the SCMaglev was used for test rides at the Okazaki exhibition. Tests in Miyazaki continued throughout the 1980s, before transferring to a far longer test track, long, in Yamanashi in 1997. The track has since been extended to almost . The current world speed record for crewed trains was set there in 2015.
Development of
HSST started in 1974. In
Tsukuba
is a city located in Ibaraki Prefecture, Japan. , the city had an estimated population of 244,528 in 108,669 households and a population density of 862 persons per km². The percentage of the population aged over 65 was 20.3%. The total ar ...
, Japan (1985), the HSST-03 (
Linimo) became popular at the
Tsukuba World Exposition, in spite of its low top speed. In
Saitama, Japan (1988), the HSST-04-1 was revealed at the Saitama exhibition in
Kumagaya
is a city located in Saitama Prefecture, Japan. , the city had an estimated population of 195,277 in 87,827 households and a population density of 1200 persons per km². The total area of the city is .
Geography
Kumagaya is one of the largest c ...
. Its fastest recorded speed was .
Construction of a new high-speed maglev line, the
Chuo Shinkansen, started in 2014. It is being built by extending the SCMaglev test track in Yamanashi in both directions. The completion date is currently unknown, with the most recent estimate of 2027 no longer possible following a local governmental rejection of a construction permit.
Hamburg, Germany, 1979
Transrapid
Transrapid is a German-developed high-speed monorail train using magnetic levitation. Planning for the Transrapid system started in 1969 with a test facility for the system in Emsland, Germany completed in 1987. In 1991, technical readi ...
05 was the first maglev train with longstator propulsion licensed for passenger transportation. In 1979, a track was opened in
Hamburg
(male), (female) en, Hamburger(s),
Hamburgian(s)
, timezone1 = Central (CET)
, utc_offset1 = +1
, timezone1_DST = Central (CEST)
, utc_offset1_DST = +2
, postal ...
for the first
International Transportation Exhibition (IVA 79). Interest was sufficient that operations were extended three months after the exhibition finished, having carried more than 50,000 passengers. It was reassembled in
Kassel
Kassel (; in Germany, spelled Cassel until 1926) is a city on the Fulda River in northern Hesse, Germany. It is the administrative seat of the Regierungsbezirk Kassel and the district of the same name and had 201,048 inhabitants in December 2020 ...
in 1980.
Ramenskoye, Moscow, USSR, 1979
![TP05 3](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/TP05_3.jpg)
In 1979 the
USSR
The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, it was nominally a federal union of fifteen nationa ...
town of
Ramenskoye (
Moscow oblast
Moscow Oblast ( rus, Моско́вская о́бласть, r=Moskovskaya oblast', p=mɐˈskofskəjə ˈobləsʲtʲ), or Podmoskovye ( rus, Подмоско́вье, p=pədmɐˈskovʲjə, literally "under Moscow"), is a federal subject of Rus ...
) built an experimental test site for running experiments with cars on magnetic suspension. The test site consisted of a 60-metre ramp which was later extended to 980 metres. From the late 1970s to the 1980s five prototypes of cars were built that received designations from TP-01 (ТП-01) to TP-05 (ТП-05).
The early cars were supposed to reach the speed up to 100 km/h.
The construction of a maglev track using the technology from Ramenskoye started in
Armenian SSR
The Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic,; russian: Армянская Советская Социалистическая Республика, translit=Armyanskaya Sovetskaya Sotsialisticheskaya Respublika) also commonly referred to as Soviet A ...
in 1987 and was planned to be completed in 1991. The track was supposed to connect the cities of
Yerevan
Yerevan ( , , hy, Երևան , sometimes spelled Erevan) is the capital and largest city of Armenia and one of the world's List of oldest continuously inhabited cities, oldest continuously inhabited cities. Situated along the Hrazdan River, Y ...
and
Sevan via the city of
Abovyan
Abovyan or Abovian ( hy, Աբովյան), is a town and urban municipal community in Armenia within the Kotayk Province. It is located northeast of Yerevan and southeast of the province centre Hrazdan. As of the 2011 census, the population of ...
. The original design speed was 250 km/h which was later lowered to 180 km/h. However, the
Spitak earthquake
The 1988 Armenian earthquake, also known as the Spitak earthquake ( hy, Սպիտակի երկրաշարժ, ), occurred on December 7 at with a surface wave magnitude of 6.8 and a maximum MSK intensity of X (''Devastating''). The shock occurre ...
in 1988 and the
First Nagorno-Karabakh War
The First Nagorno-Karabakh War, referred to in Armenia as the Artsakh Liberation War ( hy, Արցախյան ազատամարտ, Artsakhyan azatamart) was an ethnic and territorial conflict that took place from February 1988 to May 1994, in th ...
caused the project to freeze. In the end the overpass was only partially constructed.
In the early 1990s, the maglev theme was continued by the Engineering Research Center "TEMP" (ИНЦ "ТЭМП") this time by the order from the
Moscow government
The Government of Moscow (russian: Правительство Москвы) is the highest executive body of state authority of Moscow. The Government of Moscow is headed by the highest official of the city of Moscow, i.e. the Mayor of Moscow.
T ...
. The project was named V250 (В250). The idea was to build a high-speed maglev train to connect
Moscow
Moscow ( , US chiefly ; rus, links=no, Москва, r=Moskva, p=mɐskˈva, a=Москва.ogg) is the capital and largest city of Russia. The city stands on the Moskva River in Central Russia, with a population estimated at 13.0 million ...
to the
Sheremetyevo airport
Sheremetyevo Alexander S. Pushkin International Airport ( rus, links=no, Международный аэропорт Шереметьево имени А. С. Пушкина, p=ʂɨrʲɪˈmʲetʲjɪvə ''Mezhdunarodny aeroport Sheremetyevo imen ...
. The train would consist of 64-seater cars and run at speeds up to 250 km/h.
[ In 1993, due to the ]financial crisis
A financial crisis is any of a broad variety of situations in which some financial assets suddenly lose a large part of their nominal value. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, many financial crises were associated with banking panics, and man ...
, the project was abandoned. However, from 1999 the "TEMP" research center had been participating as a co-developer in the creation of the linear motors for the Moscow Monorail system.
Birmingham, United Kingdom, 1984–1995
The world's first commercial maglev system was a low-speed maglev shuttle that ran between the airport terminal of Birmingham International Airport
Birmingham Airport , formerly ''Birmingham International Airport'', is an international airport located east-southeast of Birmingham city centre, west-northwest of Coventry slightly north of Bickenhill village, in the Metropolitan Boroug ...
and the nearby Birmingham International railway station
Birmingham International is a railway station located in Solihull in the West Midlands, to the east of the city of Birmingham, England.
The station is on the Rugby–Birmingham–Stafford Line 14 km (8½ miles) east of Birmingham New Stree ...
between 1984 and 1995. Its track length was , and trains levitated at an altitude of , levitated by electromagnets, and propelled with linear induction motors. It operated for 11 years and was initially very popular with passengers, but obsolescence problems with the electronic systems made it progressively unreliable as years passed, leading to its closure in 1995. One of the original cars is now on display at Railworld
Railworld Wildlife Haven is a charity in Peterborough which has a nature haven, a model railway and other exhibits. It is located on a landscaped former coal storage yard which once served Peterborough Power Station.
It was founded by Rev. R ...
in Peterborough, together with the RTV31 hover train vehicle. Another is on display at the National Railway Museum in York.
Several favourable conditions existed when the link was built:
* The British Rail Research vehicle was 3 tonnes and extension to the 8-tonne vehicle was easy.
* Electrical power was available.
* The airport and rail buildings were suitable for terminal platforms.
* Only one crossing over a public road was required and no steep gradients were involved.
* Land was owned by the railway or airport.
* Local industries and councils were supportive.
* Some government finance was provided and because of sharing work, the cost per organization was low.
After the system closed in 1995, the original guideway lay dormant until 2003, when a replacement cable-hauled system, the AirRail Link
The Air-Rail Link is a people mover linking Birmingham Airport with Birmingham International railway station and the National Exhibition Centre in England. The current system, originally known as SkyRail, replaced the earlier Birmingham Maglev ...
Cable Liner people mover, was opened.
Emsland, Germany, 1984–2012
Transrapid, a German maglev company, had a test track in Emsland with a total length of . The single-track line ran between Dörpen
Dörpen is a municipality in the Emsland district, in Lower Saxony, Germany
Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the ...
and Lathen
Lathen is a municipality in the Emsland district, in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is the location of the Emsland Transrapid Test facility, a testing site for Transrapid maglev
Maglev (derived from '' magnetic levitation''), is a system of tr ...
with turning loops at each end. The trains regularly ran at up to . Paying passengers were carried as part of the testing process. The construction of the test facility began in 1980 and finished in 1984.
In 2006, the Lathen maglev train accident occurred, killing 23 people. It was found to have been caused by human error in implementing safety checks. From 2006 no passengers were carried. At the end of 2011 the operation licence expired and was not renewed, and in early 2012 demolition permission was given for its facilities, including the track and factory.
In March 2021 it was reported the CRRC
CRRC Corporation Limited (known as CRRC) is a Chinese state-owned and publicly traded rolling stock manufacturer. It is the world's largest rolling stock manufacturer in terms of revenue, eclipsing its major competitors of Alstom and Siemens.
I ...
was investigating reviving the Emsland test track. In May 2019 CRRC had unveiled its 'CRRC 600' prototype which is designed to reach .
Vancouver, Canada and Hamburg, Germany, 1986–88
In Vancouver, Canada, the HSST-03 by HSST Development Corporation (Japan Airlines
, also known as JAL (''Jaru'') or , is an international airline and Japan's flag carrier and largest airline as of 2021 and 2022, headquartered in Shinagawa, Tokyo. Its main hubs are Tokyo's Narita International Airport and Haneda Airport, as w ...
and Sumitomo Corporation
is one of the largest worldwide ''sogo shosha'' general trading companies, and is a diversified corporation. The company was incorporated in 1919 and is a member company of the Sumitomo Group.
It is listed on three Japanese stock exchanges ( ...
) was exhibited at Expo 86
The 1986 World Exposition on Transportation and Communication, or simply Expo 86, was a World's Fair held in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada from May 2 until October 13, 1986. The fair, the theme of which was "Transportation and Communicatio ...
, and ran on a test track that provided guests with a ride in a single car along a short section of track at the fairgrounds. It was removed after the fair. It was shown at the Aoi Expo in 1987 and is now on static display at Okazaki Minami Park.
Berlin, Germany, 1984–1992
In West Berlin
West Berlin (german: Berlin (West) or , ) was a political enclave which comprised the western part of Berlin during the years of the Cold War. Although West Berlin was de jure not part of West Germany, lacked any sovereignty, and was under mi ...
, the M-Bahn
The M-Bahn or Magnetbahn was an elevated Maglev train line operating in Berlin, Germany, experimentally from 1984 and in passenger operation from 1989 to 1991. The line was in length, and featured three stations, two of which were newly construc ...
was built in 1984. It was a driverless maglev system with a track connecting three stations. Testing with passenger traffic started in August 1989, and regular operation started in July 1991. Although the line largely followed a new elevated alignment, it terminated at Gleisdreieck U-Bahn
Rapid transit in Germany consists of four U-Bahn systems and fourteen S-Bahn systems. The U-Bahn commonly understood to stand for Untergrundbahn (''underground railway'') are conventional rapid transit systems that run mostly underground, while ...
station, where it took over an unused platform for a line that formerly ran to East Berlin
East Berlin was the ''de facto'' capital city of East Germany from 1949 to 1990. Formally, it was the Allied occupation zones in Germany, Soviet sector of Berlin, established in 1945. The American, British, and French sectors were known as ...
. After the fall of the Berlin Wall
The Berlin Wall (german: Berliner Mauer, ) was a guarded concrete barrier that encircled West Berlin from 1961 to 1989, separating it from East Berlin and East Germany (GDR). Construction of the Berlin Wall was commenced by the government ...
, plans were set in motion to reconnect this line (today's U2). Deconstruction of the M-Bahn line began only two months after regular service began and was completed during February 1992.
South Korea, 1993–present
In 1993, South Korea completed the development of its own maglev train, shown off at the Taejŏn Expo '93
Taejon Expo '93 was a three-month international exposition held between Saturday, August 7, 1993 and Sunday, November 7, 1993 in the central South Korean city of Daejeon (at the time spelled "Taejŏn").
Theme
The theme of the exposition was " ...
, which was developed further into a full-fledged maglev capable of travelling up to in 2006. This final model was incorporated in the Incheon Airport Maglev
The Incheon Airport Maglev is a maglev line in South Korea opened on 3 February 2016. It is the world's second commercially operating unmanned urban maglev line after Japan's Linimo. The trains are lighter, cutting construction costs in half ...
which opened on 3 February 2016, making South Korea the world's fourth country to operate its own self-developed maglev after the United Kingdom's Birmingham International Airport, Germany's Berlin M-Bahn, and Japan
Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
's Linimo. It links Incheon International Airport
Incheon International Airport (IIA; ) (sometimes referred to as Seoul–Incheon International Airport) is the largest airport in South Korea. It is the primary airport serving the Seoul Capital Area and one of the largest and busiest airports ...
to the Yongyu Station and Leisure Complex on Yeongjong island
Yeongjong Island is an island off the west coast of the city of Incheon, South Korea, which contains Incheon International Airport as well as small villages, farms, and beaches. The previously separate Yongyu, Sammok, and Sinbul Islands have ...
. It offers a transfer to the Seoul Metropolitan Subway
The Seoul Metropolitan Subway is a metropolitan railway system consisting of 23 rapid transit, light metro, commuter rail and people mover lines located in northwest South Korea. The system serves most of the Seoul Metropolitan Area including ...
at AREX
AREX (Airport Railroad Express) is a South Korean commuter rail line that links Incheon International Airport with Seoul Station via Gimpo International Airport. The section between the two airports opened on March 23, 2007, and line was exten ...
's Incheon International Airport Station
Incheon International Airport Terminal 1 Station is a railway station on AREX and Incheon Airport Maglev. It is in Incheon International Airport's transport center near Terminal 1.
Both commuter("All-stop") and express services stop at this stati ...
and is offered free of charge to anyone to ride, operating between 9am and 6pm with 15-minute intervals.
The maglev system was co-developed by the South Korea Institute of Machinery and Materials (KIMM) and Hyundai Rotem
Hyundai Rotem (founded in 1977) is a South Korean company that manufactures rolling stock, defense products and plant equipment. It is a part of the Hyundai Motor Group. Its name was changed from Rotem to Hyundai Rotem in December 2007 to refl ...
. It is long, with six stations and a operating speed.
Two more stages are planned of and . Once completed it will become a circular line.
Germany/China, 2010–present
Transport System Bögl (TSB) is a driverless maglev system developed by the German construction company Max Bögl since 2010. Its primary intended use is for short to medium distances (up to 30 km) and speeds up to 150 km/h for uses such as airport shuttle
An airport bus, or airport shuttle bus or airport shuttle is a bus used to transport people to and from, or within airports. These vehicles will usually be equipped with larger luggage space, and incorporate special branding. They are also comm ...
s. The company has been doing test runs on an 820-meter-long test track at their headquarters in Sengenthal
Sengenthal is a municipality in the district of Neumarkt in Bavaria in Germany. Local economy
Sengenthal is the headquarters of the construction company Max Bögl the developer of Transport System Bögl who also have a testing site in Sengenth ...
, Upper Palatinate
The Upper Palatinate (german: Oberpfalz, , ) is one of the seven administrative districts of Bavaria, Germany, and is located in the east of Bavaria.
Geography
The Upper Palatinate is a landscape with low mountains and numerous ponds and lakes ...
, Germany
Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...
, since 2012 clocking over 100,000 tests covering a distance of over 65,000 km as of 2018.
In 2018 Max Bögl signed a joint venture with the Chinese company Chengdu Xinzhu Road & Bridge Machinery Co. with the Chinese partner given exclusive rights of production and marketing for the system in China. The joint venture constructed a demonstration line near Chengdu
Chengdu (, ; Simplified Chinese characters, simplified Chinese: 成都; pinyin: ''Chéngdū''; Sichuanese dialects, Sichuanese pronunciation: , Standard Chinese pronunciation: ), Chinese postal romanization, alternatively Romanization of Chi ...
, China, and two vehicles were airlifted there in June, 2020. In April 2021 a vehicle on the Chinese test track hit a top speed of .
China, 2000-present
According to the International Maglev Board there are at least four maglev research programmes underway in China at the following institutions: Southwest Jiaotong University
Southwest Jiaotong University () is located in national central city Chengdu, Sichuan Province, affiliated to the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China. It's a national key university co-supported by the Ministry of Education o ...
(Chengdu), Tongji University
Tongji University () is a comprehensive public research university located in Shanghai. Established in 1907 by the German government together with German physicians in Shanghai, Tongji is one of the longest-standing, most selective, and most pr ...
(Shanghai), CRRC Tangshan-Changchun Railway Vehicle Co. and Chengdu Aircraft Industry Group
The Chengdu Aircraft Industry Group (CAIG) or Chengdu Aerospace Corporation (CAC), a subsidiary of AVIC, is a Chinese aerospace conglomerate that designs and manufactures combat aircraft and is also a manufacturer of aircraft parts. It was foun ...
. The latest high speed prototype, unveiled in July 2021, was manufactured by CRRC Qingdao Sifang
CRRC Qingdao Sifang Co., Ltd. () is a Chinese rolling stock manufacturer based in Qingdao, Shandong province. Founded in 1900 during the German occupation, Qingdao Sifang is one of the oldest rolling stock manufacturers in China.
History
Q ...
.
Low-to-medium speed
Development of the low-to-medium speed systems, that is, , by the CRRC
CRRC Corporation Limited (known as CRRC) is a Chinese state-owned and publicly traded rolling stock manufacturer. It is the world's largest rolling stock manufacturer in terms of revenue, eclipsing its major competitors of Alstom and Siemens.
I ...
has led to opening of operational lines such as the Changsha Maglev Express
The Changsha Maglev Express () is a medium-low speed magnetic levitation, or ''maglev'' line in Changsha, China. This is China's second maglev line, after Shanghai Maglev, and the first domestically built maglev line that uses indigenous techno ...
in 2016 and the Line S1 in Beijing in 2017.
In April 2020 a new model capable of and compatible with the Changsha line completed testing. The vehicle, under development since 2018, has a 30 percent increase in traction efficiency and a 60 percent increase in speed over the stock in use on the line since. The vehicles entered service in July 2021 with a top speed of .
CRRC Zhuzhou Locomotive said in April 2020 it is developing a model capable of .
High speed
There are currently two competing efforts into high-speed maglev systems, i.e., .
* The first is based on the Transrapid
Transrapid is a German-developed high-speed monorail train using magnetic levitation. Planning for the Transrapid system started in 1969 with a test facility for the system in Emsland, Germany completed in 1987. In 1991, technical readi ...
technology used in the Shanghai maglev train and is developed by the CRRC
CRRC Corporation Limited (known as CRRC) is a Chinese state-owned and publicly traded rolling stock manufacturer. It is the world's largest rolling stock manufacturer in terms of revenue, eclipsing its major competitors of Alstom and Siemens.
I ...
under license from Thyssen-Krupp.
** In 2006 the CM1 Dolphin prototype was unveiled and began testing on a new test track at Tongji University
Tongji University () is a comprehensive public research university located in Shanghai. Established in 1907 by the German government together with German physicians in Shanghai, Tongji is one of the longest-standing, most selective, and most pr ...
, northwest of Shanghai.
** A prototype vehicle of the CRRC 600 was developed in 2019 and tested from June 2020.
** In March 2021 a model began trials.
** In July 2021, the CRRC 600 maglev, capable of travelling up to , was unveiled in Qingdao. It was reported to be the world's fastest ground vehicle.
** A high speed test track is under development in China and also, in April 2021, there was consideration given to re-opening the Emsland test facility in Germany.
* A second, incompatible high-speed prototype was unveiled in January 2021. Developed at Southwest Jiaotong University
Southwest Jiaotong University () is located in national central city Chengdu, Sichuan Province, affiliated to the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China. It's a national key university co-supported by the Ministry of Education o ...
in Chengdu, the design uses high-temperature superconducting magnets, is designed for and was demonstrated on a test track.
Technology
In the public imagination, "maglev" often evokes the concept of an elevated monorail
A monorail (from "mono", meaning "one", and "rail") is a railway in which the track consists of a single rail or a beam.
Colloquially, the term "monorail" is often used to describe any form of elevated rail or people mover. More accurately, ...
track with a linear motor
A linear motor is an electric motor that has had its stator and rotor "unrolled", thus, instead of producing a torque (rotation), it produces a linear force along its length. However, linear motors are not necessarily straight. Characteristicall ...
. Maglev systems may be monorail or dual rail—the SCMaglev
The SCMaglev (superconducting maglev, formerly called the MLU) is a magnetic levitation (maglev) railway system developed by Central Japan Railway Company (JR Central) and the Railway Technical Research Institute.
On 21 April 2015, a manned sev ...
MLX01 for instance uses a trench-like track—and not all monorail trains are maglevs. Some railway transport systems incorporate linear motors but use electromagnetism only for propulsion
Propulsion is the generation of force by any combination of pushing or pulling to modify the translational motion of an object, which is typically a rigid body (or an articulated rigid body) but may also concern a fluid. The term is derived from ...
, without levitating the vehicle. Such trains have wheels and are not maglevs. Maglev tracks, monorail or not, can also be constructed at grade or underground in tunnels. Conversely, non-maglev tracks, monorail or not, can be elevated or underground too. Some maglev trains do incorporate wheels and function like linear motor-propelled wheeled vehicles at slower speeds but levitate at higher speeds. This is typically the case with electrodynamic suspension
Electrodynamic suspension (EDS) is a form of magnetic levitation in which there are conductors which are exposed to time-varying magnetic fields. This induces eddy currents in the conductors that creates a repulsive magnetic field which holds the ...
maglev trains. Aerodynamic
Aerodynamics, from grc, ἀήρ ''aero'' (air) + grc, δυναμική (dynamics), is the study of the motion of air, particularly when affected by a solid object, such as an airplane wing. It involves topics covered in the field of fluid dyn ...
factors may also play a role in the levitation of such trains.
The two main types of maglev technology are:
* Electromagnetic suspension
Electromagnetic suspension (EMS) is the magnetic levitation of an object achieved by constantly altering the strength of a magnetic field produced by electromagnets using a feedback loop. In most cases the levitation effect is mostly due to perman ...
(EMS), electronically controlled electromagnets in the train attract it to a magnetically conductive (usually steel) track.
* Electrodynamic suspension
Electrodynamic suspension (EDS) is a form of magnetic levitation in which there are conductors which are exposed to time-varying magnetic fields. This induces eddy currents in the conductors that creates a repulsive magnetic field which holds the ...
(EDS) uses superconducting electromagnets or strong permanent magnets that create a magnetic field, which induces currents in nearby metallic conductors when there is relative movement, which pushes and pulls the train towards the designed levitation position on the guide way.
Electromagnetic suspension (EMS)
In electromagnetic suspension (EMS) systems, the train levitates above a steel rail while electromagnet
An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by an electric current. Electromagnets usually consist of wire wound into a coil. A current through the wire creates a magnetic field which is concentrated in the ...
s, attached to the train, are oriented toward the rail from below. The system is typically arranged on a series of C-shaped arms, with the upper portion of the arm attached to the vehicle, and the lower inside edge containing the magnets. The rail is situated inside the C, between the upper and lower edges.
Magnetic attraction varies inversely with the square of distance, so minor changes in distance between the magnets and the rail produce greatly varying forces. These changes in force are dynamically unstable—a slight divergence from the optimum position tends to grow, requiring sophisticated feedback systems to maintain a constant distance from the track, (approximately ).
The major advantage to suspended maglev systems is that they work at all speeds, unlike electrodynamic systems, which only work at a minimum speed of about . This eliminates the need for a separate low-speed suspension system, and can simplify track layout. On the downside, the dynamic instability demands fine track tolerances, which can offset this advantage. Eric Laithwaite
Eric Roberts Laithwaite (14 June 1921 – 27 November 1997) was a British electrical engineer, known as the "Father of Maglev" for his development of the linear induction motor and maglev rail system.
Biography
Eric Roberts Laithwaite wa ...
was concerned that to meet required tolerances, the gap between magnets and rail would have to be increased to the point where the magnets would be unreasonably large.[ In practice, this problem was addressed through improved feedback systems, which support the required tolerances.
]
Electrodynamic suspension (EDS)
In electrodynamic suspension (EDS), both the guideway and the train exert a magnetic field, and the train is levitated by the repulsive and attractive force between these magnetic fields. In some configurations, the train can be levitated only by repulsive force. In the early stages of maglev development at the Miyazaki test track, a purely repulsive system was used instead of the later repulsive and attractive EDS system. The magnetic field is produced either by superconducting magnets (as in JR–Maglev) or by an array of permanent magnets (as in Inductrack
Inductrack is a passive, fail-safe electrodynamic magnetic levitation system, using only unpowered loops of wire in the track and perslide magnets (arranged into Halbach arrays) on the vehicle to achieve magnetic levitation. The track can be in on ...
). The repulsive and attractive force in the track is created by an induced magnetic field
In classical electromagnetism, magnetization is the vector field that expresses the density of permanent or induced magnetic dipole moments in a magnetic material. Movement within this field is described by direction and is either Axial or Dia ...
in wires or other conducting strips in the track.
A major advantage of EDS maglev systems is that they are dynamically stable—changes in distance between the track and the magnets creates strong forces to return the system to its original position.[ In addition, the attractive force varies in the opposite manner, providing the same adjustment effects. No active feedback control is needed.
However, at slow speeds, the current induced in these coils and the resultant magnetic flux is not large enough to levitate the train. For this reason, the train must have wheels or some other form of landing gear to support the train until it reaches take-off speed. Since a train may stop at any location, due to equipment problems for instance, the entire track must be able to support both low- and high-speed operation.
Another downside is that the EDS system naturally creates a field in the track in front and to the rear of the lift magnets, which acts against the magnets and creates magnetic drag. This is generally only a concern at low speeds, and is one of the reasons why JR abandoned a purely repulsive system and adopted the sidewall levitation system.] At higher speeds other modes of drag dominate.
The drag force can be used to the electrodynamic system's advantage, however, as it creates a varying force in the rails that can be used as a reactionary system to drive the train, without the need for a separate reaction plate, as in most linear motor systems. Laithwaite led development of such "traverse-flux" systems at his Imperial College laboratory.[ Alternatively, propulsion coils on the guideway are used to exert a force on the magnets in the train and make the train move forward. The propulsion coils that exert a force on the train are effectively a linear motor: an alternating current through the coils generates a continuously varying magnetic field that moves forward along the track. The frequency of the alternating current is synchronized to match the speed of the train. The offset between the field exerted by magnets on the train and the applied field creates a force moving the train forward.
]
Tracks
The term "maglev" refers not only to the vehicles, but to the railway system as well, specifically designed for magnetic levitation and propulsion. All operational implementations of maglev technology make minimal use of wheeled train technology and are not compatible with conventional rail tracks. Because they cannot share existing infrastructure, maglev systems must be designed as standalone systems. The SPM maglev system is inter-operable with steel rail tracks and would permit maglev vehicles and conventional trains to operate on the same tracks.["Maglev: How they're Getting Trains off the Ground"](_blank)
''Popular Science'', December 1973 p. 135.
MAN
A man is an adult male human. Prior to adulthood, a male human is referred to as a boy (a male child or adolescent). Like most other male mammals, a man's genome usually inherits an X chromosome from the mother and a Y chromo ...
in Germany also designed a maglev system that worked with conventional rails, but it was never fully developed.
Evaluation
Each implementation of the magnetic levitation principle for train-type travel involves advantages and disadvantages.
Neither Inductrack
Inductrack is a passive, fail-safe electrodynamic magnetic levitation system, using only unpowered loops of wire in the track and perslide magnets (arranged into Halbach arrays) on the vehicle to achieve magnetic levitation. The track can be in on ...
nor the Superconducting EDS are able to levitate vehicles at a standstill, although Inductrack
Inductrack is a passive, fail-safe electrodynamic magnetic levitation system, using only unpowered loops of wire in the track and perslide magnets (arranged into Halbach arrays) on the vehicle to achieve magnetic levitation. The track can be in on ...
provides levitation at much lower speed; wheels are required for these systems. EMS systems are wheel-free.
The German Transrapid, Japanese HSST (Linimo), and Korean Rotem EMS maglevs levitate at a standstill, with electricity extracted from guideway using power rails for the latter two, and wirelessly for Transrapid. If guideway power is lost on the move, the Transrapid is still able to generate levitation down to speed, using the power from onboard batteries. This is not the case with the HSST and Rotem systems.
Propulsion
EMS systems such as HSST/ Linimo can provide both levitation and propulsion
Propulsion is the generation of force by any combination of pushing or pulling to modify the translational motion of an object, which is typically a rigid body (or an articulated rigid body) but may also concern a fluid. The term is derived from ...
using an onboard linear motor. But EDS systems and some EMS systems such as Transrapid levitate but do not propel. Such systems need some other technology for propulsion. A linear motor (propulsion coils) mounted in the track is one solution. Over long distances coil costs could be prohibitive.
Stability
Earnshaw's theorem shows that no combination of static magnets can be in a stable equilibrium. Therefore a dynamic (time varying) magnetic field is required to achieve stabilization. EMS systems rely on active electronic stabilization that constantly measures the bearing distance and adjusts the electromagnet current accordingly. EDS systems rely on changing magnetic fields to create currents, which can give passive stability.
Because maglev vehicles essentially fly, stabilisation of pitch, roll and yaw is required. In addition to rotation, surge (forward and backward motions), sway (sideways motion) or heave (up and down motions) can be problematic.
Superconducting magnets on a train above a track made out of a permanent magnet lock the train into its lateral position. It can move linearly along the track, but not off the track. This is due to the Meissner effect
The Meissner effect (or Meissner–Ochsenfeld effect) is the expulsion of a magnetic field from a superconductor during its transition to the superconducting state when it is cooled below the critical temperature. This expulsion will repel a n ...
and flux pinning
Flux pinning is a phenomenon that occurs when flux vortices in a type-II superconductor are prevented from moving within the bulk of the superconductor, so that the magnetic field lines are "pinned" to those locations. The superconductor must be a ...
.
Guidance system
Some systems use Null Current systems (also sometimes called Null Flux systems).[ These use a coil that is wound so that it enters two opposing, alternating fields, so that the average flux in the loop is zero. When the vehicle is in the straight ahead position, no current flows, but any moves off-line create flux that generates a field that naturally pushes/pulls it back into line.
]
Proposed technology enhancements
Evacuated tubes
Some systems (notably the Swissmetro system and the Hyperloop
A hyperloop is a proposed high-speed transportion system for both public and goods transport. The idea was picked up by Elon Musk to describe a modern project based on the vactrain concept (first appearance in 1799). Hyperloop systems compri ...
) propose the use of vactrains—maglev train technology used in evacuated (airless) tubes, which removes air drag
In fluid dynamics, drag (sometimes called air resistance, a type of friction, or fluid resistance, another type of friction or fluid friction) is a force acting opposite to the relative motion of any object moving with respect to a surrounding ...
. This has the potential to increase speed and efficiency greatly, as most of the energy for conventional maglev trains is lost to aerodynamic drag.
One potential risk for passengers of trains operating in evacuated tubes is that they could be exposed to the risk of cabin depressurization unless tunnel safety monitoring systems can repressurize the tube in the event of a train malfunction or accident though since trains are likely to operate at or near the Earth's surface, emergency restoration of ambient pressure should be straightforward. The RAND Corporation
The RAND Corporation (from the phrase "research and development") is an American nonprofit global policy think tank created in 1948 by Douglas Aircraft Company to offer research and analysis to the United States Armed Forces. It is financed ...
has depicted a vacuum tube train that could, in theory, cross the Atlantic or the USA in around 21 minutes.
Rail-maglev hybrid
The Polish startup Nevomo (previously ''Hyper Poland'') is developing a system for modifying existing railway tracks into a maglev system, on which conventional wheel-rail trains, as well maglev vehicles can travel. Vehicles on this so-called ‘magrail’ system will be able to reach speeds of up to 300 km/h at significantly lower infrastructure costs than stand-alone maglev lines. Similar to proposed Vactrain
A vactrain (or vacuum tube train) is a proposed design for very-high-speed rail transportation. It is a maglev (magnetic levitation) line using partly evacuated tubes or tunnels. Reduced air resistance could permit vactrains to travel at very hig ...
systems, magrail is designed to allow a later-stage upgrade with a vacuum cover which will enable vehicles to reach speeds of up to 600 km/h due to reduced air pressure, making the system similar to a hyperloop
A hyperloop is a proposed high-speed transportion system for both public and goods transport. The idea was picked up by Elon Musk to describe a modern project based on the vactrain concept (first appearance in 1799). Hyperloop systems compri ...
, but without the necessity for dedicated infrastructure corridors.
Energy use
Energy for maglev trains is used to accelerate the train. Energy may be regained when the train slows down via regenerative braking
Regenerative braking is an energy recovery mechanism that slows down a moving vehicle or object by converting its kinetic energy into a form that can be either used immediately or stored until needed. In this mechanism, the electric traction mo ...
. It also levitates and stabilises the train's movement. Most of the energy is needed to overcome air drag
In fluid dynamics, drag (sometimes called air resistance, a type of friction, or fluid resistance, another type of friction or fluid friction) is a force acting opposite to the relative motion of any object moving with respect to a surrounding ...
. Some energy is used for air conditioning, heating, lighting and other miscellany.
At low speeds the percentage of power used for levitation can be significant, consuming up to 15% more power than a subway or light rail service. For short distances the energy used for acceleration might be considerable.
The force used to overcome air drag increases with the square of the velocity and hence dominates at high speed. The energy needed per unit distance increases by the square of the velocity and the time decreases linearly. However power increases by the cube of the velocity. For example, 2.37 times as much power is needed to travel at than , while drag increases by 1.77 times the original force.
Aircraft
An aircraft is a vehicle that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil, or in a few cases the downward thrust from jet engines ...
take advantage of lower air pressure and lower temperatures by cruising at altitude to reduce energy consumption but unlike trains need to carry fuel on board. This has led to the suggestion of conveying maglev vehicles through partially evacuated tubes.
High-speed maglev comparison with conventional high speed trains
Maglev transport is non-contact and electric powered. It relies less or not at all on the wheels, bearings and axles common to wheeled rail systems.
* Speed: Maglev allows higher top speeds than conventional rail. While experimental wheel-based high-speed trains
High-speed rail (HSR) is a type of rail system that runs significantly faster than traditional rail, using an integrated system of specialised rolling stock and dedicated tracks. While there is no single standard that applies worldwide, lines ...
have demonstrated similar speeds, conventional trains will suffer from friction between wheels and track and thus elevating the maintenance cost if operating at such speed, unlike levitated maglev trains.
* Maintenance: Maglev trains currently in operation have demonstrated the need for minimal guideway maintenance. Vehicle maintenance is also minimal (based on hours of operation, rather than on speed or distance traveled). Traditional rail is subject to mechanical wear and tear that increases rapidly with speed, also increasing maintenance. For example: the wearing down of brakes and overhead wire wear have caused problems for the Fastech 360
Fastech 360 is the name given to a pair of former experimental high-speed EMU trainsets developed by East Japan Railway Company (JR East) to test technology for the next-generation Shinkansen rolling stock. The name is a portmanteau of Fast, Techn ...
rail Shinkansen. Maglev would eliminate these issues.
* Weather: In theory, maglev trains should be little affected by snow, ice, severe cold, rain or high winds. However, as of yet no maglev system has been installed in a location with such a harsh climate.
* Acceleration: Maglev vehicles accelerate and decelerate faster than mechanical systems regardless of the slickness of the guideway or the slope of the grade because they are non-contact systems.
* Track: Maglev trains are not compatible with conventional track, and therefore require custom infrastructure for their entire route. By contrast conventional high-speed trains such as the TGV
The TGV (french: Train à Grande Vitesse, "high-speed train"; previously french: TurboTrain à Grande Vitesse, label=none) is France's intercity high-speed rail service, operated by SNCF. SNCF worked on a high-speed rail network from 1966 to 19 ...
are able to run, albeit at reduced speeds, on existing rail infrastructure, thus reducing expenditure where new infrastructure would be particularly expensive (such as the final approaches to city terminals), or on extensions where traffic does not justify new infrastructure. John Harding, former chief maglev scientist at the Federal Railroad Administration
The Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) is an agency in the United States Department of Transportation (DOT). The agency was created by the Department of Transportation Act of 1966. The purpose of the FRA is to promulgate and enforce rail saf ...
, claimed that separate maglev infrastructure more than pays for itself with higher levels of all-weather operational availability and nominal maintenance costs. These claims have yet to be proven in an intense operational setting and they do not consider the increased maglev construction costs. However, in countries like China, there are discussion of building some key conventional high speed rail tunnels/bridges to a standard that would allow them upgrading to maglev.
* Efficiency: Conventional rail is probably more efficient at lower speeds. But due to the lack of physical contact between the track and the vehicle, maglev trains experience no rolling resistance
Rolling resistance, sometimes called rolling friction or rolling drag, is the force resisting the motion when a body (such as a ball, tire, or wheel) rolls on a surface. It is mainly caused by non-elastic effects; that is, not all the energy nee ...
, leaving only air resistance
In fluid dynamics, drag (sometimes called air resistance, a type of friction, or fluid resistance, another type of friction or fluid friction) is a force acting opposite to the relative motion of any object moving with respect to a surrounding flu ...
and electromagnetic drag, potentially improving power efficiency. Some systems, however, such as the Central Japan Railway Company SCMaglev
The SCMaglev (superconducting maglev, formerly called the MLU) is a magnetic levitation (maglev) railway system developed by Central Japan Railway Company (JR Central) and the Railway Technical Research Institute.
On 21 April 2015, a manned sev ...
use rubber tires at low speeds, reducing efficiency gains.
* Weight: The electromagnets in many EMS and EDS designs require between 1 and 2 kilowatts per ton. The use of superconductor magnets can reduce the electromagnets' energy consumption. A 50-ton Transrapid maglev vehicle can lift an additional 20 tons, for a total of 70 tons, which consumes . Most energy use for the TRI is for propulsion and overcoming air resistance at speeds over .
* Weight loading: High-speed rail requires more support and construction for its concentrated wheel loading. Maglev cars are lighter and distribute weight more evenly.
* Noise: Because the major source of noise of a maglev train comes from displaced air rather than from wheels touching rails, maglev trains produce less noise than a conventional train at equivalent speeds. However, the psychoacoustic
Psychoacoustics is the branch of psychophysics involving the scientific study of sound perception and audiology—how humans perceive various sounds. More specifically, it is the branch of science studying the psychological responses associated wit ...
profile of the maglev may reduce this benefit: a study concluded that maglev noise should be rated like road traffic, while conventional trains experience a 5–10 dB "bonus", as they are found less annoying at the same loudness level.
* Magnet reliability: Superconducting magnets are generally used to generate the powerful magnetic fields to levitate and propel the trains. These magnets must be kept below their critical temperatures (this ranges from 4.2 K to 77 K, depending on the material). New alloys and manufacturing techniques in superconductors and cooling systems have helped address this issue.
* Control systems: No signalling systems are needed for high-speed maglev, because such systems are computer controlled. Human operators cannot react fast enough to manage high-speed trains. High-speed systems require dedicated rights of way and are usually elevated. Two maglev system microwave towers are in constant contact with trains. There is no need for train whistles or horns, either.
* Terrain: Maglevs are able to ascend higher grades, offering more routing flexibility and reduced tunneling.
High-speed maglev comparison with aircraft
Differences between airplane and maglev travel:
* Efficiency: For maglev systems the lift-to-drag ratio
In aerodynamics, the lift-to-drag ratio (or L/D ratio) is the lift generated by an aerodynamic body such as an aerofoil or aircraft, divided by the aerodynamic drag caused by moving through air. It describes the aerodynamic efficiency under give ...
can exceed that of aircraft (for example Inductrack
Inductrack is a passive, fail-safe electrodynamic magnetic levitation system, using only unpowered loops of wire in the track and perslide magnets (arranged into Halbach arrays) on the vehicle to achieve magnetic levitation. The track can be in on ...
can approach 200:1 at high speed, far higher than any aircraft). This can make maglevs more efficient per kilometer. However, at high cruising speeds, aerodynamic drag is much larger than lift-induced drag. Jet-powered aircraft take advantage of low air density at high altitudes to significantly reduce air drag. Hence despite their lift-to-drag ratio disadvantage, they can travel more efficiently at high speeds than maglev trains that operate at sea level.
* Routing: Maglevs offer competitive journey times for distances of or less. Additionally, maglevs can easily serve intermediate destinations.
* Availability: Maglevs are little affected by weather.
* Travel time: Maglevs do not face the extended security protocols faced by air travelers nor is time consumed for taxiing, or for queuing for take-off and landing.
Economics
As more maglev systems are deployed, experts expect construction costs to drop by employing new construction methods and from economies of scale
In microeconomics, economies of scale are the cost advantages that enterprises obtain due to their scale of operation, and are typically measured by the amount of output produced per unit of time. A decrease in cost per unit of output enables ...
.
High speed systems
The Shanghai maglev demonstration line cost US$1.2 billion to build in 2004. This total includes capital costs such as right-of-way clearing, extensive pile driving, on-site guideway manufacturing, in-situ pier construction at intervals, a maintenance facility and vehicle yard, several switches, two stations, operations and control systems, power feed system, cables and inverters, and operational training. Ridership is not a primary focus of this demonstration line, since the Longyang Road station
Longyang Road () is an interchange station that serves both the Shanghai maglev train and lines 2, 7, 16 and 18 on the Shanghai Metro. It provides quick transfers between the metro system and the Maglev train to and from Pudong International ...
is on the eastern outskirts of Shanghai. Once the line is extended to South Shanghai Train station and Hongqiao Airport station, which may not happen because of economic reasons, ridership was expected to cover operation and maintenance costs and generate significant net revenue.
The South Shanghai extension was expected to cost approximately US$18 million per kilometre. In 2006, the German government invested $125 million in guideway cost reduction development that produced an all-concrete modular design that is faster to build and is 30% less costly. Other new construction techniques were also developed that put maglev at or below price parity with new high-speed rail construction.
The United States Federal Railroad Administration, in a 2005 report to Congress, estimated cost per mile of between US$50 million and US$100 million. The Maryland Transit Administration
The Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) is a state-operated mass transit administration in Maryland, and is part of the Maryland Department of Transportation. The MTA operates a comprehensive transit system throughout the Baltimore-Washingt ...
(MTA) Environmental Impact Statement estimated a pricetag at US$4.9 billion for construction, and $53 million a year for operations of its project.
The proposed Chuo Shinkansen maglev in Japan was estimated to cost approximately US$82 billion to build, with a route requiring long tunnels. A Tokaido maglev route replacing the current Shinkansen would cost 1/10 the cost, as no new tunnel would be needed, but noise pollution issues made this infeasible.
Low speed systems
The Japanese Linimo HSST, cost approximately US$100 million/km to build.
Nagoya builds Maglev Metro
'', International Railway Journal, May 2004. Besides offering improved operation and maintenance costs over other transit systems, these low-speed maglevs provide ultra-high levels of operational reliability and introduce little noise and generate zero air pollution into dense
Density (volumetric mass density or specific mass) is the substance's mass per unit of volume. The symbol most often used for density is ''ρ'' (the lower case Greek letter rho), although the Latin letter ''D'' can also be used. Mathematically ...
urban settings.
Records
The highest-recorded maglev speed is , achieved in Japan by JR Central's L0 superconducting maglev on 21 April 2015, faster than the conventional TGV
The TGV (french: Train à Grande Vitesse, "high-speed train"; previously french: TurboTrain à Grande Vitesse, label=none) is France's intercity high-speed rail service, operated by SNCF. SNCF worked on a high-speed rail network from 1966 to 19 ...
wheel-rail speed record. However, the operational and performance differences between these two very different technologies is far greater. The TGV record was achieved accelerating down a slight decline, requiring 13 minutes. It then took another for the TGV to stop, requiring a total distance of for the test. The MLX01 record, however, was achieved on the Yamanashi test track – 1/8 the distance. No maglev or wheel-rail commercial operation has actually been attempted at speeds over .
History of maglev speed records
Systems
Operational systems
High speed
= Shanghai Maglev (2003)
=
The Shanghai Maglev Train, also known as the Transrapid
Transrapid is a German-developed high-speed monorail train using magnetic levitation. Planning for the Transrapid system started in 1969 with a test facility for the system in Emsland, Germany completed in 1987. In 1991, technical readi ...
, has a top speed of . The line is the fastest, first commercially successful, operational Maglev train designed to connect Shanghai Pudong International Airport
Shanghai Pudong International Airport is one of two international airports serving Shanghai and a major aviation hub of East Asia. Pudong Airport serves both international flights and a smaller number of domestic fights, while the city's othe ...
and the outskirts of central Pudong
Pudong is a district of Shanghai located east of the Huangpu, the river which flows through central Shanghai. The name ''Pudong'' was originally applied to the Huangpu's east bank, directly across from the west bank or Puxi, the historic city ...
, Shanghai
Shanghai (; , , Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ) is one of the four direct-administered municipalities of the People's Republic of China (PRC). The city is located on the southern estuary of the Yangtze River, with the Huangpu River flow ...
. It covers a distance of in 7 or 8 minutes.
In January 2001, the Chinese signed an agreement with Transrapid
Transrapid is a German-developed high-speed monorail train using magnetic levitation. Planning for the Transrapid system started in 1969 with a test facility for the system in Emsland, Germany completed in 1987. In 1991, technical readi ...
to build an EMS high-speed maglev line to link Pudong International Airport with Longyang Road Metro station on the southeastern edge of Shanghai. This Shanghai Maglev Train demonstration line, or Initial Operating Segment (IOS), has been in commercial operations since April 2004 and now operates 115 daily trips (up from 110 in 2010) that traverse the between the two stations in 7 or 8 minutes, achieving a top speed of and averaging . On a 12 November 2003 system commissioning test run, it achieved , its designed top cruising speed. The Shanghai maglev is faster than Birmingham technology and comes with on-time—to the second—reliability greater than 99.97%.
Plans to extend the line to Shanghai South Railway Station and Hongqiao Airport
Shanghai Hongqiao International Airport is one of the two international airports of Shanghai and a significant airline hub of China. Hongqiao Airport mainly serves domestic and regional flights, although the airport also serves international fl ...
on the northwestern edge of Shanghai are on hold. After the Shanghai–Hangzhou Passenger Railway became operational in late 2010, the maglev extension became somewhat redundant and may be cancelled.
Low speed
= Linimo (Tobu Kyuryo Line, Japan) (2005)
=
The commercial automated
Automation describes a wide range of technologies that reduce human intervention in processes, namely by predetermining decision criteria, subprocess relationships, and related actions, as well as embodying those predeterminations in machines ...
"Urban Maglev" system commenced operation in March 2005 in Aichi
is a prefecture of Japan located in the Chūbu region of Honshū. Aichi Prefecture has a population of 7,552,873 () and a geographic area of with a population density of . Aichi Prefecture borders Mie Prefecture to the west, Gifu Prefectu ...
, Japan. The Tobu Kyuryo Line, otherwise known as the Linimo line, covers . It has a minimum operating radius of and a maximum gradient of 6%. The linear-motor magnetically levitated train has a top speed of . More than 10 million passengers used this "urban maglev" line in its first three months of operation. At 100 km/h, it is sufficiently fast for frequent stops, has little or no noise impact on surrounding communities, can navigate short radius rights of way, and operates during inclement weather. The trains were designed by the Chubu HSST Development Corporation, which also operates a test track in Nagoya.
= Daejeon Expo Maglev (2008)
=
The first maglev test trials using electromagnetic suspension opened to public was HML-03, made by Hyundai Heavy Industries for the Daejeon Expo in 1993, after five years of research and manufacturing two prototypes, HML-01 and HML-02. Government research on urban maglev using electromagnetic suspension began in 1994. The first operating urban maglev was UTM-02 in Daejeon beginning on 21 April 2008 after 14 years of development and one prototype; UTM-01. The train runs on a track between Expo Park and National Science Museum which has been shortened with the redevelopment of Expo Park. The track currently ends at the street parallel to the science museum. Meanwhile, UTM-02 conducted the world's first-ever maglev simulation. However, UTM-02 is still the second prototype of a final model. The final UTM model of Rotem's urban maglev, UTM-03, was used for a new line that opened in 2016 on Incheon's Yeongjong island connecting Incheon International Airport
Incheon International Airport (IIA; ) (sometimes referred to as Seoul–Incheon International Airport) is the largest airport in South Korea. It is the primary airport serving the Seoul Capital Area and one of the largest and busiest airports ...
(see below).
= Incheon Airport Maglev (2016)
=
The Incheon Airport Maglev
The Incheon Airport Maglev is a maglev line in South Korea opened on 3 February 2016. It is the world's second commercially operating unmanned urban maglev line after Japan's Linimo. The trains are lighter, cutting construction costs in half ...
began commercial operation on 3 February 2016. It was developed and built domestically. Compared to Linimo, it has a more futuristic design thanks to it being lighter with construction costs cut to half. It connects Incheon International Airport
Incheon International Airport (IIA; ) (sometimes referred to as Seoul–Incheon International Airport) is the largest airport in South Korea. It is the primary airport serving the Seoul Capital Area and one of the largest and busiest airports ...
with Yongyu Station, cutting journey time. It covers a distance of 6.1 km.
= Changsha Maglev (2016)
=
The Hunan
Hunan (, ; ) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the South Central China region. Located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze watershed, it borders the province-level divisions of Hubei to the north, Jiangxi to ...
provincial government launched the construction of a maglev line between Changsha Huanghua International Airport
Changsha Huanghua International Airport is the airport serving Changsha, the capital of Hunan province, China, and the Greater Changsha Metropolitan Region comprising the nearby cities of Zhuzhou and Xiangtan.
As of 2021, it was one of the ...
and Changsha South Railway Station
Changsha South railway station () is a metro station and a railway station
Rail transport (also known as train transport) is a means of transport that transfers passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, which are incorporat ...
, covering a distance of 18.55 km. Construction started in May 2014 and was completed by the end of 2015. Trial runs began on 26 December 2015 and trial operations started on 6 May 2016. As of 13 June 2018 the Changsha maglev had covered a distance of 1.7 million km and carried nearly 6 million passengers. A second generation of these vehicles has been produced which have a top speed of . In July 2021 the new model entered service operating at a top speed of , which reduced the travel time by 3 minutes.
= Beijing S1 Line (2017)
=
Beijing has built China's second low-speed maglev line, S1 Line, Beijing Subway, using technology developed by National University of Defense Technology
The National University of Defense Technology (NUDT; ) is a National university, national Public university, public research university in Changsha, Hunan, China. Founded in 1953 as the People's Liberation Army Military Academy of Engineering, ...
. The line was opened on 30 December 2017.
The line operates at speeds up to 100 km/h.
Fenghuang Maglev (2022)
Fenghuang Maglev (凤凰磁浮) is a medium- to low-speed maglev line in Fenghuang County
Fenghuang County (), named after the mythological birds ''Fenghuang'', is a county of Hunan Province, China, under the administration of Xiangxi Autonomous Prefecture.
Located on the western margin of the province and the southern Xiangxi, it i ...
, Xiangxi
Xiangxi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture (; Tujia: Xianxxix bifzivkar befkar zifzifzoux; Miao: Xangdxid tutjadcul maolcul zibzhibzhoud) is an autonomous prefecture of the People's Republic of China. It is located in northwestern Hunan provin ...
, Hunan
Hunan (, ; ) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the South Central China region. Located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze watershed, it borders the province-level divisions of Hubei to the north, Jiangxi to ...
province, China. The line operates at speeds up to 100 km/h. The first phase is 9.12 km with 4 stations (and 2 more future infill stations). The first phase opened on 30 July 2022 and connects the Fenghuang railway station on the Zhangjiajie–Jishou–Huaihua high-speed railway
The Zhangjiajie–Jishou–Huaihua high-speed railway is a high-speed railway in China. It is long and have a design speed of . The line runs parallel to the Jiaozuo–Liuzhou railway, but on a faster alignment. It was opened on 6 December 202 ...
with the Fenghuang Folklore Garden.
Maglevs under construction
Chūō Shinkansen (Japan)
The Chuo Shinkansen is a high-speed maglev line in Japan. Construction began in 2014, commercial operations was expected to start by 2027. The 2027 target was given up in July 2020. The Linear Chuo Shinkansen Project aims to connect Tokyo and Osaka
is a designated city in the Kansai region of Honshu in Japan. It is the capital of and most populous city in Osaka Prefecture, and the third most populous city in Japan, following Special wards of Tokyo and Yokohama. With a population of 2. ...
by way of Nagoya
is the largest city in the Chūbu region, the fourth-most populous city and third most populous urban area in Japan, with a population of 2.3million in 2020. Located on the Pacific coast in central Honshu, it is the capital and the most pop ...
, the capital city of Aichi
is a prefecture of Japan located in the Chūbu region of Honshū. Aichi Prefecture has a population of 7,552,873 () and a geographic area of with a population density of . Aichi Prefecture borders Mie Prefecture to the west, Gifu Prefectu ...
, in approximately one hour, less than half the travel time of the fastest existing bullet trains connecting the three metropolises. The full track between Tokyo and Osaka was originally expected to be completed in 2045, but the operator is now aiming for 2037.
The L0 Series
The is a high-speed maglev train that the Central Japan Railway Company (JR Central) is developing and testing. JR Central plans to use the L0 series on the Chūō Shinkansen railway line between Tokyo and Osaka, which is under construction ...
train type is undergoing testing by the Central Japan Railway Company (JR Central) for eventual use on the Chūō Shinkansen line. It set a crewed world speed record of on 21 April 2015. The trains are planned to run at a maximum speed of , offering journey times of 40 minutes between Tokyo (Shinagawa Station
is a major railway station in the Takanawa and Konan districts of Minato, Tokyo, Japan, operated by East Japan Railway Company (JR East), Central Japan Railway Company (JR Central), and the private railway operator Keikyu. The Tokaido Shinkan ...
) and , and 1 hour 7 minutes between Tokyo and Osaka (Shin-Ōsaka Station
is a railway station in Yodogawa-ku, Osaka, Japan. It is the western terminus of the high-speed Tōkaidō Shinkansen line from Tokyo, the eastern terminus of the San'yō Shinkansen and one of Osaka's main railway terminals to the north. The lines ...
).
Qingyuan Maglev (China)
Qingyuan Maglev (清远磁浮旅游专线) is a medium- to low-speed maglev line in Qingyuan
Qingyuan, formerly romanized as Tsingyun, is a prefecture-level city in northern Guangdong province, China, on the banks of the Bei or North River. During the 2020 census, its total population was 3,969,473, out of whom 1,738,424 lived in the ...
, Guangdong
Guangdong (, ), alternatively romanized as Canton or Kwangtung, is a coastal province in South China on the north shore of the South China Sea. The capital of the province is Guangzhou. With a population of 126.01 million (as of 2020) ...
province, China. The line will operate at speeds up to 100 km/h.[ The first phase is 8.1 km with 3 stations (and 1 more future infill station).] The first phase was originally schedule to open in October 2020 and will connect the Yinzhan railway station on the Guangzhou–Qingyuan intercity railway with the Qingyuan Chimelong
Chimelong Group Co., Ltd. () is a Chinese company that owns and operates theme parks in China. The company also owns restaurants, hotels, and other businesses. It is one of the leading Chinese amusement park operators. The company was founded in ...
Theme Park. In the long term the line will be 38.5 km.
Test tracks
AMT test track – Powder Springs, Georgia, USA
A second prototype system in Powder Springs, Georgia
Georgia most commonly refers to:
* Georgia (country), a country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia
* Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the Southeast United States
Georgia may also refer to:
Places
Historical states and entities
* Related to the ...
, USA, was built by American Maglev Technology, Inc. The test track is long with a curve. Vehicles are operated up to , below the proposed operational maximum of . A June 2013 review of the technology called for an extensive testing program to be carried out to ensure the system complies with various regulatory requirements including the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) People Mover Standard. The review noted that the test track is too short to assess the vehicles' dynamics at the maximum proposed speeds.
FTA's UMTD program, USA
In the US, the Federal Transit Administration
The Federal Transit Administration (FTA) is an agency within the United States Department of Transportation (DOT) that provides financial and technical assistance to local public transportation systems. The FTA is one of ten modal administration ...
(FTA) Urban Maglev Technology Demonstration program funded the design of several low-speed urban maglev demonstration projects. It assessed HSST for the Maryland Department of Transportation
The Maryland Department of Transportation (MDOT) is an organization comprising five business units and one Authority:
* Maryland Transportation Authority (Transportation Secretary serves as chairman of the Maryland Transportation Authority)
* ...
and maglev technology for the Colorado Department of Transportation. The FTA also funded work by General Atomics
General Atomics is an American energy and defense corporation headquartered in San Diego, California, specializing in research and technology development. This includes physics research in support of nuclear fission and nuclear fusion energy. The ...
at California University of Pennsylvania to evaluate the MagneMotion M3 and of the Maglev2000 of Florida superconducting EDS system. Other US urban maglev demonstration projects of note are the LEVX in Washington State and the Massachusetts-based Magplane.
San Diego, California USA
General Atomics
General Atomics is an American energy and defense corporation headquartered in San Diego, California, specializing in research and technology development. This includes physics research in support of nuclear fission and nuclear fusion energy. The ...
has a test facility in San Diego, that is used to test Union Pacific's freight shuttle in Los Angeles. The technology is "passive" (or "permanent"), using permanent magnets in a Halbach array
A Halbach array is a special arrangement of permanent magnets that augments the magnetic field on one side of the array while cancelling the field to near zero on the other side. This is achieved by having a spatially rotating pattern of magn ...
for lift and requiring no electromagnets for either levitation or propulsion. General Atomics received US$90 million in research funding from the federal government. They are also considering their technology for high-speed passenger services.
SCMaglev, Yamanashi Japan
Japan has a demonstration line in Yamanashi prefecture
is a prefecture of Japan located in the Chūbu region of Honshu. Yamanashi Prefecture has a population of 817,192 (1 January 2019) and has a geographic area of 4,465 km2 (1,724 sq mi). Yamanashi Prefecture borders Saitama Prefecture to the no ...
where test train SCMaglev L0 Series Shinkansen
The is a high-speed maglev train that the Central Japan Railway Company (JR Central) is developing and testing. JR Central plans to use the L0 series on the Chūō Shinkansen railway line between Tokyo and Osaka, which is under construction.
T ...
reached , faster than any wheeled trains. The demonstration line will become part of the Chūō Shinkansen
The is a Japanese maglev line under construction between Tokyo and Nagoya, with plans for extension to Osaka. Its initial section is between Shinagawa Station in Tokyo and Nagoya Station in Nagoya, with stations in Sagamihara, Kōfu, Iida ...
linking Tokyo and Nagoya which, is currently under construction.
These trains use superconducting magnet
A superconducting magnet is an electromagnet made from coils of superconducting wire. They must be cooled to cryogenic temperatures during operation. In its superconducting state the wire has no electrical resistance and therefore can conduct mu ...
s, which allow for a larger gap, and repulsive/ attractive-type electrodynamic suspension (EDS).[ In comparison, Transrapid uses conventional electromagnets and attractive-type electromagnetic suspension (EMS).]
On 15 November 2014, The Central Japan Railway Company ran eight days of testing for the experimental maglev Shinkansen train on its test track in Yamanashi Prefecture. One hundred passengers covered a route between the cities of Uenohara and Fuefuki, reaching speeds of up to .
Sengenthal, Germany and Chengdu, China
Transport System Bögl, a division of German construction company Max Bögl, has built a test track in Sengenthal
Sengenthal is a municipality in the district of Neumarkt in Bavaria in Germany. Local economy
Sengenthal is the headquarters of the construction company Max Bögl the developer of Transport System Bögl who also have a testing site in Sengenth ...
, Bavaria, Germany. In appearance, it's more like the German M-Bahn
The M-Bahn or Magnetbahn was an elevated Maglev train line operating in Berlin, Germany, experimentally from 1984 and in passenger operation from 1989 to 1991. The line was in length, and featured three stations, two of which were newly construc ...
than the Transrapid
Transrapid is a German-developed high-speed monorail train using magnetic levitation. Planning for the Transrapid system started in 1969 with a test facility for the system in Emsland, Germany completed in 1987. In 1991, technical readi ...
system.
The vehicle tested on the track is patented in the US by Max Bögl. The company is also in a joint venture with a Chinese firm. A demonstration line has been built near Chengdu
Chengdu (, ; Simplified Chinese characters, simplified Chinese: 成都; pinyin: ''Chéngdū''; Sichuanese dialects, Sichuanese pronunciation: , Standard Chinese pronunciation: ), Chinese postal romanization, alternatively Romanization of Chi ...
, China and two vehicles were airlifted there in June, 2000. In April 2021 a vehicle on the Chinese test track hit a top speed of .
Southwest Jiaotong University, China
On 31 December 2000, the first crewed high-temperature superconducting maglev was tested successfully at Southwest Jiaotong University
Southwest Jiaotong University () is located in national central city Chengdu, Sichuan Province, affiliated to the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China. It's a national key university co-supported by the Ministry of Education o ...
, Chengdu, China. This system is based on the principle that bulk high-temperature superconductors can be levitated stably above or below a permanent magnet. The load was over and the levitation gap over . The system uses liquid nitrogen
Liquid nitrogen—LN2—is nitrogen in a liquid state at low temperature. Liquid nitrogen has a boiling point of about . It is produced industrially by fractional distillation of liquid air. It is a colorless, low viscosity liquid that is wide ...
to cool the superconductor.
Jiading Campus of Tongji University, China
A maglev test track
Test Track is a high-speed slot car thrill ride located in World Discovery at Epcot, a theme park at the Walt Disney World Resort in Bay Lake, Florida. The ride is a simulated excursion through the rigorous testing procedures that General Mot ...
has been operating since 2006 at the Jiading Campus of Tongji University
Tongji University () is a comprehensive public research university located in Shanghai. Established in 1907 by the German government together with German physicians in Shanghai, Tongji is one of the longest-standing, most selective, and most pr ...
, northwest of Shanghai. The track uses the same design as the operating Shanghai Maglev. Top speed is restricted to due to the length of track and its topology.
Proposed maglev systems
Many maglev systems have been proposed in North America, Asia and Europe. Many are in the early planning stages or were explicitly rejected.
Australia
;Sydney-Illawarra
A maglev route was proposed between Sydney and Wollongong
Wollongong ( ), colloquially referred to as The Gong, is a city located in the Illawarra region of New South Wales, Australia. The name is believed to originate from the Dharawal language, meaning either 'five islands/clouds', 'ground near wate ...
. The proposal came to prominence in the mid-1990s. The Sydney–Wollongong commuter corridor is the largest in Australia, with upwards of 20,000 people commuting each day. Current trains use the Illawarra line
The South Coast Railway (also known as the Illawarra Railway) is a commuter and goods railway line from Sydney to Wollongong and Bomaderry in New South Wales, Australia. Beginning at the Illawarra Junction, the line services the Illawarra a ...
, between the cliff face of the Illawarra escarpment and the Pacific Ocean, with travel times about 2 hours. The proposal would cut travel times to 20 minutes.
;Melbourne
In late 2008, a proposal was put forward to the Government of Victoria
The Victoria State Government, also referred to as just the Victorian Government, is the state-level authority for Victoria (Australia), Victoria, Australia. Like all state governments, it is formed by three independent branches: the executive ...
to build a privately funded and operated maglev line to service the Greater Melbourne
Melbourne ( ; Boonwurrung/Woiwurrung: ''Narrm'' or ''Naarm'') is the capital and most populous city of the Australian state of Victoria, and the second-most populous city in both Australia and Oceania. Its name generally refers to a metrop ...
metropolitan area in response to the Eddington Transport Report that did not investigate above-ground transport options. The maglev would service a population of over 4 million and the proposal was costed at A$8 billion.
However, despite road congestion and Australia's highest roadspace per capita, the government dismissed the proposal in favour of road expansion including an A$8.5 billion road tunnel, $6 billion extension of the Eastlink to the Western Ring Road
The M80 Ring Road (also known as simply the Ring Road or by the name of its constituent parts: Western Ring Road and Metropolitan Ring Road) is a currently incomplete urban freeway ring road around Melbourne, Australia. This article will dea ...
and a $700 million Frankston Bypass.
Canada
Toronto Zoo: Edmonton-based Magnovate has proposed a new ride and transportation system at the Toronto Zoo
The Toronto Zoo is a zoo located in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Encompassing , the Toronto Zoo is the largest zoo in Canada. It is divided into seven zoogeographic regions: Indo-Malaya, Africa, Americas, Tundra Trek, Australasia, Eurasia, and the ...
reviving the Toronto Zoo Domain Ride
The Toronto Zoo Domain Ride (also known as the Canadian Domain Ride) was an automated guideway transit (AGT) service used to carry visitors between sections, or "domains", of the Toronto Zoo. Though technologically closer to a simple rubber-tired ...
system, which was closed following two severe accidents in 1994. The Zoo's board unanimously approved the proposal on 29 November 2018.
The company will construct and operate the $25 million system on the former route of the Domain Ride (known locally as the Monorail, despite not being considered one) at zero cost to the Zoo and operate it for 15 years, splitting the profits with the Zoo. The ride will serve a single-directional loop around Zoo grounds, serving five stations and likely replacing the current Zoomobile tour tram service. Planned to be operational by 2022 at the earliest, this will become the first commercially operating maglev system in North America should it be approved.
China
Beijing – Guangzhou line
A maglev test line linking Xianning
Xianning () is a prefecture-level city in southeastern Hubei province, People's Republic of China, bordering Jiangxi to the southeast and Hunan to the southwest. It is known as the "City of Osmanthus".
Geography and climate
Xianning is located i ...
in Hubei
Hubei (; ; alternately Hupeh) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, and is part of the Central China region. The name of the province means "north of the lake", referring to its position north of Dongting Lake. The prov ...
Province and Changsha
Changsha (; ; ; Changshanese pronunciation: (), Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ) is the capital and the largest city of Hunan Province of China. Changsha is the 17th most populous city in China with a population of over 10 million, an ...
in Hunan
Hunan (, ; ) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the South Central China region. Located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze watershed, it borders the province-level divisions of Hubei to the north, Jiangxi to ...
Province will start construction in 2020. The test line is about in length and might be part of Beijing – Guangzhou maglev in long-term planning. In 2021, the Guangdong government proposed a Maglev line between Hong Kong
Hong Kong ( (US) or (UK); , ), officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China ( abbr. Hong Kong SAR or HKSAR), is a city and special administrative region of China on the eastern Pearl River Delt ...
and Guangzhou
Guangzhou (, ; ; or ; ), also known as Canton () and alternatively romanized as Kwongchow or Kwangchow, is the capital and largest city of Guangdong province in southern China. Located on the Pearl River about north-northwest of Hong Kon ...
via Shenzhen
Shenzhen (; ; ; ), also historically known as Sham Chun, is a major sub-provincial city and one of the special economic zones of China. The city is located on the east bank of the Pearl River estuary on the central coast of southern province ...
and beyond to Beijing.
Other proposed lines
;Shanghai – Hangzhou
China planned to extend the existing Shanghai Maglev Train, initially by around to Shanghai Hongqiao Airport
Shanghai Hongqiao International Airport is one of the two international airports of Shanghai and a significant airline hub of China. Hongqiao Airport mainly serves domestic and regional flights, although the airport also serves international f ...
and then to the city of Hangzhou ( Shanghai-Hangzhou Maglev Train). If built, this would be the first inter-city maglev rail line in commercial service.
The project was controversial and repeatedly delayed. In May 2007 the project was suspended by officials, reportedly due to public concerns about radiation from the system. In January and February 2008 hundreds of residents demonstrated in downtown Shanghai that the line route came too close to their homes, citing concerns about sickness due to exposure to the strong magnetic field, noise, pollution and devaluation of property near to the lines. Final approval to build the line was granted on 18 August 2008. Originally scheduled to be ready by Expo 2010
Expo 2010, officially the Expo 2010 Shanghai China, was held on both banks of the Huangpu River in Shanghai, China, from 1 May to 31 October 2010. It was a major World Expo registered by the Bureau International des Expositions (BIE), in the t ...
, plans called for completion by 2014. The Shanghai municipal government considered multiple options, including building the line underground to allay public fears. This same report stated that the final decision had to be approved by the National Development and Reform Commission.
In 2007 the Shanghai municipal government was considering building a factory in Nanhui district to produce low-speed maglev trains for urban use.
;Shanghai – Beijing
A proposed line would have connected Shanghai to Beijing, over a distance of , at an estimated cost of £15.5 billion. No projects had been revealed as of 2014.
Germany
On 25 September 2007, Bavaria
Bavaria ( ; ), officially the Free State of Bavaria (german: Freistaat Bayern, link=no ), is a state in the south-east of Germany. With an area of , Bavaria is the largest German state by land area, comprising roughly a fifth of the total lan ...
announced a high-speed maglev-rail service from Munich
Munich ( ; german: München ; bar, Minga ) is the capital and most populous city of the States of Germany, German state of Bavaria. With a population of 1,558,395 inhabitants as of 31 July 2020, it is the List of cities in Germany by popu ...
to its airport
An airport is an aerodrome with extended facilities, mostly for commercial air transport. Airports usually consists of a landing area, which comprises an aerially accessible open space including at least one operationally active surface ...
. The Bavarian government signed contracts with Deutsche Bahn
The (; abbreviated as DB or DB AG) is the national railway company of Germany. Headquartered in the Bahntower in Berlin, it is a joint-stock company ( AG). The Federal Republic of Germany is its single shareholder.
describes itself as the se ...
and Transrapid with Siemens
Siemens AG ( ) is a German multinational conglomerate corporation and the largest industrial manufacturing company in Europe headquartered in Munich with branch offices abroad.
The principal divisions of the corporation are ''Industry'', '' ...
and ThyssenKrupp
ThyssenKrupp AG (, ; stylized as thyssenkrupp) is a German industrial engineering and steel production multinational corporation, multinational Conglomerate (company), conglomerate. It is the result of the 1999 merger of Thyssen AG and Krupp and h ...
for the €1.85 billion project.
On 27 March 2008, the German Transport minister announced the project had been cancelled due to rising costs associated with constructing the track. A new estimate put the project between €3.2–3.4 billion.
Hong Kong
In March 2021 a government official said Hong Kong would be included in a planned maglev network across China, planned to operate at and begin opening by 2030.
Hong Kong is already connected to the Chinese high speed rail network by the Guangzhou–Shenzhen–Hong Kong Express Rail Link
Guangzhou–Shenzhen–Hong Kong Express Rail Link (XRL), also known as “Guangshengang XRL” (officially Beijing–Guangzhou–Shenzhen–Hong Kong high-speed railway, Guangzhou–Shenzhen–Hong Kong section), is a high-speed railway line tha ...
, which opened on Sunday 23 September 2018.
India
Mumbai – Delhi: A project was presented to then Indian railway minister (Mamata Banerjee
Mamata Banerjee (; born 5 January 1955) is an Indian politician who is serving as the eighth and current List of chief ministers of West Bengal, chief minister of the States and union territories of India, Indian state of West Bengal since 20 ...
) by an American company to connect Mumbai
Mumbai (, ; also known as Bombay — the official name until 1995) is the capital city of the Indian state of Maharashtra and the ''de facto'' financial centre of India. According to the United Nations, as of 2018, Mumbai is the second- ...
and Delhi
Delhi, officially the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, is a city and a union territory of India containing New Delhi, the capital of India. Straddling the Yamuna river, primarily its western or right bank, Delhi shares borders w ...
. Then Prime Minister Manmohan Singh
Manmohan Singh (; born 26 September 1932) is an Indian politician, economist and statesman who served as the 13th prime minister of India from 2004 to 2014. He is also the third longest-serving prime minister after Jawaharlal Nehru and Indir ...
said that if the line project was successful the Indian government would build lines between other cities and also between Mumbai Central and Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport.
Mumbai – Nagpur: The State of Maharashtra approved a feasibility study for a maglev train between Mumbai and Nagpur, some apart.
Chennai – Bangalore – Mysore: A detailed report was to be prepared and submitted by December 2012 for a line to connect Chennai
Chennai (, ), formerly known as Madras ( the official name until 1996), is the capital city of Tamil Nadu, the southernmost Indian state. The largest city of the state in area and population, Chennai is located on the Coromandel Coast of th ...
to Mysore
Mysore (), officially Mysuru (), is a city in the southern part of the state of Karnataka, India. Mysore city is geographically located between 12° 18′ 26″ north latitude and 76° 38′ 59″ east longitude. It is located at an altitude of ...
via Bangalore
Bangalore (), officially Bengaluru (), is the capital and largest city of the Indian state of Karnataka. It has a population of more than and a metropolitan population of around , making it the third most populous city and fifth most ...
at a cost $26 million per kilometre, reaching speeds of 350 km/h.
Iran
In May 2009, Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
and a German company signed an agreement to use maglev to link Tehran
Tehran (; fa, تهران ) is the largest city in Tehran Province and the capital of Iran. With a population of around 9 million in the city and around 16 million in the larger metropolitan area of Greater Tehran, Tehran is the most popul ...
and Mashhad
Mashhad ( fa, مشهد, Mašhad ), also spelled Mashad, is the List of Iranian cities by population, second-most-populous city in Iran, located in the relatively remote north-east of the country about from Tehran. It serves as the capital of R ...
. The agreement was signed at the Mashhad International Fair site between Iranian Ministry of Roads and Transportation and the German company. The line possibly could reduce travel time between Tehran and Mashhad to about 2.5 hours. Munich-based Schlegel Consulting Engineers said they had signed the contract with the Iranian ministry of transport and the governor of Mashad. "We have been mandated to lead a German consortium in this project," a spokesman said. "We are in a preparatory phase." The project could be worth between €10 billion and €12 billion, the Schlegel spokesman said.
Italy
A first proposal was formalized in April 2008, in Brescia
Brescia (, locally ; lmo, link=no, label= Lombard, Brèsa ; lat, Brixia; vec, Bressa) is a city and ''comune'' in the region of Lombardy, Northern Italy. It is situated at the foot of the Alps, a few kilometers from the lakes Garda and Iseo. ...
, by journalist Andrew Spannaus who recommended a high-speed connection between Malpensa airport to the cities of Milan, Bergamo and Brescia.
In March 2011, Nicola Oliva proposed a maglev connection between Pisa
Pisa ( , or ) is a city and ''comune'' in Tuscany, central Italy, straddling the Arno just before it empties into the Ligurian Sea. It is the capital city of the Province of Pisa. Although Pisa is known worldwide for its leaning tower, the cit ...
airport and the cities of Prato and Florence
Florence ( ; it, Firenze ) is a city in Central Italy and the capital city of the Tuscany region. It is the most populated city in Tuscany, with 383,083 inhabitants in 2016, and over 1,520,000 in its metropolitan area.Bilancio demografico an ...
(Santa Maria Novella train station and Florence Airport). The travelling time would be reduced from the typical 1 hour 15 minutes to around 20 minutes. The second part of the line would be a connection to Livorno
Livorno () is a port city on the Ligurian Sea on the western coast of Tuscany, Italy. It is the capital of the Province of Livorno, having a population of 158,493 residents in December 2017. It is traditionally known in English as Leghorn (pronou ...
, to integrate maritime, aerial and terrestrial transport systems.
Malaysia/Singapore
A Consortium led by UEM Group Bhd and ARA Group, proposed maglev technology to link Malaysian cities to Singapore. The idea was first mooted by YTL Group. Its technology partner then was said to be Siemens. High costs sank the proposal. The concept of a high-speed rail link from Kuala Lumpur to Singapore resurfaced. It was cited as a proposed "high impact" project in the Economic Transformation Programme (ETP) that was unveiled in 2010. Approval has been given for the Kuala Lumpur–Singapore high-speed rail
The Kuala Lumpur–Singapore high-speed rail (HSR) was a proposed railway project to link Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia to Singapore via a high-speed rail line. It was first proposed by then Malaysian prime minister Najib Razak in September 2010. Sing ...
project, but not using maglev technology.
Philippines
Philtram Consortium's Cebu Monorail project will be initially built as a monorail
A monorail (from "mono", meaning "one", and "rail") is a railway in which the track consists of a single rail or a beam.
Colloquially, the term "monorail" is often used to describe any form of elevated rail or people mover. More accurately, ...
system. In the future, it will be upgraded to a patented maglev technology named Spin-Induced Lenz's Law Magnetic Levitation Train.
Switzerland
SwissRapide: The SwissRapide AG together with the SwissRapide Consortium was planning and developing the first maglev monorail system for intercity traffic between the country's major cities. SwissRapide was to be financed by private investors. In the long-term, the SwissRapide Express was to connect the major cities north of the Alps between Geneva
Geneva ( ; french: Genève ) frp, Genèva ; german: link=no, Genf ; it, Ginevra ; rm, Genevra is the List of cities in Switzerland, second-most populous city in Switzerland (after Zürich) and the most populous city of Romandy, the French-speaki ...
and St. Gallen
, neighboring_municipalities = Eggersriet, Gaiserwald, Gossau, Herisau (AR), Mörschwil, Speicher (AR), Stein (AR), Teufen (AR), Untereggen, Wittenbach
, twintowns = Liberec (Czech Republic)
, website ...
, including Lucerne
Lucerne ( , ; High Alemannic German, High Alemannic: ''Lozärn'') or Luzern ()Other languages: gsw, Lozärn, label=Lucerne German; it, Lucerna ; rm, Lucerna . is a city in central Switzerland, in the Languages of Switzerland, German-speaking po ...
and Basel
, french: link=no, Bâlois(e), it, Basilese
, neighboring_municipalities= Allschwil (BL), Hégenheim (FR-68), Binningen (BL), Birsfelden (BL), Bottmingen (BL), Huningue (FR-68), Münchenstein (BL), Muttenz (BL), Reinach (BL), Riehen (BS ...
. The first projects were Bern
german: Berner(in)french: Bernois(e) it, bernese
, neighboring_municipalities = Bremgarten bei Bern, Frauenkappelen, Ittigen, Kirchlindach, Köniz, Mühleberg, Muri bei Bern, Neuenegg, Ostermundigen, Wohlen bei Bern, Zollikofen
, website ...
– Zurich, Lausanne
, neighboring_municipalities= Bottens, Bretigny-sur-Morrens, Chavannes-près-Renens, Cheseaux-sur-Lausanne, Crissier, Cugy, Écublens, Épalinges, Évian-les-Bains (FR-74), Froideville, Jouxtens-Mézery, Le Mont-sur-Lausanne, Lugrin (FR-74), ...
– Geneva as well as Zurich – Winterthur
, neighboring_municipalities = Brütten, Dinhard, Elsau, Hettlingen, Illnau-Effretikon, Kyburg, Lindau, Neftenbach, Oberembrach, Pfungen, Rickenbach, Schlatt, Seuzach, Wiesendangen, Zell
, twintowns = Hall in Tirol (Austria), La ...
. The first line (Lausanne – Geneva or Zurich – Winterthur) could go into service as early as 2020.
Swissmetro: An earlier project, Swissmetro AG envisioned a partially evacuated underground maglev (a vactrain
A vactrain (or vacuum tube train) is a proposed design for very-high-speed rail transportation. It is a maglev (magnetic levitation) line using partly evacuated tubes or tunnels. Reduced air resistance could permit vactrains to travel at very hig ...
). As with SwissRapide, Swissmetro envisioned connecting the major cities in Switzerland with one another. In 2011, Swissmetro AG was dissolved and the IPRs from the organisation were passed onto the EPFL in Lausanne.
United Kingdom
London – Glasgow: A line was proposed in the United Kingdom from London to Glasgow
Glasgow ( ; sco, Glesca or ; gd, Glaschu ) is the most populous city in Scotland and the fourth-most populous city in the United Kingdom, as well as being the 27th largest city by population in Europe. In 2020, it had an estimated popul ...
with several route options through the Midlands, Northwest and Northeast of England. It was reported to be under favourable consideration by the government. The approach was rejected in the Government White Paper
A white paper is a report or guide that informs readers concisely about a complex issue and presents the issuing body's philosophy on the matter. It is meant to help readers understand an issue, solve a problem, or make a decision. A white paper ...
''Delivering a Sustainable Railway'' published on 24 July 2007. Another high-speed link was planned between Glasgow and Edinburgh but the technology remained unsettled.
United States
Washington, D.C. to New York City: Using Superconducting Maglev (SCMAGLEV) technology developed by the Central Japan Railway Company, the Northeast Maglev
Northeast Maglev or The Northeast Maglev, LLC, is a private U.S. company proposing a Superconducting Maglev (SCMAGLEV) train system in the Northeastern United States. Using technology developed by the Central Japan Railway Company, the Northea ...
would ultimately connect major Northeast metropolitan hubs and airports traveling more than , with a goal of one-hour service between Washington, D.C.
)
, image_skyline =
, image_caption = Clockwise from top left: the Washington Monument and Lincoln Memorial on the National Mall, United States Capitol, Logan Circle, Jefferson Memorial, White House, Adams Morgan, ...
and New York City
New York, often called New York City or NYC, is the List of United States cities by population, most populous city in the United States. With a 2020 population of 8,804,190 distributed over , New York City is also the L ...
. The Federal Railroad Administration
The Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) is an agency in the United States Department of Transportation (DOT). The agency was created by the Department of Transportation Act of 1966. The purpose of the FRA is to promulgate and enforce rail saf ...
and Maryland Department of Transportation
The Maryland Department of Transportation (MDOT) is an organization comprising five business units and one Authority:
* Maryland Transportation Authority (Transportation Secretary serves as chairman of the Maryland Transportation Authority)
* ...
are currently preparing an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) to evaluate the potential impacts of constructing and operating the system's first leg between Washington, DC and Baltimore, Maryland
Baltimore ( , locally: or ) is the List of municipalities in Maryland, most populous city in the U.S. state of Maryland, fourth most populous city in the Mid-Atlantic (United States), Mid-Atlantic, and List of United States cities by popula ...
with an intermediate stop at BWI Airport
Baltimore/Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport , commonly referred to as BWI or BWI Marshall, is an international airport in the Eastern United States serving mainly Baltimore, Maryland and Washington, D.C. With Dulles Internat ...
.
Union Pacific freight conveyor: Plans are under way by American railroad operator Union Pacific
The Union Pacific Railroad , legally Union Pacific Railroad Company and often called simply Union Pacific, is a freight-hauling railroad that operates 8,300 locomotives over routes in 23 U.S. states west of Chicago and New Orleans. Union Paci ...
to build a container shuttle between the Ports of Los Angeles
Los Angeles ( ; es, Los Ángeles, link=no , ), often referred to by its initials L.A., is the largest city in the state of California and the second most populous city in the United States after New York City, as well as one of the world' ...
and Long Beach
Long Beach is a city in Los Angeles County, California. It is the 42nd-most populous city in the United States, with a population of 466,742 as of 2020. A charter city, Long Beach is the seventh-most populous city in California.
Incorporate ...
, with UP's intermodal container
An intermodal container, often called a shipping container, is a large standardized shipping container, designed and built for intermodal freight transport, meaning these containers can be used across different Mode of transport, modes of trans ...
transfer facility. The system would be based on "passive" technology, especially well-suited to freight transfer as no power is needed on board. The vehicle is a chassis
A chassis (, ; plural ''chassis'' from French châssis ) is the load-bearing framework of an artificial object, which structurally supports the object in its construction and function. An example of a chassis is a vehicle frame, the underpart ...
that glides to its destination. The system is being designed by General Atomics
General Atomics is an American energy and defense corporation headquartered in San Diego, California, specializing in research and technology development. This includes physics research in support of nuclear fission and nuclear fusion energy. The ...
.
California-Nevada Interstate Maglev: High-speed maglev lines between major cities of southern California and Las Vegas
Las Vegas (; Spanish for "The Meadows"), often known simply as Vegas, is the 25th-most populous city in the United States, the most populous city in the state of Nevada, and the county seat of Clark County. The city anchors the Las Vegas ...
are under study via the California-Nevada Interstate Maglev Project. This plan was originally proposed as part of an I-5
Interstate 5 (I-5) is the main north–south Interstate Highway on the West Coast of the United States, running largely parallel to the Pacific coast of the contiguous U.S. from Mexico to Canada. It travels through the states of Californi ...
or I-15 expansion plan, but the federal government ruled that it must be separated from interstate public work projects.
After the decision, private groups from Nevada proposed a line running from Las Vegas to Los Angeles with stops in Primm, Nevada
Primm (formerly known as State Line) is an unincorporated community in Clark County, Nevada, United States, primarily notable for its position straddling Interstate 15 where it crosses the state border between California and Nevada. It sits on ...
; Baker, California
Baker is a census-designated place located in San Bernardino County, California, US. As of the 2010 census, the CDP had a total population of 735. Baker's ZIP Code is 92309 and the community is within area codes 442 and 760.
History
Baker w ...
; and other points throughout San Bernardino County
San Bernardino County (), officially the County of San Bernardino, is a county located in the southern portion of the U.S. state of California, and is located within the Inland Empire area. As of the 2020 U.S. Census, the population was 2,181, ...
into Los Angeles. Politicians expressed concern that a high-speed rail line out of state would carry spending out of state along with travelers.
The Pennsylvania Project: The Pennsylvania High-Speed Maglev Project corridor extends from the Pittsburgh International Airport
Pittsburgh International Airport , formerly Greater Pittsburgh International Airport, is a civil–military international airport in Findlay Township and Moon Township, Pennsylvania. Located about 10 miles (15 km) west of downtown Pittsbur ...
to Greensburg, with intermediate stops in Downtown Pittsburgh
Downtown Pittsburgh, colloquially referred to as the Golden Triangle, and officially the Central Business District, is the urban downtown center of Pittsburgh. It is located at the confluence of the Allegheny River and the Monongahela River whose ...
and Monroeville. This initial project was claimed to serve approximately 2.4 million people in the Pittsburgh metropolitan area
Greater Pittsburgh is a populous region centered around its largest city and economic hub, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The region encompasses Pittsburgh's urban core county, Allegheny, and six adjacent Pennsylvania counties: Armstrong, Beaver, ...
. The Baltimore proposal competed with the Pittsburgh proposal for a US$90 million federal grant.
San Diego-Imperial County airport: In 2006, San Diego commissioned a study for a maglev line to a proposed airport located in Imperial County
Imperial Count (german: Reichsgraf) was a title in the Holy Roman Empire. In the medieval era, it was used exclusively to designate the holder of an imperial county, that is, a fief held directly ( immediately) from the emperor, rather than from ...
. SANDAG
The San Diego Association of Governments (abbreviated SANDAG) is an association of local San Diego County governments. It is the metropolitan planning organization for the County, with policy makers consisting of mayors, councilmembers, and County ...
claimed that the concept would be an "airports icwithout terminals", allowing passengers to check in at a terminal in San Diego ("satellite terminals"), take the train to the airport and directly board the airplane. In addition, the train would have the potential to carry freight. Further studies were requested although no funding was agreed.
Orlando International Airport to Orange County Convention Center: In December 2012, the Florida Department of Transportation gave conditional approval to a proposal by American Maglev to build a privately run , 5-station line from Orlando International Airport
Orlando International Airport is a major public airport located 6 miles (10 km) southeast of Downtown Orlando, Florida. In 2021, it handled 19,618,838 passengers, making it the busiest airport in the state and seventh busiest airport i ...
to Orange County Convention Center
The Orange County Convention Center is a convention center located in Orlando, Florida. Opened in 1983 as the Orange County Convention and Civic Center, it is the primary public convention center for the Central Florida region and the second-lar ...
. The Department requested a technical assessment and said there would be a request for proposals issued to reveal any competing plans. The route requires the use of a public right of way. If the first phase succeeded American Maglev would propose two further phases (of ) to carry the line to Walt Disney World
The Walt Disney World Resort, also called Walt Disney World or Disney World, is an entertainment resort complex in Bay Lake and Lake Buena Vista, Florida, United States, near the cities of Orlando and Kissimmee. Opened on October 1, 1971, th ...
.
San Juan – Caguas: A maglev project was proposed linking Tren Urbano
The ''Tren Urbano'' (English: Urban Train) is a fully-automated rapid transit system that serves the municipalities of San Juan, Guaynabo, and Bayamón, in Puerto Rico. The Tren Urbano consists of 16 stations operating on of track along a ...
's Cupey Station in San Juan with two proposed stations in the city of Caguas, south of San Juan. The maglev line would run along Highway PR-52
Puerto Rico Highway 52 (PR-52), a major toll road in Puerto Rico, is also known as ''Autopista Luis A. Ferré''. It was formerly called ''Expreso Las Américas''. It runs from PR-1 in southwest Río Piedras and heads south until it intersects wit ...
, connecting both cities. According to American Maglev project cost would be approximately US$380 million.
Incidents
Two incidents involved fires. A Japanese test train in Miyazaki, MLU002, was completely consumed by a fire in 1991.
On 11 August 2006, a fire broke out on the commercial Shanghai Transrapid shortly after arriving at the Longyang terminal. People were evacuated without incident before the vehicle was moved about 1 kilometre to keep smoke from filling the station. NAMTI officials toured the SMT maintenance facility in November 2010 and learned that the cause of the fire was "thermal runaway
Thermal runaway describes a process that is accelerated by increased temperature, in turn releasing energy that further increases temperature. Thermal runaway occurs in situations where an increase in temperature changes the conditions in a way t ...
" in a battery tray. As a result, SMT secured a new battery vendor, installed new temperature sensors and insulators and redesigned the trays.
On 22 September 2006, a Transrapid train collided with a maintenance vehicle on a test/publicity run in Lathen (Lower Saxony / north-western Germany). Twenty-three people were killed and ten were injured; these were the first maglev crash fatalities. The accident was caused by human error. Charges were brought against three Transrapid employees after a year-long investigation.
Safety
Safety is the state of being "safe", the condition of being protected from harm or other danger. Safety can also refer to risk management, the control of recognized hazards in order to achieve an acceptable level of risk.
Meanings
There are ...
becomes an ever greater concern with high-speed public transport due to the potentially large impact force and number of casualties. In the case of maglev trains and conventional high-speed rails, an incident could result from human error, including loss of power, or factors outside human control, such as ground movement, for example, caused by an earthquake.
See also
* Bombardier Advanced Rapid Transit
Innovia Metro is an automated rapid transit system manufactured by Alstom. Innovia Metro systems run on conventional metal rails and pull power from a third rail, but are powered by a linear induction motor that provides traction by pulling on ...
– Transit systems using Linear induction motor
A linear induction motor (LIM) is an alternating current (AC), asynchronous linear motor that works by the same general principles as other induction motors but is typically designed to directly produce motion in a straight line. Characteristic ...
s
* Electromagnetic suspension
Electromagnetic suspension (EMS) is the magnetic levitation of an object achieved by constantly altering the strength of a magnetic field produced by electromagnets using a feedback loop. In most cases the levitation effect is mostly due to perman ...
* Ground effect train
A ground effect train is a conceptualized alternative to a magnetic levitation (maglev) train. In both cases the objective is to prevent the vehicle from making contact with the ground. Whereas a maglev train accomplishes this through the use of ...
* Hyperloop
A hyperloop is a proposed high-speed transportion system for both public and goods transport. The idea was picked up by Elon Musk to describe a modern project based on the vactrain concept (first appearance in 1799). Hyperloop systems compri ...
* Land speed record for rail vehicles
The world record for a conventional wheeled passenger train is held by France's TGV (''Train à Grande Vitesse''), set in 2007 when it reached on a section of track.
Japan's experimental maglev train L0 Series achieved on a 42.8 km ma ...
* Launch loop
A launch loop, or Lofstrom loop, is a proposed system for launching objects into orbit using a moving cable-like system situated inside a sheath attached to the Earth at two ends and suspended above the atmosphere in the middle. The design conce ...
would be a maglev system for launching to orbit or escape velocity
* Mass driver
A mass driver or electromagnetic catapult is a proposed method of non-rocket spacelaunch which would use a linear motor to Acceleration, accelerate and catapult Payload (air and space craft), payloads up to high speeds. Existing and contemplated ...
* Nagahori Tsurumi-ryokuchi Line
* Oleg Tozoni worked on a published non-linearly stabilised maglev design
* StarTram
StarTram is a proposed space launch system propelled by maglev. The initial Generation 1 facility would launch cargo only, launching from a mountain peak at an altitude of with an evacuated tube staying at local surface level; it has been clai ...
– a maglev launch system
* Transfer table
A transfer table or traverser is a piece of railway equipment. It functions similarly to a turntable, although it cannot be used to turn vehicles around.
Overview
A transfer table, also known as a traverser, consists of a single length of track th ...
Notes
References
Further reading
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External links
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United States Federal Railroad Administration
US MagneticGlide
The International Maglev Board
Maglev professionals' info platform for all maglev transport systems and related technologies.
Maglev Net – Maglev News and Information
*
{{Authority control
Electrodynamics
Emerging technologies
Experimental and prototype high-speed trains
Magnetic propulsion devices