Jain philosophy refers to the ancient Indian philosophical system found in

Jainism Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religions, Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current ...

. One of the main features of Jain

philosophy Philosophy (from , ) is the systematized study of general and fundamental questions, such as those about existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language. Such questions are often posed as problems to be studied or resolved. Some ...

is its dualistic metaphysics, which holds that there are two distinct categories of

existence Existence is the ability of an entity to interact with reality. In philosophy, it refers to the ontology, ontological Property (philosophy), property of being. Etymology The term ''existence'' comes from Old French ''existence'', from Medieval ...

, the living, conscious or sentient being (''jiva'') and the non-living or

material Material is a substance or mixture of substances that constitutes an object. Materials can be pure or impure, living or non-living matter. Materials can be classified on the basis of their physical and chemical properties, or on their geologi ...

(''ajiva''). Jain texts discuss numerous philosophical topics such as

epistemology Epistemology (; ), or the theory of knowledge, is the branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge. Epistemology is considered a major subfield of philosophy, along with other major subfields such as ethics, logic, and metaphysics. Episte ...

metaphysics Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that studies the fundamental nature of reality, the first principles of being, identity and change, space and time, causality, necessity, and possibility. It includes questions about the nature of conscio ...

ethics Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that "involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior".''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' The field of ethics, along with aesthetics, concerns m ...

cosmology Cosmology () is a branch of physics and metaphysics dealing with the nature of the universe. The term ''cosmology'' was first used in English in 1656 in Thomas Blount (lexicographer), Thomas Blount's ''Glossographia'', and in 1731 taken up in ...

and

soteriology Soteriology (; el, σωτηρία ' "salvation" from σωτήρ ' "savior, preserver" and λόγος ' "study" or "word") is the study of religious doctrines of salvation. Salvation theory occupies a place of special significance in many religio ...

. Jain thought is primarily concerned with understanding the nature of living beings, how these beings are bound by

karma Karma (; sa, कर्म}, ; pi, kamma, italic=yes) in Sanskrit means an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptivel ...

(which are seen as fine material particles) and how living beings may be liberated (''

moksha ''Moksha'' (; sa, मोक्ष, '), also called ''vimoksha'', ''vimukti'' and ''mukti'', is a term in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, enlightenment, liberation, and release. In its soteriology, ...

'') from the cycle of

reincarnation Reincarnation, also known as rebirth or transmigration, is the philosophical or religious concept that the non-physical essence of a living being begins a new life in a different physical form or body after biological death. Resurrection is a ...

. Also notable is the Jain belief in a beginning-less and cyclical universe and a rejection of a

Creator deity A creator deity or creator god (often called the Creator) is a deity responsible for the creation of the Earth, world, and universe in human religion and mythology. In monotheism, the single God is often also the creator. A number of monolatris ...

. From the Jain point of view, Jain philosophy is eternal and has been taught numerous times in the remote past by the great enlightened

tirthankara In Jainism, a ''Tirthankara'' (Sanskrit: '; English: literally a 'ford-maker') is a saviour and spiritual teacher of the ''dharma'' (righteous path). The word ''tirthankara'' signifies the founder of a '' tirtha'', which is a fordable passag ...

s ("ford-makers"). Historians trace the developments of Jain thought to a few key figures in

ancient India According to consensus in modern genetics, anatomically modern humans first arrived on the Indian subcontinent from Africa between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago. Quote: "Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonization of South Asia by m ...

, mainly

Mahavira Mahavira (Sanskrit: महावीर) also known as Vardhaman, was the 24th ''tirthankara'' (supreme preacher) of Jainism. He was the spiritual successor of the 23rd ''tirthankara'' Parshvanatha. Mahavira was born in the early part of the 6t ...

(c. 5th century BCE, a contemporary of the

Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a śramaṇa, wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was ...

) and possibly

Parshvanatha ''Parshvanatha'' (), also known as ''Parshva'' () and ''Parasnath'', was the 23rd of 24 ''Tirthankaras'' (supreme preacher of dharma) of Jainism. He is the only Tirthankara who gained the title of ''Kalīkālkalpataru (Kalpavriksha in this "Kal ...

(c. 8th or 7th century BCE, though this is disputed). According to

Paul Dundas Paul Dundas (born 1952) is a scholar and a senior lecturer in Sanskrit language and head of Asian Studies in the University of Edinburgh. His main areas of academic and research interest include Jainism, Buddhism, classical Sanskrit literature ...

, Jain philosophy has remained relatively stable throughout its long history and no major radical doctrinal shift has taken place. This is mainly because of the influence of Umaswati's ''

Tattvārthasūtra ''Tattvārthasūtra'', meaning "On the Nature '' ''artha">nowiki/>''artha''.html" ;"title="artha.html" ;"title="nowiki/>''artha">nowiki/>''artha''">artha.html" ;"title="nowiki/>''artha">nowiki/>''artha''of Reality 'tattva'' (also known as ...

,'' which has remained the central authoritative philosophical text among all Jains.

Knowledge

According to Ācārya

Pujyapada Acharya Pujyapada or Pūjyapāda (464–524 CE) was a renowned grammarian and ''acharya'' (philosopher monk) belonging to the Digambara tradition of Jains. It was believed that he was worshiped by demigods on the account of his vast scholarship ...

's ''

Sarvārthasiddhi ''Sarvārthasiddhi'' is a famous Jain text authored by '' Ācārya Pujyapada''. It is the oldest extan commentary on ''Ācārya Umaswami's Tattvārthasūtra'' (another famous Jain text). Traditionally though, the oldest commentary on the Tatt ...

'', the ultimate good for a living being ('' jīva'') is liberation from the cyclical world of reincarnation (''

saṃsāra ''Saṃsāra'' (Devanagari: संसार) is a Pali/Sanskrit word that means "world". It is also the concept of rebirth and "cyclicality of all life, matter, existence", a fundamental belief of most Indian religions. Popularly, it is the c ...

''). The attainment of liberation is also associated with

omniscience Omniscience () is the capacity to know everything. In Hinduism, Sikhism and the Abrahamic religions, this is an God#General conceptions, attribute of God. In Jainism, omniscience is an attribute that any individual can eventually attain. In B ...

, and it is believed that past Jain sages like Mahavira have achieved omniscience. According to the ''Tattvārthasūtra'', the means to achieve liberation is threefold (this is known as the three jewels): According to the ''Sarvārthasiddhi'', * Right Vision (''Samyak

Darśana Hindu philosophy encompasses the philosophies, world views and teachings of Hinduism that emerged in Ancient India which include six systems ('' shad-darśana'') – Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.Andrew Nicholson (20 ...

'') is defined as "seeing based on true knowledge of the ''tattvas'' (substances, realities)." Right Vision is attained by right knowledge. * Right Knowledge (''Samyak Jnāna'') is defined as "knowing the ''tattvas'' such as the ''jīvas'' (living beings) as they truly are (''artha'')." Jains believe that sentient beings can achieve perfect and complete knowledge of all things (omniscience). Those who have such knowledge are the enlightened kevalins. These are souls who have detached from all things, and are therefore able to perceive all things directly since their soul's knowledge is no longer blocked by anything. For most beings, the omniscience of their soul is blocked by the karmic particles stuck to their soul, like a thick cloud blocks out the light of the sun. Therefore, the only source of omniscient knowledge for lesser beings is the teachings of the kevalins. Since there are no longer any living kevalins, the Jain scriptures are the only source of such knowledge and are thus seen as the highest authority in Jain philosophy. Because of this, Jain philosophy considers the doctrines found in the scriptures as absolute truths and philosophy's role is mainly to summarize, explain and supplement these doctrines.

Ontology

According to Harry Oldmeadow, Jain ontology is both realist and

dualist Dualism most commonly refers to: * Mind–body dualism, a philosophical view which holds that mental phenomena are, at least in certain respects, not physical phenomena, or that the mind and the body are distinct and separable from one another ** ...

Jeffery D. Long Jeffery D. Long (born 1969) is a religious studies scholar who works on the religions and philosophies of India, particularly Hinduism and Jainism. He is a professor of religion and Asian studies at Elizabethtown College. Education and caree ...

also affirms the realistic nature of Jain metaphysics, which is a kind of pluralism that asserts the existence of various realities. The major metaphysical distinction, writes von Glasenapp, is between the animate or sentient substances (jīva) and the inanimate substances (ajīva). Jain philosophy postulates at least seven ''"tattvas"'' (truths, realities or fundamental principles): #'' Jīva'' – The living being, sentient or soul which is said to have a separate existence from the body that houses it. The immaterial Jīvas are characterized by unlimited consciousness, knowledge, bliss and energy. Though they experience both birth and death, they are neither destroyed nor created. It is thus both eternal in one way and yet impermanent in another. Decay and origin refer respectively to the disappearing of one state of soul and appearance of another state, these being merely modifications of the jīva. #''

Ajīva ''Ajiva'' (Sanskrit) is anything that has no soul or life, the polar opposite of " jīva" (soul). Because ''ajiva'' has no life, it does not accumulate ''karma'' and cannot die. Examples of ajiva include chairs, computers, paper, plastic, etc. ...

'' – refers to any insentient substance. There are five ontological categories of insentients: non-sentient substance or matter (''

pudgala In Jainism, Pudgala (or ') is one of the six Dravyas, or aspects of reality that fabricate the world we live in. The six ''dravya''s include the jiva and the fivefold divisions of ajiva (non-living) category: ''dharma'' (motion), ''adharma'' (r ...

''), principle of motion (''

dharma Dharma (; sa, धर्म, dharma, ; pi, dhamma, italic=yes) is a key concept with multiple meanings in Indian religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and others. Although there is no direct single-word translation for '' ...

''), the principle of rest (''adharma''), space ('' ākāśa'') and time (''

kāla Kala ( sa, काल, lit=Time, translit=Kālá/Kālam), ) is a Sanskrit term that means "time" or "death." As time personified, destroying all things, Kala is a god of death, and often used as one of the epithets of Yama. In Shaivism, Kala ...

''). Along with jīvas, these form a set of six ontological substances (

dravya Dravya ( sa, द्रव्य) means substance or entity. According to the Jain philosophy, the universe is made up of six eternal substances: sentient beings or souls ('' jīva''), non-sentient substance or matter (''pudgala''), principle of ...

). Substances are simple and indestructible elements which come together into impermanent bodies or objects. #''

Āsrava ''Asrava'' (''āsrava'' "influx") is one of the ''tattva'' or the fundamental reality of the world as per the Jain philosophy. It refers to the influence of body and mind causing the soul to generate karma. The karmic process in Jainism is b ...

'' (influx) – the process by which good and bad karmic substances flow into the living being #'' Bandha'' (bondage) – mutual intermingling of the living being and the karmas, thereby causing its change, which cumulatively determines future rebirths #''

Samvara ''Samvara'' (''saṃvara'') is one of the '' tattva'' or the fundamental reality of the world as per the Jain philosophy. It means stoppage—the stoppage of the influx of the material karmas into the soul consciousness. The karmic process in ...

'' – the stoppage of the inflow of karmic matter into the soul #''

Nirjara ''Nirjara'' is one of the seven fundamental principles, or Tattva in Jain philosophy, and refers to the shedding or removal of accumulated karmas from the atma (soul), essential for breaking free from samsara, the cycle of birth-death and re ...

'' (gradual dissociation) – separation or falling off of part of karmic matter from the soul. #'' Mokṣha'' (liberation) – complete annihilation of all karmic matter (bound with any particular soul). Śvētāmbara Jains also often add two more realities to the above list: good karma (''punya'', merits) and bad karma (''papa'', negatives). Each entity can be analyzed in numerous different ways according to Jain thinkers. Umasvati outlines numerous "gateways" of investigation called nikshepas. These are: nāma (name), sthāpanā (symbol), dravya (potentiality), bhāvatā (actuality), nirdeśa (definition), svāmitva (possession), sādhana (cause), adhikarana (location), sthiti (duration), vidhānatā (variety), sat (existence), samkhyā (numerical determination), ksetra (field occupied), sparśana (field touched), kāla (continuity ), antara (time-lapse), bhāva (states), andalpabahutva (relative size).

Helmuth von Glasenapp Helmuth is both a masculine German given name and a surname. Notable people with the name include: Given name; * Helmuth Theodor Bossert (1889–1961), German art historian, philologist and archaeologist *Helmuth Duckadam (born 1959), Romanian form ...

pointed out that a central principle of Jain thought is its attempt to provide an ontology that includes both permanence and change. As such, every being contains something that is lasting and something which is inconstant. For example, in a pot, its material atoms are imperishable, but the form, color and other qualities are subject to change.

Epistemology

Jain philosophy accepts three reliable means of knowledge (''

pramana ''Pramana'' (Sanskrit: प्रमाण, ) literally means "proof" and "means of knowledge".pratyaksa''), inference (''

anumana ''Pramana'' (Sanskrit: प्रमाण, ) literally means "proof" and "means of knowledge".upamana'') as the fourth reliable means, in a manner similar to

epistemological theories Epistemology (; ), or the theory of knowledge, is the branch of philosophy concerned with knowledge. Epistemology is considered a major subfield of philosophy, along with other major subfields such as ethics, logic, and metaphysics. Episte ...

found in other Indian religions. In Jainism, ''

jñāna In Indian philosophy and religions, ' ( sa, ज्ञान}, ) is "knowledge". The idea of ''jñāna'' centers on a cognitive event which is recognized when experienced. It is knowledge inseparable from the total experience of reality, especial ...

'' (knowledge) is said to be of five kinds – '' Kevala jñāna'' (Omniscience), ''Śrutu jñāna'' (Scriptural Knowledge), ''mati jñāna'' (Sensory Knowledge), ''avadhi jñāna'' (Clairvoyance), and ''manah prayāya jñāna'' (Telepathy). The first two are described as being indirect means of knowledge ''()'', with the others furnishing direct knowledge ''()'', by which it is meant that the object is known directly by the soul.

Relativity and Pluralism

Jain epistemology includes three related doctrines which deal with the complex and manifold nature of knowledge: ''anekāntavāda'' (the theory of many-sidedness), s''yādvāda'' (the theory of conditioned predication) and ''nayavāda'' (the theory of partial standpoints). Long calls these three the "Jain doctrines of relativity".

Anekāntavāda

Medieval_Jain_temple_Anekantavada_doctrine_artwork

One of the most important and fundamental doctrines of Jainism is anēkāntavāda (literally the 'non-one-sided' view). It refers to a kind of ontological pluralism and to the idea that reality is complex and multi-faceted and therefore can only be understood from a multiplicity of perspectives. As Long notes, this is ultimately an ontological doctrine that holds that "all existent entities have infinite attributes." Jain thought generally affirms the reality of all of our perceptions, even those which contradict each other such as continuity and change, arising and perishing. This doctrine is often illustrated through the parable of the " blind men and an elephant". In this story, each blind man felt a different part of an elephant and then claimed to understand the true appearance of the elephant, but could only partly succeed. This principle is based on the idea that objects are infinite in their qualities and modes of existence. Because of this, they cannot be completely grasped in all aspects and manifestations by finite human perception. According to the Jains, only the '' Kevalis''—omniscient beings—can comprehend objects in all aspects and manifestations. Indeed, the Jain texts depict Mahavira as answering certain metaphysical questions that were considered 'unanswerable' by the Buddha. Mahavira is depicted as answering these with both a qualified "yes" and a "no", depending on the perspective of the questioner. Thus, the soul is both eternal in its intrinsic nature and yet also changing (due to the karmas affecting it and the various states that arise and pass away within in) and the universe is both eternal (beginningless) and yet also non-eternal (since it goes through cycles). Thus, the Jains saw their metaphysics as a middle path, embracing both permanence and impermanence as metaphysically fundamental, against that of the Buddhists (who defended impermanence) and the Brahmins (who generally held a doctrine of permanence). ''Anekāntavāda'' encourages its adherents to consider the views and beliefs of their rivals and opposing parties. Proponents of ''anekāntavāda'' apply this principle to religion and philosophy, reminding themselves that any religion or philosophy—even Jainism—which clings too dogmatically to its own tenets, is committing an error based on its limited point of view. The principle of ''anekāntavāda'' also influenced

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (; ; 2 October 1869 – 30 January 1948), popularly known as Mahatma Gandhi, was an Indian lawyer, Anti-colonial nationalism, anti-colonial nationalist Quote: "... marks Gandhi as a hybrid cosmopolitan figure ...

to adopt principles of religious tolerance, and ''

satyagraha Satyagraha ( sa, सत्याग्रह; ''satya'': "truth", ''āgraha'': "insistence" or "holding firmly to"), or "holding firmly to truth",' or "truth force", is a particular form of nonviolent resistance or civil resistance. Someone w ...

''.

Nayavāda

A closely related theory is ''Nayavāda'', which means "the theory of partial standpoints or viewpoints." Nayas are partially valid, philosophical perspectives from which anything can be seen. An object has infinite aspects to it, but when we describe an object in practice, we speak of only relevant aspects and ignore irrelevant ones. Jain philosophers use the theory of partial viewpoints in order to explain the complexity of reality, part by part. This is how Jains can describe objects with seemingly contradictory statements (the soul is both permanent and impermanent etc.). Since it is only from certain perspectives that each statement is made, there is no contradiction. ''Nayavāda'' holds that all philosophical disputes arise out of confusion of standpoints, and the standpoints we adopt are, although we may not realise it, "the outcome of purposes that we may pursue". According to Long, Umāsvāti lists seven partial viewpoints:

naigamanaya (common view), samgrahanaya (generic view), vyavahāranaya (pragmatic view), rjusūtranaya (linear view), śabdanaya (verbal view), samabhirūdha naya (etymological view), andevambhūtanaya (actuality view). The common view is how an entity is generally perceived– what one might call a 'common sense' or unrefined perspective. A generic view seeks to classify the entity. A pragmatic view assesses the entity in terms of its possible uses. A linear view looks at the entity as it is in the present moment. A verbal view seeks to name the entity. An etymological view uses this name and its relations with other words to discern its nature. And an actuality view is concerned with the concrete particulars of the entity.

Jain thinkers also use the doctrine of standpoints in order to provide a

doxography Doxography ( el, δόξα – "an opinion", "a point of view" + – "to write", "to describe") is a term used especially for the works of classical historians, describing the points of view of past philosophers and scientists. The term ...

of non-Jain philosophical systems. According to Jain philosophers, other philosophical systems rely on only one of the seven standpoints, while excluding the others. This is explains why they have reached false conclusions. For example,

Nyaya (Sanskrit: न्याय, ''nyā-yá''), literally meaning "justice", "rules", "method" or "judgment",Vaisesika Vaisheshika or Vaiśeṣika ( sa, वैशेषिक) is one of the six schools of Indian philosophy (Vedic systems) from ancient India. In its early stages, the Vaiśeṣika was an independent philosophy with its own metaphysics, epistemolog ...

is often associated with the first naya (the common view),

Vedanta ''Vedanta'' (; sa, वेदान्त, ), also ''Uttara Mīmāṃsā'', is one of the six (''āstika'') schools of Hindu philosophy. Literally meaning "end of the Vedas", Vedanta reflects ideas that emerged from, or were aligned with, t ...

with the second naya (generic view),

Materialism Materialism is a form of philosophical monism which holds matter to be the fundamental substance in nature, and all things, including mental states and consciousness, are results of material interactions. According to philosophical materiali ...

with the third naya (pragmatic view) and

Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...

with the fourth (the linear view). Meanwhile, Jainism is seen as the only philosophy able to combine all seven nayas. One influential theory of ''Nayavāda'' is the dual-perspective model of Kundakunda. Kundakunda held that the perspective of the soul is the only 'certain' (niscaya), 'supreme' (paramārtha) or 'pure' (suddha) perspective. Because of the adherence of karmic particles, the soul loses knowledge of itself as being pure, however, it is never truly modified. All other things in the universe are worldly and are to be viewed as having merely transactional and provisional value. As such, the worldly perspective is ultimately false, while the supreme perspective is the ultimate truth and according to Long, corresponds to the kevalajñāna of a Jina. Kundakunda's philosophy is especially influential in Digambara thought, though it has also influenced some Śvetāmbara scholars. However, other Śvetāmbara thinkers like

Yashovijaya Yashovijaya (, 1624–1688), a seventeenth-century Jain philosopher-monk, was a notable Indian philosopher and logician. He was a thinker, prolific writer and commentator who had a strong and lasting influence on Jainism.Dundas, Paul (2004) p. ...

famously criticized Kundakunda for his reliance on one single standpoint, i.e. for ''ekāntavāda'' (absolutism). Another influential theory of nayas was that of Siddhasena Divākara, who in his ''Sanmatitarka'' ('The Logic of the True Doctrine), divided the traditional nayas into two main categories: those which affirm the substantiality of existence (''dravyāstikanayas'') and those which affirm impermanence (''paryāyāstikanayas''). Siddhasena also identified the various nayas with the different Indian philosophies, all of which are seen as one-sided and extreme views, while the Jain view is seen as being in the middle and as embracing all the various points of views, which, while seemingly contradictory, are just partial perspectives of the whole truth.

Syādvāda

Syādvāda ( hi, अनेकान्तवाद, "many-sidedness") is the Jain doctrine about metaphysical truths that emerged in ancient India. It states that the ultimate truth and reality is complex and has multiple aspects. According to Jainism, ...

'' is the theory of conditioned predication, which provides an expression to ''anekānta'' by recommending that the indeclinable "''syād"'' or "''syāt''" ("in a certain sense") be prefixed to every phrase or expression. In the context of Jain thought, ''syād'' (often paired with ''eva'', "surely" or "certainly") means "in some specific sense, or from some specific perspective, it is certainly the case that...". As reality is complex, no single proposition can express the nature of reality fully. Thus the term ''"syād"'' should be prefixed before each proposition giving it a conditional point of view and thus removing any dogmatism in the statement as well as indicating that the sentence is true only from a specific point of view. Since it ensures that each statement is expressed from seven different conditional and relative viewpoints or propositions, ''syādvāda'' is known as ''saptibhaṅgīnāya'' or the theory of seven conditioned predications. These seven propositions, also known as '' saptibhaṅgī'', are: #''syād-asti''—from a certain perspective, it is, #''syād-nāsti''—from a certain perspective, it is not, #''syād-asti-nāsti''—from a certain perspective, it is, and it is not, #'—from a certain perspective, it is, and it is indescribable, #'—from a certain perspective, it is not, and it is indescribable, #'—from a certain perspective, it is, it is not, and it is indescribable, #'—from a certain perspective, it is indescribable. Each of these seven propositions examines the complex and multifaceted nature of reality from a relative point of view of time, space, substance and mode. To ignore the complexity of reality is to commit the fallacy of

dogmatism Dogma is a belief or set of beliefs that is accepted by the members of a group without being questioned or doubted. It may be in the form of an official system of principles or doctrines of a religion, such as Roman Catholicism, Judaism, Isla ...

. According to Long, this sevenfold analysis is seen by Jain philosophers as being universally applicable and "to be exhaustive of the possible truth-values that a given proposition can convey." However, as Long notes, there is a limitation to the theories of relativity applied by Jain philosophers. This limitation is the idea that the conclusions of the doctrines of relativity must be consistent with the Jain worldview. This is summarized by Siddhasena as follows: "A well presented view of the form of naya only lends support to the Āgamic doctrines while the same, if ill presented, destroys both (i.e. itself as well as its rival)." Thus, the relativity doctrines are seen by Jains as being limited by the normative claims of the Jain tradition, since these are seen as being founded on the omniscient perspective of the enlightened ones.

Jīvas, the Living

An explanation of the five types of material bodies associated with a Jiva. As outlined above, the universe is composed of two main kinds of substances, the ''jīva'' (living) and the ''ajīva'' (non-living). These are un-created existents which are always interacting with each other. These substances behave according to natural laws and the intrinsic nature (''sahāvō'') of a substance. Understanding this intrinsic nature is the true nature of the Jain dharma. Jīvas are categorised into two types—liberated and non-liberated. A jīva has various essential qualities: knowledge, consciousness (''caitanya''), bliss (''sukha'') and vibrational energy (''virya''). These qualities are fully enjoyed unhindered by liberated souls, but obscured by ''

'' in the case of non-liberated souls resulting in karmic bondage. This bondage further results in a continuous co-habitation of the soul with the body. Thus, an embodied non-liberated soul is found in four realms of existence—heavens, hells, humans and animal world – in a continuous cycle of births and deaths also known as '' samsāra''. According to Jain thinkers, all living beings (even gods) experience extensive suffering and unquenchable desire (while worldly happiness is fleeting and small in comparison, like a mustard seed next to a mountain). With the exception of the enlightened ones, all living beings are all subject to death and rebirth. A soul is clothed in various material bodies, of which there are five, each one finer than the other (see image on the right). Every being has at least two bodies, the fiery body and the karmic body. These two bodies don't feel pain or pleasure and can pass through solid matter. A being can have two more other bodies apart from these basic ones, and only the earthly body can be perceived by the eyes. Jains believe that a soul with higher powers can partially leave the body, act outside of it and then return later. This is called samudghata. According to the Jain philosophy, there are an infinite number of independent jīvas (sentients, living beings, souls) which fill the entire universe. The jīvas are divided into various categories, these include the stationary beings like trees and the beings that move. Jains developed a hierarchy of living beings, depending on the various senses (indriyas) and vital aspects (pranas) that they have. Animals are classed as five sensed being, while plants and various

microorganism A microorganism, or microbe,, ''mikros'', "small") and ''organism'' from the el, ὀργανισμός, ''organismós'', "organism"). It is usually written as a single word but is sometimes hyphenated (''micro-organism''), especially in olde ...

have one sense. The vitalities or life-principles are ten, namely the five senses, energy, respiration, life-duration, the organ of speech, and the mind. Humans, gods and so on are five sensed beings that also have an inner sense or thinking mind (manas). Regarding sex, the Jains believed that there were three main sexes: male, female and the

third sex Third gender is a concept in which individuals are categorized, either by themselves or by society, as neither man nor woman. It is also a social category present in societies that recognize three or more genders. The term ''third'' is usually ...

(napumsaka-veda, all beings without sex organs are part of this third sex). The Jains also affirmed the existence of tiny one-sensed beings called nigodas which exists everywhere and fill the universe. A unique Jain view is that plants have a form of

consciousness Consciousness, at its simplest, is sentience and awareness of internal and external existence. However, the lack of definitions has led to millennia of analyses, explanations and debates by philosophers, theologians, linguisticians, and scien ...

like other animals. This is supposed to be seen in their desire for nourishment, reproduction, and self-preservation. They are even seen as capable of expressing moral feelings and thus eventually climbing the ladder of beings towards liberation.

Cosmology

Our world according to Jain cosmology is a massive structure, wide at the bottom, narrow in the middle and broad in its upper regions. It contains various realms or sub-worlds, including the siddhaloka (world of the enlightened ones), the heavens, various hells, and the human realm (at the center of the universe), which is a system of island continents (including Jambudvipa at the center) divided by mountains and surrounded by oceans with a giant mountain at the very center (

Mt. Meru Mount Meru (Sanskrit/Pali: मेरु), also known as Sumeru, Sineru or Mahāmeru, is the sacred five-peaked mountain of Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist cosmology and is considered to be the centre of all the physical, metaphysical and spiritu ...

Jain cosmology Jain cosmology is the description of the shape and functioning of the Universe (''loka'') and its constituents (such as living beings, matter, space, time etc.) according to Jainism. Jain cosmology considers the universe as an uncreated entity t ...

denies the existence of a supreme being responsible for creation and operation of the universe. In

, this universe is an uncreated entity, existing since infinity, immutable in nature, beginningless and endless. It has no creator, governor, judge, or destroyer. Jain philosophers constantly attacked the doctrine of

creationism Creationism is the religious belief that nature, and aspects such as the universe, Earth, life, and humans, originated with supernatural acts of divine creation. Gunn 2004, p. 9, "The ''Concise Oxford Dictionary'' says that creationism is 't ...

. In his , Ācārya

Jinasena Jinasena (c. 9th century CE) was a monk and scholar in the ''Digambara'' tradition of Jainism. He was patronized by the Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha I. He was the author of ''Adipurana'' and '' Mahapurana''.arihant'' (victors) and perfect souls ''without'' a body are also called ''

siddha ''Siddha'' (Sanskrit: '; "perfected one") is a term that is used widely in Indian religions and culture. It means "one who is accomplished." It refers to perfected masters who have achieved a high degree of physical as well as spiritual ...

s'' (liberated souls).

Time Cycles

According to Jainism, time is without beginning and eternal. The kālacakra, the cosmic wheel of time, rotates ceaselessly. The wheel of time is divided into two half-cycles, ''utsarpiṇī'' (ascending, a time of progressive prosperity and happiness) and ''

avasarpiṇī ''Avasarpiṇī'' is the descending half of the cosmic time cycle in Jainism and the one in which the world is said to be at present. According to Jain texts the ''Avasarpiṇī'' is marked by a decline in goodness and religion. The ascending ...

'' (descending, a time of increasing sorrow and immorality). Each half cycle is further sub-divided into six ''aras'' or epochs. As the universe moves through these epochs, worlds go through changes in happiness, life span, and general moral conduct. No divine or supernatural beings are responsible for these changes, rather they happen due to the force of

. Jains believe that the time cycle is currently in the descending phase. During the each motion of the half-cycle of the wheel of time, 63 Śalākāpuruṣa or 63 illustrious persons, consisting of the 24 Tīrthaṅkaras and their contemporaries regularly appear.

The Non-Living Reality

The five unconscious (''ajīva'') substances (''dravya'') are:

Pudgala

Pudgala In Jainism, Pudgala (or ') is one of the six Dravyas, or aspects of reality that fabricate the world we live in. The six ''dravya''s include the jiva and the fivefold divisions of ajiva (non-living) category: ''dharma'' (motion), ''adharma'' (r ...

is a term for any non-living particulate matter. The Jains developed an elaborate theory of

atomism Atomism (from Greek , ''atomon'', i.e. "uncuttable, indivisible") is a natural philosophy proposing that the physical universe is composed of fundamental indivisible components known as atoms. References to the concept of atomism and its atoms ...

. Paramāņus or atoms were the basic and building blocks of matter. They cannot be perceived by the senses and cannot be further divided. An atom also always possesses four qualities, a color (''varna''), a taste (''rasa''), a smell (''gandha''), and a certain kind of palpability (''sparsha'', touch) such as lightness, heaviness, softness, roughness, etc. An atom occupies one space point. It is uncreated and indestructible. Atoms combine (bandha) change their modes, and disintegrate (bheda) but their basic qualities remain. An atom can also be bound together with other atoms to create an aggregate (skandha). Material aggregates are categorized according to how fine (suksma) or coarse (sthula) they are. The finest kind of material aggregate is on the atomic scale (extra fine matter), then comes "fine" matter (includes karmic particles), then anything that can be sensed in some way (like smell) but not seen, then comes matter which can be seen but not touched (like light), then there is the category of coarse things (which includes any fluids) and finally there is extra coarse matter (solids). Material things can give off light or darkness. Darkness is seen as a kind of matter in Jainism and so is sound.

Motion/Rest

Dharma (Medium of

Motion In physics, motion is the phenomenon in which an object changes its position with respect to time. Motion is mathematically described in terms of displacement, distance, velocity, acceleration, speed and frame of reference to an observer and mea ...

) and Adharma (Medium of Rest) are substances which account for the principles of motion and rest. As such, they are a kind of aether. Also known as Dharmāstikāya and Adharmāstikāya, they are said to pervade the entire universe. ''Dharma'' and ''Adharma'' are not motion or rest themselves, but mediate motion and rest in other bodies. Without the medium of motion, motion itself is not possible and vice versa. It is a precondition for movement/rest, like the water which allows for fish to swim. This doctrine is unique to Jainism.

Space

Ākāśa (

Space Space is the boundless three-dimensional extent in which objects and events have relative position and direction. In classical physics, physical space is often conceived in three linear dimensions, although modern physicists usually consider ...

) is a substance that accommodates souls, matter, the principle of motion, the principle of rest, and time. It is an all-pervading receptable made up of infinite space-points (''pradesha''). According to Jains, Space is a substance, in the nature of a vacuum but not a pure vacuum. Jain scale of time

It is an extended continuous vacuum. As pure vacuum it will be non-existent, and non-extended; which will devoid it of even one positive quality. Therefore, Jains propound that Space, which is endowed with infinite extension is a substance in itself.

Time

In Jainism,

time Time is the continued sequence of existence and events that occurs in an apparently irreversible succession from the past, through the present, into the future. It is a component quantity of various measurements used to sequence events, to ...

(

Kāla Kala ( sa, काल, lit=Time, translit=Kālá/Kālam), ) is a Sanskrit term that means "time" or "death." As time personified, destroying all things, Kala is a god of death, and often used as one of the epithets of Yama. In Shaivism, Kala ...

) is that which mediates change, it causes what is new to become old, and so on. For Jains, time is that which supports the changes to which substances are subject. From one point of view, it is an infinite and endless continuity, from another standpoint, it is made up an infinite number of atomic moments (''samaya''). Some Jain philosophers hold that time is a substance, while others do not. According to

Champat Rai Jain Champat Rai Jain (6 August 1867–2 June 1942) was a Digambara Jain born in Delhi and who studied and practised law in England. He became an influential Jainism scholar and comparative religion writer between 1910s and 1930s who translated and ...

, "Nothing in nature can exist destitute or devoid of function. Function is discharged by the displacement of energy in the case of simple units and things. If there were no Time-substance to help in the performance of the movement of the displacement of energy, things would be doomed to remain in the same condition always."

Karma and Rebirth

The various realms of existence in Jainism Types of Karma

In Jainism, as in other Indian religions, it is karma which is responsible for the different forms of life that souls will take. Karma is envisioned as a material substance (or subtle matter) that can bind to the soul, travel with the soul in bound form between rebirths, and affect the suffering and happiness experienced by the ''jiva'' in the ''lokas''. Jain texts compare karma to dust which gets stuck to a damp cloth (i.e. the soul and its passions). As such, karma is a kind of pollution that taints the soul with various colours (''leśyā''). Based on its karma, a soul undergoes transmigration and reincarnates in various states of existence—like heavens or hells, or as humans or animals. Jainism does not believe in an intermediate state like some schools of Buddhism, instead the souls is seen as "leaping like a monkey" in a sheath of subtle karmas from the dead body to a new body. Karma is believed to obscure and obstruct the innate nature and striving of the soul, as well as its spiritual potential in the next rebirth. The vibrational energy of a soul is said to be what draws karmic particles to it and creates bondage. While the earliest texts focus on the role of the passions (''kasāya,'' especially hatred) in attracting karmas, Umasvāti states that it is physical, verbal and mental activity which are responsible for the flowing in of karmic particles. According to von Glasenapp, the main causes for the binding of karma are wrong view, defective self discipline, the passions and activity. Harming any life form will definitely have negative karmic effects. According to Paul Dundas, the main difference between the Buddhist view of karma and the Jain view is that even involuntary actions would still lead to negative karmic effects for the person who did them. Furthermore, mental actions that are not carried out, causing someone else to carry out a bad action or merely approving of the action was not seen as being significantly different (with regard to karmic retribution). In Jain works on karma, karmas are generally divided into 8 types, four harming (ghātiyā) karmas and four non-harming karmas. The harming karmas are the "delusion karma" (mohanīya) which leads to wrong views, the "karma which blocks knowledge" (jñānāvaraṇīya), the "karma that obscures perception" (darshanāvaranīya) and the "obstacle karma" (antarāya), which obstructs the innate energy of the soul. The non-harming karmas are "feeling" (vedanīya) karma which relates to pleasant or unpleasant experiences, "name" (nāman) karma which determines one's rebirth, "life" (āyus) karma that determines the lifespan and "clan" (gotra) karma which determines one's status. The Jain doctrine also holds that it is possible for us to both modify our karma, and to obtain release from it, through the austerities (tapas) and purity of conduct. The ultimate Jain goal is spiritual liberation, which is often defined as release from all karmas. According to Jainism, some souls called ''abhavya'' (incapable) can never attain ''

'' (liberation). The ''abhavya'' state is entered after an intentional and shockingly evil act.

Ethics

The twelve vows of a Jain lay disciple Jain ethics is rooted in its metaphysics, particularly its karma theory. Jain philosophers hold that harmful actions (''hiṃsā'') cause the soul to be tainted and defiled with karmas. In fact, karma (good and bad) is constantly flowing (''asrava'') into soul as a result of actions by body, speech and mind, like water flowing into a lake. As such, those who seek to stop (''samvara'') the influx of bad karmas (in order to reach liberation) should practice right conduct by observing certain ethical rules. Right conduct (''samyak chāritra''), is defined in the ''Sarvārthasiddhi'' as "the cessation of activity leading to the taking in of karmas by a wise person engaged in the removal of the causes of transmigration." To prevent karmic particles from sticking to and tainting the soul, Jainism teaches five ethical duties, which it calls five vows. These come in two main forms, the ''anuvratas'' (small vows) for Jain laypersons, and ''mahavratas'' (great vows) for Jain mendicants. The Five vows, which are taken even by Jain laypersons (who have knowledge of the doctrine) are: # ''

Ahiṃsā Ahimsa (, IAST: ''ahiṃsā'', ) is the ancient Indian principle of nonviolence which applies to all living beings. It is a key virtue in most Indian religions: Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism.Bajpai, Shiva (2011). The History of India – F ...

'' ("non-violence", "non-harming", "non-injury"): The first major vow taken by Jains is to cause no harm to other human beings, as well as all living beings (particularly animals, but also plants). This is the highest ethical duty in Jainism, and it applies not only to one's actions, but demands that one be non-violent in one's speech and thoughts. According to the ''

Tattvarthasutra ''Tattvārthasūtra'', meaning "On the Nature '' ''artha">nowiki/>''artha''.html" ;"title="artha.html" ;"title="nowiki/>''artha">nowiki/>''artha''">artha.html" ;"title="nowiki/>''artha">nowiki/>''artha''of Reality 'tattva'' (also known as ...

'', harming is defined as "the severance of vitalities out of passion". According to a Jain ethical text called the ''Puruşārthasiddhyupāya'', "non-manifestation of passions like attachment is non-injury , and manifestation of such passions is injury (''hiṃsā'')."

Vegetarianism Vegetarianism is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat (red meat, poultry, seafood, insects, and the flesh of any other animal). It may also include abstaining from eating all by-products of animal slaughter. Vegetarianism may ...

and other nonviolent practices and rituals of Jains flow from the principle of ahiṃsā. # '' Satya'', "truth": This vow is to always speak the truth. Neither lie, nor speak what is not true, and do not encourage others or approve anyone who speaks an untruth. # '' Asteya'', "not stealing": A Jain layperson should not take anything that is not willingly given. Additionally, a Jain mendicant should ask for permission to take it if something is being given. # ''

Brahmacharya ''Brahmacharya'' (; sa, ब्रह्मचर्य ) is a concept within Indian religions that literally means to stay in conduct within one's own Self. In Yoga, Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism it generally refers to a lifestyle charac ...

'', "celibacy": Abstinence from sex and sensual pleasures is prescribed for Jain monks and nuns. For laypersons, the vow means chastity, faithfulness to one's partner. # '' Aparigraha'', "non-possessiveness": This includes non-attachment to material and psychological possessions, avoiding craving and greed. Jain monks and nuns completely renounce property and social relations, own nothing and are attached to no one. Jain ascetics are even more scrupulous regarding the vows, for example, regarding the first vow of ahimsa, they will often carry a broom or another tool to sweep the floor of small animals in front of them. Jain texts further prescribe seven supplementary vows, including three ''guņa vratas'' (merit vows) and four ''śikşā vratas'' (training vows). The three guṇa vows are: # ''digvrata'' – Restriction on movement with regard to the four directions. # ''bhogopabhogaparimana'' – Vow of limiting consumable and non-consumable things # ''anartha-dandaviramana'' – Refraining from harmful occupations and activities (purposeless sins). The four ''śikşā'' vows are: # '' samayika'' – Meditate by sitting still and concentrate periodically (for one muhūrta of 48 minutes, or for two or three muhurtas). # ''desavrata'' – Limiting movement to certain places (house, village, etc.) for a fixed period of time. # '' upvas / paushad'' –

Fasting Fasting is the abstention from eating and sometimes drinking. From a purely physiological context, "fasting" may refer to the metabolic status of a person who has not eaten overnight (see " Breakfast"), or to the metabolic state achieved after ...

for 24 hours on certain days (usually four times in a moon-month) or living a day which mimics the life of a Jain Monk. # ''atihti samvibhag'' – Offering food to ascetics and needy people. Finally, there is a vow called ''

Sallekhana ''Sallekhana'' (IAST: ), also known as ''samlehna'', ''santhara'', ''samadhi-marana'' or ''sanyasana-marana'', is a supplementary vow to the ethical code of conduct of Jainism. It is the religious practice of voluntarily fasting to death by ...

'' (or ''Santhara''), a "religious death" ritual observed at the end of life, historically by Jain monks and nuns, but rare in the modern age. This vow is a voluntary and gradual reduction of food and liquid resulting in the dispassionate ending of life. This is believed to reduce negative karma that affects a soul's future rebirths.

Liberation and the Path

Wooden sculpture, Crafts Museum, New Delhi

Ācārya

's defines liberation (''

, kevala jñana'') in his ''

'' as follows:

"Liberation is the attainment of an altogether different state of the soul, on the removal of all the impurities of karmic matter and the body, characterized by the inherent qualities of the soul such as knowledge and bliss free from pain and suffering."

At the moment of final liberation, a Kevalin (liberated soul) will become free of their body and in an instant rise up to the siddhaloka, the realm of liberated souls at the top of the universe. As explained by Dundas, the enlightened soul "will exist perpetually without any further rebirth in a disembodied and genderless state of perfect joy, energy, consciousness and knowledge." Jains believe that the number of liberated souls is infinite. While these souls interpenetrate each other and all have the same qualities, Jainism strongly resists the idea that they are part of some monistic world soul (as in found in some schools of

Hinduism Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...

). According to

Haribhadra Aacharya Haribhadra Suri was a Svetambara mendicant Jain leader, philosopher , doxographer, and author. There are multiple contradictory dates assigned to his birth. According to tradition, he lived c. 459–529 CE. However, in 1919, a Jain m ...

, this Hindu monism makes no sense. Dundas outlines his critique as follows:

"if the world-soul were inherently pure, it would be difficult to explain why the phenomenal world is manifestly impure, while if it were impure, there would then be no point in the liberated jīvas merging with it."

Jain philosophers developed a schema of 14 stages of spiritual development called

Gunasthana An illustration of the Gunasthanas (Sanskrit: "levels of virtue") are the fourteen stages of spiritual development and growth through which a soul gradually passes before it attains ''moksha'' (liberation). According to Jainism, it is a state ...

(

Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...

: "levels of virtue"). These stages correspond to the abandoning of the various causes of karmic binding. Those who pass the last stage are enlightened ''siddhas'' and become fully established in Right View, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct.

History

The philosophy of early Jainism can be found in the

Agamas Religion *Āgama (Buddhism), a collection of Early Buddhist texts *Āgama (Hinduism), scriptures of several Hindu sects *Jain literature (Jain Āgamas), various canonical scriptures in Jainism Other uses * ''Agama'' (lizard), a genus of lizards ...

. Though these early texts contain much philosophical content, it is not systematic and can be inconsistent.

Umaswati Umaswati, also spelled as Umasvati and known as Umaswami, was an Indian scholar, possibly between 2nd-century and 5th-century CE, known for his foundational writings on Jainism. He authored the Jain text ''Tattvartha Sutra'' (literally '"All Tha ...

was probably the first systematic Jain philosopher. His ''Tattvārthasūtra'' drew together all the ancient Jain doctrines and presented them in a systematic

sutra ''Sutra'' ( sa, सूत्र, translit=sūtra, translit-std=IAST, translation=string, thread)Monier Williams, ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press, Entry fo''sutra'' page 1241 in Indian literary traditions refers to an aph ...

style. His work was extremely influential and is accepted by all Jain schools of thought today. The main Digambara commentaries on the ''Tattvārthasūtra'' are those of Pūjyapāda (6th century), Akalaṇka (8th century) and Vidyānandi (9th century) while the main Svetambara commentaries are Siddhaseṇa Gaṇin's 8th century commentary and the ''Sva-bhāṣya''.

Harry Oldmeadow Kenneth "Harry" Oldmeadow (born 1947) is an Australian academic, author, editor and educator whose works focus on religion, tradition, traditionalist writers and philosophy. Life and career Oldmeadow was born in Melbourne in 1947. His parents ...

notes that Jain philosophy remained fairly standard throughout history and the later elaborations only sought to further elucidate preexisting doctrine and avoided changing the ontological status of the components. Dundas argues that this philosophical stability is largely do to the influence of Umaswati's work. However, the Jain tradition has since ancient times been divided into the Śvetāmbara and the

Digambar ''Digambara'' (; "sky-clad") is one of the two major schools of Jainism, the other being '' Śvētāmbara'' (white-clad). The Sanskrit word ''Digambara'' means "sky-clad", referring to their traditional monastic practice of neither possessing ...

a traditions. The schism arose mainly on account of differences in question of practice of nudity amongst monks and whether women could achieve liberation in female bodies. Apart from these differences, there are no other major philosophical differences between Jain sects, though there are different interpretations of the basic doctrines such as anēkāntavāda. This doctrinal conservatism in Jainism has led scholars like Padmanabh Jaini to remark that in the course Jain history there were never any radically new movements (like

Mahayana ''Mahāyāna'' (; "Great Vehicle") is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India (c. 1st century BCE onwards) and is considered one of the three main existing bra ...

tantra Tantra (; sa, तन्त्र, lit=loom, weave, warp) are the esoteric traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism that developed on the Indian subcontinent from the middle of the 1st millennium CE onwards. The term ''tantra'', in the Indian ...

bhakti ''Bhakti'' ( sa, भक्ति) literally means "attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith, love, devotion, worship, purity".See Monier-Williams, ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899. It was originally used in Hinduism, referring to d ...

) which effectively challenged mainstream Jainism. After the period of the early philosophers, like Umaswati, there follows a period of increasing philosophical sophistication, with a focus on epistemology (''

pramana ''Pramana'' (Sanskrit: प्रमाण, ) literally means "proof" and "means of knowledge".Siddhasena Divakara Siddhasēna Divākara ( pka, सिद्धसेन दिवाकर) was a ''jain monk'' in the fifth century CE who wrote works on Jain philosophy and epistemology. He was like the illuminator of the Jain order and therefore came to be kno ...

Samantabhadra Samantabhadra (Lit. "All Good", or "Always Auspicious") may refer to: * Samantabhadra (Bodhisattva), a bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism associated with practice and meditation * ''Samantabhadra'' (Tibetan: ''Kuntu Zangpo''), the name of a Buddha, ...

and Akalanka. The work of Kundakunda, particularly his theory of the two truths, was also extremely influential, especially on Digambara philosophy. Jain philosophers' preoccupation with epistemology continued into the early modern period, which saw several great Jain scholars who wrote on the ''navya-nyaya'' ("new reason") philosophy, such as Yaśovijaya (1624–1688). The Jain encounter with

Islam Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic Monotheism#Islam, monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God in Islam, God (or ...

also led to theological debates on the existence of God and on the use of violence. According to Paul Dundas, Jain thinkers faced with the Muslim destruction of their temples also began to revisit their theory of ahimsa (non-violence). Dundas notes how the 12th century Jain thinker Jinadatta Suri argued in favor of violence in self-defense. The modern era saw the rise of a new sect, the Śvētāmbara Terapanth, founded by Ācārya Bhikṣu in the 18th century. Terapanth scholars like Tulasī (1913–1997) and Ācārya

Mahāprajña Acharya Shri Mahapragya ( hi, आचार्य महाप्रज्ञ ''Ācārya mahapragya'')(14 June 1920 – 9 May 2010) was the tenth head of the Svetambar Terapanth order of Jainism. Mahapragya was a saint, yogi, spiritual leader, ...

(1920– 2010) have been influential intellectual figures in modern Jainism, writing numerous works on Jain philosophy. The modern era also saw the rise of new sects led by the laity as well as various influential intellectual figures. The non-sectarian cult of

Shrimad Rajchandra Shrimad Rajchandra (11 November 1867 – 9 April 1901) was a Jain poet, mystic, philosopher, scholar and reformer. Born in Vavaniya, a village near Morbi, he claimed to have recollection of his past lives at the age of seven. He performed '' ...

(1867 – 1901) is well known due to it being a major influence on

Mahatma Gandhi Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (; ; 2 October 1869 – 30 January 1948), popularly known as Mahatma Gandhi, was an Indian lawyer, anti-colonial nationalist Quote: "... marks Gandhi as a hybrid cosmopolitan figure who transformed ... anti- ...

. Another influential figure was Kanjisvami, who was known for his stress on the mystical philosophy of Kundakunda.

Contribution to Indian Thought

As one of the earliest and most influential of the sramana systems, Jainism influenced other Indian systems of thought. Scholarly research has shown that philosophical concepts that are typically Indian –

Karma Karma (; sa, कर्म}, ; pi, kamma, italic=yes) in Sanskrit means an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptivel ...

Ahimsa Ahimsa (, IAST: ''ahiṃsā'', ) is the ancient Indian principle of nonviolence which applies to all living beings. It is a key virtue in most Indian religions: Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism.Bajpai, Shiva (2011). The History of India � ...

Moksa ''Moksha'' (; sa, मोक्ष, '), also called ''vimoksha'', ''vimukti'' and ''mukti'', is a term in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, enlightenment, liberation, and release. In its soteriologica ...

, reincarnation and like – either have their origins in the sramana traditions (one of the most ancient of which is Jainism). The sramanic ideal of mendicancy and renunciation, that the worldly life was full of suffering and that emancipation required giving up of desires and withdrawal into a lonely and contemplative life, was in stark contrast with the Brahmanical ideal of an active and ritually punctuated life based on sacrifices, household duties and chants to deities. Sramanas developed and laid emphasis on Ahimsa, Karma, moksa and renunciation. Jain ideas seem to have had some influence on the

and on Early

, and both worldviews share many common ideas (karma rebirth, an uncreated universe, ahimsa, denial of the Vedas). The Buddha is depicted as practicing forms of asceticism which are found in Jainism (though he later rejected many of these practices as too extreme). Helmuth von Glasenapp also argues that the Jain idea of non-violence, and particularly its promotion of vegetarianism, had an influence on Hinduism, especially on

Vaishnavism Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...

. Furthermore, von Glasenapp argues that some Hindu philosophical systems, particularly the dualistic Vedanta of

Madhvacarya Madhvacharya (; ; CE 1199-1278 or CE 1238–1317), sometimes anglicised as Madhva Acharya, and also known as Purna Prajna () and Ānanda Tīrtha, was an Indian philosopher, theologian and the chief proponent of the ''Dvaita'' (dualism) schoo ...

, was influenced by Jain philosophy. He also states that it is possible that Shaivasiddhanta was influenced by Jain thought as well. The Jain system of philosophy and ethics is also known for having had a major impact on modern figures like Dayanand Sarasvati and

Major Jain philosophers

Numerous Jain philosophers have contributed to the development of Jain thought. Below is a partial list of some of the main Jain philosophers. * Umāsvāti or Umasvami (possibly between 2nd-century and 5th-century CE) – The author of the first Jain work in Sanskrit, the ''Tattvārthasūtra'', which systematised Jain philosophy in a form acceptable to all sects of Jainism. *

(c. 2nd – 5th century CE) – The first Jain writer to write on ''nyāya'', (in his ''Apta-Mimāmsā''). He also composed the ''

Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra is a Jain text composed by Aacharya Samantbhadra Swamy (second century CE), an ''acharya'' of the Digambara sect of Jainism. Aacharya Samantbhadra Swamy was originally from Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu. Ratnakaranda śr� ...

'' and the ''Svayambhu Stotra''. * Kundakunda (c. sometime between the 2nd century and the 8th century CE). – An exponent of Jain metaphysics and an influential two truths theory. He was the author of '' Pañcāstikāyasāra'' "Essence of the Five Existents", the ''Pravacanasāra'' "Essence of the Scripture", the ''

Samayasāra ''Samayasāra'' (''The Nature of the Self'') is a famous Jain text composed by ''Acharya Kundakunda'' in 439 verses. Its ten chapters discuss the nature of '' Jīva'' (pure self/soul), its attachment to Karma and Moksha (liberation). ''Samaya ...

'' "Essence of the Doctrine", '' Niyamasāra'' "Essence of Discipline", ''Atthapāhuda'' "Eight Gifts", ''Dasabhatti'' "Ten Worships" and ''Bārasa Anuvekkhā'' "Twelve Contemplations". * Siddhasena Divākara (c. 5th century) – Jain logician and author of important works in Sanskrit and Prakrit, such as, ''Nyāyāvatāra'' (on Logic) and ''Sanmatisūtra'' (dealing with the seven Jaina standpoints, knowledge and the objects of knowledge). * Akalanka (c. 5th century) – key Jain logician, whose works such as ''Laghiyastraya, Pramānasangraha, Nyāyaviniscaya-vivarana, Siddhiviniscaya-vivarana, Astasati, Tattvārtharājavārtika,'' et al. are seen as landmarks in Indian logic. The impact of Akalanka may be surmised by the fact that Jain ''Nyāya'' is also known as ''Akalanka Nyāya''. *

(6th century) – Jain philosopher, grammarian, and Sanskritist. Composed ''Samadhitantra, Ishtopadesha'' and the ''Sarvarthasiddhi,'' a definitive commentary on the ''Tattvārthasūtra'' and ''Jainendra Vyakarana'', the first work on Sanskrit grammar by a Jain monk. * Manikyanandi (6th century) – Jain logician, composed the ''Parikshamaukham'', a masterpiece in the ''karika'' style of the Classical Nyaya school. * Jinabhadra Gaṇi (6th–7th century) – author of ''Avasyaksutra'' (Jain tenets) ''Visesanavati'' and ''Visesavasyakabhasya'' (Commentary on Jain essentials). He is said to have followed Siddhasena and compiled discussion and refutation on various views on Jaina doctrine. * Mallavadin (8th century) – author of ''Nayacakra'' and ''Dvadasaranayacakra'' (Encyclopedia of Philosophy) which discusses the schools of

Indian philosophy Indian philosophy refers to philosophical traditions of the Indian subcontinent. A traditional Hindu classification divides āstika and nāstika schools of philosophy, depending on one of three alternate criteria: whether it believes the Veda ...

. *Yogīndudeva (8th century), author of ''Paramātmaprakāśaḥ.'' *

(8th century) – Jain thinker, author, philosopher, satirist and great proponent of

anekāntavāda ( hi, अनेकान्तवाद, "many-sidedness") is the Jain doctrine about metaphysical truths that emerged in ancient India. It states that the ultimate truth and reality is complex and has multiple aspects. According to Jainism, ...

and yoga studies. His works include '', Yogabindu'', ''

Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya ("Compendium of Yoga views") is a 228 verse Sanskrit work on Yoga by the Jain Svetambara philosopher Acharya Haribhadrasuri yakini putra (floruit 8th century). It is a particularly informative work of comparative religi ...

'' and ''Dhurtakhyana''. he pioneered the ''Dvatrimshatika'' genre of writing in Jainism, where various religious subjects were covered in 32 succinct Sanskrit verses. * Prabhacandra (10th century) – Jain philosopher, composed a 106-Sutra Tattvarthasutra and exhaustive commentaries on two key works on Jain Nyaya, ''Prameyakamalamartanda'', based on Manikyanandi's ''Parikshamukham'' and ''Nyayakumudacandra'' on Akalanka's ''Laghiyastraya''. *

Nemichandra Nemichandra Siddhanta Chakravarty (fl. 10th century) was the author of ''Dravyasamgraha'', '' Gommatsāra'' (''Jivakanda'' and ''Karmakanda''), ''Trilokasara'', ''Labdhisara'' and ''Kshapanasara''. He was among the most distinguished of the Jai ...

(10th century), author of the ''

Gommatsāra ''Gommatsāra'' is one of the most important Jain texts authored by ''Acharya'' Nemichandra Siddhanta Chakravarti. History ''Gommatsāra'' was written by Nemichandra in 10th century CE in Prakrit. It is based on the major Jain text, Shatkhan ...

'', a great compendium of Digambara doctrine. * Abhayadeva (1057 to 1135) – author of ''Vadamahrnava'' (Ocean of Discussions) which is a 2,500 verse ''tika'' (Commentary) of ''Sanmartika'' and a great treatise on logic. *

Acharya Hemachandra Hemachandra was a 12th century () Indian Jain saint, scholar, poet, mathematician, philosopher, yogi, grammarian, law theorist, historian, lexicographer, rhetorician, logician, and prosodist. Noted as a prodigy by his contemporaries, he gain ...

(1089–1173) – Jain thinker, author, historian, grammarian and logician. His works include ''

Yogaśāstra ''Yogaśāstra'' (''lit.'' "Yoga treatise") is a 12th-century Sanskrit text by Hemachandra on Svetambara Jainism. It is a treatise on the "rules of conduct for laymen and ascetics", wherein "yoga" means "ratna-traya" (three jewels), i.e. right be ...

'' and ''Trishashthishalakapurushacaritra'' and the ''Siddhahemavyakarana''. He also authored an incomplete work on Jain Nyāya, titled ''Pramāna-Mimāmsā''. * Vadideva (11th century) – He was a senior contemporary of Hemacandra and is said to have authored ''Paramananayatattavalokalankara'' and its voluminous commentary the ''syadvadaratnakara'', a work which focuses on the doctrine of

. * Vidyanandi (11th century) – Jain philosopher, composed a commentary on Acarya Umasvami's ''Tattvarthasutra'', known as ''Tattvarthashlokavartika''. * Yaśovijaya (1624–1688) – Jain logician and one of the last intellectual giants to contribute to Jain philosophy. He specialised in ''Navya-Nyāya'' and commentaries on most of the earlier ''Jain Nyāya'' works by Samantabhadra, Akalanka, Manikyanandi, Vidyānandi, Prabhācandra and others in the then-prevalent ''Navya-Nyāya'' style. Yaśovijaya has to his credit a prolific literary output – more than 100 books in

Prakrit The Prakrits (; sa, prākṛta; psu, 𑀧𑀸𑀉𑀤, ; pka, ) are a group of vernacular Middle Indo-Aryan languages that were used in the Indian subcontinent from around the 3rd century BCE to the 8th century CE. The term Prakrit is usu ...

Gujarati Gujarati may refer to: * something of, from, or related to Gujarat, a state of India * Gujarati people, the major ethnic group of Gujarat * Gujarati language, the Indo-Aryan language spoken by them * Gujarati languages, the Western Indo-Aryan sub ...

and

Rajasthani Rajasthani may refer to: * something of, from, or related to Rajasthan, a state of India * Rajasthani languages, a group of languages spoken there * Rajasthani people, the native inhabitants of the region * Rajasthani architecture * Rajasthani art ...

. He is also famous for ''Jnanasara'' (essence of knowledge) and ''Adhayatmasara'' (essence of spirituality). *Vinayavijaya (17th century), author of the encyclopedic ''Lokaprakāsha.'' *

(19th century), composed Shri Atmasiddhi Shastra, a 142 spiritual treatise that expounds the 6 fundamental truths of the soul.

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External links

* * {{DEFAULTSORT:Jain Philosophy * Philosophy by culture