Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
: जैन साहित्य) refers to the literature of the
Jain religion
Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle being ...
. It is a vast and ancient literary tradition, which was initially transmitted orally. The oldest surviving material is contained in the canonical ''Jain Agamas,'' which are written in
Ardhamagadhi
Ardhamagadhi Prakrit was a Middle Indo-Aryan language and a Dramatic Prakrit thought to have been spoken in modern-day Bihar and Uttar Pradesh and used in some early Buddhist and Jain drama. It was likely a Central Indo-Aryan language, related to ...
, a
Prakrit
The Prakrits (; sa, prākṛta; psu, 𑀧𑀸𑀉𑀤, ; pka, ) are a group of vernacular Middle Indo-Aryan languages that were used in the Indian subcontinent from around the 3rd century BCE to the 8th century CE. The term Prakrit is usu ...
( Middle-Indo Aryan) language. Various commentaries were written on these canonical texts by later Jain monks. Later works were also written in other languages, like
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
and Maharashtri Prakrit.
Jain literature is primarily divided between the canons of the ''
Digambara
''Digambara'' (; "sky-clad") is one of the two major schools of Jainism, the other being '' Śvētāmbara'' (white-clad). The Sanskrit word ''Digambara'' means "sky-clad", referring to their traditional monastic practice of neither possessing ...
'' and ''
Śvētāmbara
The Śvētāmbara (; ''śvētapaṭa''; also spelled ''Shwethambara'', ''Svetambar'', ''Shvetambara'' or ''Swetambar'') is one of the two main branches of Jainism, the other being the ''Digambara''. Śvētāmbara means "white-clad", and refers ...
'' orders. These two main sects of Jainism do not always agree on which texts should be considered authoritative.
More recent Jain literature has also been written in other languages, like
Marathi
Marathi may refer to:
*Marathi people, an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group of Maharashtra, India
*Marathi language, the Indo-Aryan language spoken by the Marathi people
*Palaiosouda, also known as Marathi, a small island in Greece
See also
*
* ...
,
Tamil
Tamil may refer to:
* Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia
**Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils
**Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia
* Tamil language, nativ ...
,
Rajasthani
Rajasthani may refer to:
* something of, from, or related to Rajasthan, a state of India
* Rajasthani languages, a group of languages spoken there
* Rajasthani people, the native inhabitants of the region
* Rajasthani architecture
* Rajasthani art ...
,
Dhundari
Dhundhari (also known as Jaipuri) is a dialect of Rajasthani spoken in the Dhundhar region of northeastern Rajasthan state, India. Dhundari-speaking people are found in four districts – Jaipur, Sawai Madhopur, Dausa, Tonk and some parts of ...
Hindi
Hindi (Devanāgarī: or , ), or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi (Devanagari: ), is an Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in the Hindi Belt region encompassing parts of northern, central, eastern, and western India. Hindi has been de ...
,
Gujarati
Gujarati may refer to:
* something of, from, or related to Gujarat, a state of India
* Gujarati people, the major ethnic group of Gujarat
* Gujarati language, the Indo-Aryan language spoken by them
* Gujarati languages, the Western Indo-Aryan sub ...
,
Kannada
Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...
,
Malayalam
Malayalam (; , ) is a Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry (Mahé district) by the Malayali people. It is one of 22 scheduled languages of India. Malayalam was des ...
and more recently in
English
English usually refers to:
* English language
* English people
English may also refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England
** English national ide ...
.
Beliefs
The Jain tradition believes that their religion is eternal, and the teachings of the first ''Tirthankara Rishabhanatha'' existed millions of years ago. It states that the ''
tirthankara
In Jainism, a ''Tirthankara'' (Sanskrit: '; English: literally a 'ford-maker') is a saviour and spiritual teacher of the ''dharma'' (righteous path). The word ''tirthankara'' signifies the founder of a '' tirtha'', which is a fordable passag ...
s'' taught in divine preaching halls called ''
samavasarana
In Jainism, Samavasarana or Samosharana ("Refuge to All") is the divine preaching hall of the Tirthankara, stated to have more than 20,000 stairs in it. The word ''samavasarana'' is derived from two words, ''sama'', meaning general and ''avasar ...
'', which were heard by gods, ascetics and laypersons. These divine discourses were called ''Śhrut Jnāna'' (or heard knowledge) and always comprises eleven '' angas'' and fourteen ''
purvas
The Fourteen Purva translated as ancient or prior knowledge, are a large body of Jain scriptures that was preached by all Tirthankaras (omniscient teachers) of Jainism encompassing the entire gamut of knowledge available in this universe. The pers ...
''. The discourses are remembered and transmitted by the '' Ganadharas'' (chief disciples), and is composed of twelve ''angas'' (parts, limbs). It is symbolically represented by a tree with twelve branches. The spoken scriptural language is believed to be ''
Ardhamagadhi
Ardhamagadhi Prakrit was a Middle Indo-Aryan language and a Dramatic Prakrit thought to have been spoken in modern-day Bihar and Uttar Pradesh and used in some early Buddhist and Jain drama. It was likely a Central Indo-Aryan language, related to ...
'' by the Śvētāmbara Jains, and a form of divine sound or sonic resonance by the Digambara Jains.
According to the Jain tradition, the divine ''Śhrut Jnāna'' of a ''tirthankara'' is then converted into ''sutta'' (scripture) by his disciples, and from such ''suttas'' emerge the formal canons. The suttas are grouped into ''duvala samgagani pidaga'' (twelve limbed baskets), which are transmitted orally by the disciples. In every universal cycle of Jain cosmology, twenty-four ''tirthankaras'' appear and so do the Jain scriptures for that cycle.
History
Initially, the canonical scriptures were transmitted through an
oral tradition
Oral tradition, or oral lore, is a form of human communication wherein knowledge, art, ideas and cultural material is received, preserved, and transmitted orally from one generation to another. Vansina, Jan: ''Oral Tradition as History'' (1985 ...
and consisted of teachings of historical Jain leaders like Mahavira codified into various collections.
Gautama
Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a śramaṇa, wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism.
According to Buddhist tradition, he was ...
and other Gandhars (the chief disciples of Mahavira) are said to have compiled the original sacred scriptures which were divided into twelve Angas or parts. They are referred to as the eleven ''Angas'' and the fourteen ''Pūrvas'', since the twelfth Anga comprises fourteen ''Pūrvas''. These scriptures are said to have contained the most comprehensive and accurate description of every branch of Jain learning. The Jain Agamas and their commentaries were composed mainly in
Ardhamagadhi Prakrit
Ardhamagadhi Prakrit was a Middle Indo-Aryan language and a Dramatic Prakrit thought to have been spoken in modern-day Bihar and Uttar Pradesh and used in some early Buddhist and Jain drama. It was likely a Central Indo-Aryan language, related ...
as well as in Maharashtri Prakrit.
While some authors date the composition of the Jain Agamas starting from the 6th century BCE, some western scholars, such as Ian Whicher and David Carpenter, argue that the earliest portions of Jain canonical works were composed around the 4th or 3rd century BCE. According to Johannes Bronkhorst it is extremely difficult to determine the age of the Jain Agamas, however:
Mainly on linguistic grounds, it has been argued that the Ācārāṅga Sūtra, the Sūtrakṛtāṅga Sūtra, and the Uttarādhyayana Sūtra are among the oldest texts in the canon. This does not guarantee that they actually date from the time of Mahāvīra, nor even from the centuries immediately following his death, nor does it guarantee that all parts of these texts were composed simultaneously.
Elsewhere, Bronkhorst states that the Sūtrakṛtāṅga "dates from the 2nd century BCE at the very earliest," based on how it references the Buddhist theory of momentariness, which is a later scholastic development.
During the reign of
Chandragupta Maurya
Chandragupta Maurya (350-295 BCE) was a ruler in Ancient India who expanded a geographically-extensive kingdom based in Magadha and founded the Maurya dynasty. He reigned from 320 BCE to 298 BCE. The Maurya kingdom expanded to become an empi ...
(c. 324 or 321 – c. 297 BCE), Āchārya Bhadrabahu (c. 367 - c. 298 BCE), said to have been the last knower of the complete Jain ''agamas'', was the head of
Jain community
The Jains in India are the last direct representatives of the ancient Shramana tradition. People who practice Jainism, an ancient religion of the Indian subcontinent, are collectively referred to as Jains.
Sangha
Jainism has a fourfold orde ...
. At this time, a long famine caused a crisis in the community, who found it difficult to keep the entire Jain canon committed to memory. Bhadrabahu decided to travel south to
Karnataka
Karnataka (; ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a state in the southwestern region of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act. Originally known as Mysore State , it was renamed ''Karnat ...
with his adherents and Sthulabhadra, another Jain leader remained behind. The famine decimated the Jain community, leading to the loss of many canonical texts. According to
Śvētāmbara
The Śvētāmbara (; ''śvētapaṭa''; also spelled ''Shwethambara'', ''Svetambar'', ''Shvetambara'' or ''Swetambar'') is one of the two main branches of Jainism, the other being the ''Digambara''. Śvētāmbara means "white-clad", and refers ...
("white-clad") tradition, the agamas were collected on the basis of the collective memory of the ascetics in the first council of
Pataliputra
Pataliputra (IAST: ), adjacent to modern-day Patna, was a city in ancient India, originally built by Magadha ruler Ajatashatru in 490 BCE as a small fort () near the Ganges river.. Udayin laid the foundation of the city of Pataliputra at the ...
under the stewardship of Sthulibhadra in around to 463–367 BCE. During the council, eleven scriptures called
Anga
Anga (Sanskrit: ) was an ancient Indo-Aryan tribe of eastern South Asia whose existence is attested during the Iron Age. The members of the Aṅga tribe were called the Āṅgeyas.
Counted among the "sixteen great nations" in Buddhist texts ...
s were compiled and the remnant of fourteen purvas were written down in a 12th Anga. Another council was later organised in 2nd-century BCE in
Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves
Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, formerly called Kattaka Caves or Cuttack caves, are partly natural and partly artificial caves of archaeological, historical and religious importance near the city of Bhubaneswar in Odisha, India. The caves are ...
,
Kalinga Kalinga may refer to:
Geography, linguistics and/or ethnology
* Kalinga (historical region), a historical region of India
** Kalinga (Mahabharata), an apocryphal kingdom mentioned in classical Indian literature
** Kalinga script, an ancient writ ...
(now in
Odisha
Odisha (English: , ), formerly Orissa ( the official name until 2011), is an Indian state located in Eastern India. It is the 8th largest state by area, and the 11th largest by population. The state has the third largest population of ...
) during the reign of
Kharavela
Kharavela (also transliterated Khārabēḷa) was a monarch of Kalinga in present-day Odisha, India, who ruled during the second or first century BCE. The primary source for Kharavela is his rock-cut Hathigumpha inscription. The inscription is ...
.
The Śvētāmbara order considers these Jain Agamas as canonical works and sees them as being based on an authentic oral tradition. They consider their collection to represent a continuous tradition, though they accept that their collection is also incomplete because of a lost Anga text and four lost Purva texts.
However, these texts were rejected by the
Digambara
''Digambara'' (; "sky-clad") is one of the two major schools of Jainism, the other being '' Śvētāmbara'' (white-clad). The Sanskrit word ''Digambara'' means "sky-clad", referring to their traditional monastic practice of neither possessing ...
(lit. "sky-clad", i.e. naked) order, which hold that Āchārya
Bhutabali
Acharya Bhutabali (7th century CE) was a Digambara monk. He along with Acharya Pushpadanta composed the most sacred Jain text,'' Satkhandagama.''.
Legacy
''Shrut Panchami'' (scripture fifth) is celebrated by Jains in may every year commemorati ...
(1st Century CE) was the last ascetic who had partial knowledge of the original canon. According to Digambaras, the ''Purvas'' and the original ''Agamas'' of Gautama were lost during the Mauryan period crisis and famine. This Digambara stance on the loss of the Agamas is one of the disagreements that led to the main schism in Jainism. Digambara masters proceeded to create new scriptures which contained the knowledge of the doctrine that had survived in their community. As such, Digambaras have a different set of canonical scriptures. According to von Glasenapp, the Digambara texts partially agree with the enumerations and works of older Śvētāmbara texts, but in many cases there are also major differences between the texts of the two major Jain traditions.
The Śvētāmbara Siddhāntha
In 453 or 466 CE, the Śvētāmbara order held another council at
Vallabhi
Vallabhi (or Valabhi or Valabhipur, modern Vala; Devanāgarī: वल्लभी) is an ancient city located in the Saurashtra peninsula of Gujarat, near Bhavnagar in western India. It is also known as Vallabhipura and was the capital of the S ...
. The Śvētāmbaras recompiled the Agamas and recorded them as written manuscripts under the leadership of Acharya Shraman Devardhigani along with other 500 Jain scholars. The existing Śvētāmbara canons are based on the
Vallabhi
Vallabhi (or Valabhi or Valabhipur, modern Vala; Devanāgarī: वल्लभी) is an ancient city located in the Saurashtra peninsula of Gujarat, near Bhavnagar in western India. It is also known as Vallabhipura and was the capital of the S ...
council texts.
From the 15th century onwards, various Śvetāmbara subsects began to disagree on the composition of the canon. Mūrtipūjaks ("idol-worshippers") accept 45 texts, while the Sthānakavāsins and Terāpanthins only accept 32.
List of works
The canons (''Siddhāntha'') of the Śvētāmbaras are generally composed of the following texts:
* Twelve ''Angās (limbs)''
** '' Āyāraṃga'' (Sanskrit: ''Ācāranga'', meaning: ‘On monastic conduct’)
** '' Sūyagaḍa'' (''Sūtrakṛtāṅga'', ‘On heretical systems and views’)
** '' Ṭhāṇaṃga'' (''Sthānāṅga'', ‘On different points f the teaching)
** '' Samavāyaṃga'' (''Samavāyāṅga'', ‘On "rising numerical groups"’)
** '' Viyāha-pannatti / Bhagavaī'' (''Vyākhyā-prajñapti'' or ''Bhagavatī'', ‘Exposition of explanations’ or ‘the holy one’)
** '' Nāyā-dhamma-kahāo'' (''Jñāta-dharmakathānga'', ‘Parables and religious stories’)
** '' Uvāsaga-dasāo'' (''Upāsaka-daśāḥ'',‘Ten chapters on the Jain lay follower’)
** '' Aṇuttarovavāiya-dasāo'' (''Antakṛd-daśāḥ'', ‘Ten chapters on those who put an end to rebirth in this very life’)
** ''
Anuttaraupapātikadaśāh
Anuttaraupapātikadaśāh is the ninth of the 12 Jain āgamas said to be promulgated by Māhavīra himself. Anuttaraupapātikadaśāh translated as "Ten Chapters about the arisers in the Highest Heavens" is said to have been composed by Ganadh ...
'' (''Anuttaropapātika-daśāḥ'', ‘Ten chapters on those who were reborn in the uppermost heavens’)
** '' Paṇha-vāgaraṇa'' (''Praśna-vyākaraṇa'', ‘Questions and explanations’)
** '' Vivāga-suya'' (''Vipākaśruta'',‘Bad or good results of deeds performed’)
*Twelve ''Upāṅgas (auxiliary limbs)''
**''Uvavāiya-sutta'' (Sanskrit: ''Aupapātika-sūtra'',‘Places of rebirth’)
**''Rāya-paseṇaijja'' or ''Rāyapaseṇiya'' (''Rāja-praśnīya'', ‘Questions of the king’)
**''Jīvājīvābhigama'' (''Jīvājīvābhigama'', ‘Classification of animate and inanimate entities’)
**''Pannavaṇā'' (''Prajñāpanā'', ‘Enunciation on topics of philosophy and ethics’)
**''Sūriya-pannatti'' (''Sūrya-prajñapti'', ‘Exposition on the sun’)
**''Jambūdvīpa-pannatti'' (''Jambūdvīpa-prajñapti'', ‘Exposition on the Jambū continent and the Jain universe’)
**''Canda-pannatti'' (''Candra-prajñapti'', ‘Exposition on the moon and the Jain universe’)
**''Nirayāvaliyāo or Kappiya'' (''Narakāvalikā'', ‘Series of stories on characters reborn in hells’)
**''Kappāvaḍaṃsiāo'' (''Kalpāvataṃsikāḥ'', ‘Series of stories on characters reborn in the kalpa heavens’)
**''Pupphiāo'' (''Puṣpikāḥ'', ‘Flowers’ refers to one of the stories’)
**''Puppha-cūliāo'' (''Puṣpa-cūlikāḥ'', ‘The nun Puṣpacūlā’)
**''Vaṇhi-dasāo'' (''Vṛṣṇi-daśāh'', ‘Stories on characters from the legendary dynasty known as Andhaka-Vṛṣṇi’)
* Six ''Chedasūtras'' (Texts relating to the conduct and behaviour of monks and nuns)
** ''Āyāra-dasāo'' (Sanskrit: ''Ācāradaśāh'', ‘Ten haptersabout monastic conduct’, chapter 8 is the famed Kalpa-sūtra.)
** ''Bihā Kappa'' (''Bṛhat Kalpa'', ‘ reatReligious code’)
** '' Vavahāra'' (Vyavahāra, ‘Procedure’)
** '' Nisīha'' (Niśītha, ‘Interdictions’)
** ''Jīya-kappa'' (''Jīta-kalpa'', Customary rules), only accepted as canonical by Mūrti-pūjaks
** ''Mahā-nisīha'' (''Mahā-niśītha'', Large Niśītha), only accepted as canonical by Mūrti-pūjaks
* Four ''Mūlasūtras'' (‘Fundamental texts’ which are foundational works studied by new monastics)
** ''Dasaveyāliya-sutta'' (Sanskrit: ''Daśavaikālika-sūtra''), this is memorized by all new Jain mendicants
** '' Uttarajjhayaṇa-sutta'' (''Uttarādhyayana-sūtra'')
** ''Āvassaya-sutta'' (''Āvaśyaka-sūtra'')
** ''Piṇḍa-nijjutti'' and ''Ogha-nijjutti'' (''Piṇḍa-niryukti'' and ''Ogha-niryukti''), only accepted as canonical by Mūrti-pūjaks
* Two ''Cūlikasūtras'' ("appendixes")
** ''Nandī-sūtra'' - discusses the five types of knowledge
** ''Anuyogadvāra-sūtra'' - a technical treatise on analytical methods, discusses Anekantavada
Miscellaneous collections
To reach the number 45, Mūrtipūjak Śvētāmbara canons contain a "Miscellaneous" collection of supplementary texts, called the ''Paiṇṇaya suttas'' (Sanskrit: ''Prakīrnaka sūtras'', "Miscellaneous"). This section varies in number depending on the individual sub-sect (from 10 texts to over 20). They also often included extra works (often of disputed authorship) named "supernumerary Prakīrṇakas". The Paiṇṇaya texts are generally not considered to have the same kind of authority as the other works in the canon. Most of these works are in Jaina Māhārāṣṭrī Prakrit, unlike the other Śvetāmbara scriptures which tend to be in Ardhamāgadhī. They are therefore most likely later works than the Aṅgas and Upāṅgas.
Mūrtipūjak Jain canons will generally accept 10 Paiṇṇayas as canonical, but there is widespread disagreement on which 10 scriptures are given canonical status. The most widely accepted list of ten scriptures are the following:
*''Cau-saraṇa'' (Sanskrit: ''Catuḥśaraṇa'', The ‘four refuges’)
*''Āura-paccakkhāṇa'' (''Ātura-pratyākhyāna'', ‘Sick man’s renunciation’)
*''Bhatta-parinnā'' (''Bhakta-parijñā'',‘Renunciation of food’)
*''Saṃthāraga'' (''Saṃstāraka'', ‘Straw bed’)
*''Tandula-veyāliya'' (''Taṇḍula-vaicārika'',‘Reflection on rice grains’)
*''Canda-vejjhaya'' (''Candravedhyaka'', ‘Hitting the mark’)
*''Devinda-tthaya'' (''Devendra-stava'', ‘Praise of the kings of gods’)
*''Gaṇi-vijjā'' (''Gaṇi-vidyā'',‘A Gaṇi’s knowledge’)
*''Mahā-paccakkhāṇa'' (''Mahā-pratyākhyāna'',‘Great renunciation’)
*''Vīra-tthava'' (''Vīra-stava'',‘Great renunciation’)
The Digambara Siddhāntha
According to the Digambara tradition, the original scriptures had been lost by about the 2nd century CE. Āchārya
Bhutabali
Acharya Bhutabali (7th century CE) was a Digambara monk. He along with Acharya Pushpadanta composed the most sacred Jain text,'' Satkhandagama.''.
Legacy
''Shrut Panchami'' (scripture fifth) is celebrated by Jains in may every year commemorati ...
is considered the last ascetic who had some partial knowledge of the original canon. Digambara tradition holds that Āchārya Dharasena (1st century CE), guided Āchārya Pushpadanta and Āchārya Bhutabali to write what remained of the lost teachings down into palm-leaf scriptures. These two Āchāryas wrote the ''
Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama
The (Sanskrit: "Scripture in Six Parts") is the foremost and oldest Digambara Jain sacred text.
According to Digambara tradition, the original canonical scriptures of the Jains were totally lost within a few centuries of ''Nirvana'' of Ma ...
'' (Six Part Scripture), which is held to be one of the oldest Digambara texts. They are dated to between the 2nd to 3rd century CE. Around the same time, Āchārya Gunadhar wrote '' Kaşāyapāhuda'' (Treatise on the Passions).Sagarmal Jain, Shreeprakash Pandey (1998) ''Jainism in a Global Perspective'' p. 239. Collection of Jain papers of 1993 Parliament of World Religions, Chicago. Parshwanath Vidyapith Pubs. These two texts are the two main Digambara Agamas.
The Digambara canon of scriptures includes these two main texts, three commentaries on the main texts, and four (later) ''Anuyogas'' (expositions), consisting of more than 20 texts.
The great commentator
Virasena
Acharya Virasena (792-853 CE), also known as Veerasena, was a Digambara monk and belonged to the lineage of Acharya Kundakunda. He was an Indian mathematician and Jain philosopher and scholar. He was also known as a famous orator and an accompl ...
wrote two commentary texts on the ''Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama'', the ''Dhaval‑tika'' on the first five volumes and ''Maha‑dhaval‑tika'' on the sixth volume of the ''Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama'', around 780 CE.
Virasena
Acharya Virasena (792-853 CE), also known as Veerasena, was a Digambara monk and belonged to the lineage of Acharya Kundakunda. He was an Indian mathematician and Jain philosopher and scholar. He was also known as a famous orator and an accompl ...
and his disciple,
Jinasena
Jinasena (c. 9th century CE) was a monk and scholar in the ''Digambara'' tradition of Jainism. He was patronized by the Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha I. He was the author of ''Adipurana'' and '' Mahapurana''.Kaşāyapāhuda,'' known as ''Jaya‑dhavala‑tika''.
There is no agreement on the canonical Anuyogas ("Expositions"). The Anuyogas were written between the 2nd and the 11th centuries CE, either in Jaina Śaurasenī Prakrit or in Sanskrit.
The expositions (''Anuyogas'') are divided into four literary categories:
* The 'first' (''Prathamānuyoga'') category contains various works such as Jain versions of the ''Rāmāyaṇa'' (like the 7th-century ''Padma-purāṇa'' by Raviṣeṇa) and ''Mahābhārata'' (like Jinasena's 8th century ''Harivaṃśa-purāṇa''), as well as ‘Jain universal histories’ (like Jinasena's 8th-century ''Ādi-purāṇa'').
* The 'calculation' (''Karaṇānuyoga'') expositions are mainly works on Jain cosmology (such as ''Tiloya-paṇṇatti'' of Yati Vṛṣabha, dating from the 6th to 7th century) and karma (for example, Nemicandra's '' Gommaṭa-sāra''). The ''Gommatsāra'' of
Nemichandra
Nemichandra Siddhanta Chakravarty (fl. 10th century) was the author of ''Dravyasamgraha'', '' Gommatsāra'' (''Jivakanda'' and ''Karmakanda''), ''Trilokasara'', ''Labdhisara'' and ''Kshapanasara''. He was among the most distinguished of the Jai ...
( fl. 10th century) is one of the most important Digambara works and provides a detailed summary of Digambara doctrine.
* The 'behaviour' (''Caraṇānuyoga'') expositions are texts about proper behaviour, such as Vaṭṭakera's ''Mūlācāra'' (on monastic conduct, 2nd century) and the '' Ratnakaraṇḍaka-Śrāvakācāra'' by
Samantabhadra Samantabhadra (Lit. "All Good", or "Always Auspicious") may refer to:
* Samantabhadra (Bodhisattva), a bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism associated with practice and meditation
* ''Samantabhadra'' (Tibetan: ''Kuntu Zangpo''), the name of a Buddha, ...
(5th-century) which focuses on the ethics of a layperson. Works in this category also treat the purity of the soul, such as the work of Kundakunda like the '' Samaya-sāra,'' the '' Pancastikayasara,'' and ''
Niyamasara
Niyamasara is a Jain text authored by ''Acharya Kundakunda'', a Digambara Jain acharya. It is described by its commentators as the Bhagavat Shastra. It expounds the path to liberation.
Subject matter
''Niyamasara'' deals with the three ethico ...
.'' These works by Kundakunda (2nd century CE or later) are highly revered and have been historically influential.'
* The 'substance' (''Dravyānuyoga'') exposition includes texts about
ontology
In metaphysics, ontology is the philosophical study of being, as well as related concepts such as existence, becoming, and reality.
Ontology addresses questions like how entities are grouped into categories and which of these entities exis ...
Sarvārthasiddhi
''Sarvārthasiddhi'' is a famous Jain text authored by '' Ācārya Pujyapada''. It is the oldest extan commentary on ''Ācārya Umaswami's Tattvārthasūtra'' (another famous Jain text). Traditionally though, the oldest commentary on the Tatt ...
'' is one of the most influential Digambara commentaries on the ''Tattvārtha''. This collection also includes various works on epistemology and reasoning, such as Samantabhadra's '' Āpta-mīmāṃsā'' and the works of Akalaṅka (720-780 CE), such as his commentary on the ''Apta-mīmāṃsā'' and his ''Nyāya-viniścaya.''
Post-Canonical literature
Doctrinal and philosophical works
There are various later Jain works that are considered post-canonical, that is to say, they were written after the closure of the Jain canons, though the different canons were closed at different historical eras, and so this category is ambiguous.
Thus,
Umaswati
Umaswati, also spelled as Umasvati and known as Umaswami, was an Indian scholar, possibly between 2nd-century and 5th-century CE, known for his foundational writings on Jainism. He authored the Jain text ''Tattvartha Sutra'' (literally '"All Tha ...
's (c. between 2nd-century and 5th-century CE) ''
Tattvarthasūtra
''Tattvārthasūtra'', meaning "On the Nature '' ''artha">nowiki/>''artha''.html" ;"title="artha.html" ;"title="nowiki/>''artha">nowiki/>''artha''">artha.html" ;"title="nowiki/>''artha">nowiki/>''artha''of Reality 'tattva'' (also known as ...
'' ("On the Nature of Reality") is included in the Digambara canon, but not in the Śvētāmbara canons (though they do consider the work authoritative). Indeed, the ''
Tattvarthasūtra
''Tattvārthasūtra'', meaning "On the Nature '' ''artha">nowiki/>''artha''.html" ;"title="artha.html" ;"title="nowiki/>''artha">nowiki/>''artha''">artha.html" ;"title="nowiki/>''artha">nowiki/>''artha''of Reality 'tattva'' (also known as ...
'' is considered ''the'' authoritative Jain philosophy text by all traditions of Jainism. It has the same importance in Jainism as '' Vedanta Sūtras'' and ''
Yogasūtras
The ''Yoga Sutras of Patañjali'' is a collection of Sanskrit sutras (aphorisms) on the theory and practice of yoga – 195 sutras (according to Vyāsa and Krishnamacharya) and 196 sutras (according to others, including BKS Iyengar). The ' ...
'' have in
Hinduism
Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
.
Other non-canonical works include various texts attributed to Bhadrabahu (c. 300 BCE) which are called the ''Niryuktis'' and ''Samhitas''.
According to Winternitz, after the 8th century or so, Svetambara Jain writers, who had previously worked in Prakrit, began to use Sanskrit. The Digambaras also adopted Sanskrit somewhat earlier. The earliest Jain works in Sanskrit include the writings of Siddhasēna Divākara (c. 650 CE), who wrote the ''Sanmatitarka'' (‘The Logic of the True Doctrine’) is the first major Jain work on logic written in
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
.
Other later works and writers include:
*
Jinabhadra
Jinabhadra or Vachanacharya Jinabhadragani Kshamashramana was Jain ascetic author of Prakrit and Sanskrit texts.
Life
Jinabhadra (520-623 AD) was a Svetambara Jain monk during sixth-seventh century CE. Not much is known about his life but it s ...
(6th–7th century) – author of ''Avasyaksutra'' (Jain tenets) ''Visesanavati'' and ''Visesavasyakabhasya'' (Commentary on Jain essentials).
* Mallavadin (8th century) – author of ''Nayacakra'' and ''Dvadasaranayacakra'' (Encyclopedia of Philosophy) which discusses the schools of
Indian philosophy
Indian philosophy refers to philosophical traditions of the Indian subcontinent. A traditional Hindu classification divides āstika and nāstika schools of philosophy, depending on one of three alternate criteria: whether it believes the Veda ...
.
* Haribhadra-sūri (c 8th century) is an important Svetambara scholar who wrote commentaries on the Agamas. He also wrote the ''
Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya
Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya ("Compendium of Yoga views") is a 228 verse Sanskrit work on Yoga by the Jain Svetambara philosopher Acharya Haribhadrasuri yakini putra (floruit 8th century). It is a particularly informative work of comparative religi ...
'', a key Jain text on Yoga which compares the Yoga systems of Buddhists, Hindus and Jains. Gunaratna (c. 1400 CE) wrote a commentary on Haribhadra's work.
* Prabhacandra (8th–9th century) – Jain philosopher, composed a 106-Sutra Tattvarthasutra and exhaustive commentaries on two key works on Jain Nyaya, ''Prameyakamalamartanda'', based on Manikyanandi's ''Parikshamukham'' and ''Nyayakumudacandra'' on Akalanka's ''Laghiyastraya''.
* Abhayadeva (1057–1135 CE) – author of ''Vadamahrnava'' (Ocean of Discussions) which is a 2,500 verse ''tika'' (Commentary) of ''Sanmartika'' and a great treatise on logic.
*
Hemachandra
Hemachandra was a 12th century () Indian Jain saint, scholar, poet, mathematician, philosopher, yogi, grammarian, law theorist, historian, lexicographer, rhetorician, logician, and prosodist. Noted as a prodigy by his contemporaries, he gain ...
(c. 1088-1172 CE) wrote the ''
Yogaśāstra
''Yogaśāstra'' (''lit.'' "Yoga treatise") is a 12th-century Sanskrit text by Hemachandra on Svetambara Jainism. It is a treatise on the "rules of conduct for laymen and ascetics", wherein "yoga" means "ratna-traya" (three jewels), i.e. right be ...
'', a textbook on yoga and ''Adhatma Upanishad''. His minor work ''Vitragastuti'' gives outlines of the Jaina doctrine in form of hymns. This was later detailed by Mallisena (c. 1292 CE) in his work ''Syadavadamanjari''.
* Vadideva (11th century) – He was a senior contemporary of Hemacandra and is said to have authored ''Paramananayatattavalokalankara'' and its voluminous commentary ''syadvadaratnakara'' that establishes the supremacy of doctrine of
Syādvāda
( hi, अनेकान्तवाद, "many-sidedness") is the Jain doctrine about metaphysical truths that emerged in ancient India. It states that the ultimate truth and reality is complex and has multiple aspects.
According to Jainism, ...
.
* There are also other important commentators on the Agamas, including Abhayadeva-sūri (c. 11th century) and Malayagiri (c. the 12th century).
* Vidyanandi (11th century) – Jain philosopher, composed the brilliant commentary on Acarya Umasvami's Tattvarthasutra, known as ''Tattvarthashlokavartika''.
* Devendrasuri wrote the ''Karmagrantha'' which is an exposition of the Jain theory of Karma.
* Yaśovijaya (1624–1688) was a Jain scholar of ''
Navya-Nyāya
The Navya-Nyāya or Neo-Logical ''darśana'' (view, system, or school) of Indian logic and Indian philosophy was founded in the 13th century CE by the philosopher Gangeśa Upādhyāya of Mithila and continued by Raghunatha Siromani of Nabadwi ...
'' and wrote Vrttis (commentaries) on most of the earlier ''Jain Nyāya'' works by Samantabhadra, Akalanka, Manikyanandi, Vidyānandi, Prabhācandra and others in the then-prevalent ''Navya-Nyāya'' style. Yaśovijaya has to his credit a prolific literary output – more than 100 books in
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
,
Prakrit
The Prakrits (; sa, prākṛta; psu, 𑀧𑀸𑀉𑀤, ; pka, ) are a group of vernacular Middle Indo-Aryan languages that were used in the Indian subcontinent from around the 3rd century BCE to the 8th century CE. The term Prakrit is usu ...
,
Gujarati
Gujarati may refer to:
* something of, from, or related to Gujarat, a state of India
* Gujarati people, the major ethnic group of Gujarat
* Gujarati language, the Indo-Aryan language spoken by them
* Gujarati languages, the Western Indo-Aryan sub ...
and
Rajasthani
Rajasthani may refer to:
* something of, from, or related to Rajasthan, a state of India
* Rajasthani languages, a group of languages spoken there
* Rajasthani people, the native inhabitants of the region
* Rajasthani architecture
* Rajasthani art ...
. He is also famous for ''Jnanasara'' (essence of knowledge) and ''Adhayatmasara'' (essence of spirituality).
* The ''Lokaprakasa'' of Vinayavijaya was written in the 17th century CE.
* Srivarddhaeva (aka Tumbuluracarya) wrote a Kannada commentary on ''Tattvarthadigama-sutra''.
* Atmasiddhi Shastra is a spiritual treatise in verse, composed in
Gujarati
Gujarati may refer to:
* something of, from, or related to Gujarat, a state of India
* Gujarati people, the major ethnic group of Gujarat
* Gujarati language, the Indo-Aryan language spoken by them
* Gujarati languages, the Western Indo-Aryan sub ...
by the nineteenth century
Jain
Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle being ...
saint, philosopher poet
Shrimad Rajchandra
Shrimad Rajchandra (11 November 1867 – 9 April 1901) was a Jain poet, mystic, philosopher, scholar and reformer. Born in Vavaniya, a village near Morbi, he claimed to have recollection of his past lives at the age of seven. He performed '' ...
ji (1867-1901) which comprises 142 verses explaining the fundamental philosophical truths about the
soul
In many religious and philosophical traditions, there is a belief that a soul is "the immaterial aspect or essence of a human being".
Etymology
The Modern English noun ''soul'' is derived from Old English ''sāwol, sāwel''. The earliest attes ...
and its
liberation
Liberation or liberate may refer to:
Film and television
* ''Liberation'' (film series), a 1970–1971 series about the Great Patriotic War
* "Liberation" (''The Flash''), a TV episode
* "Liberation" (''K-9''), an episode
Gaming
* '' Liberati ...
. It propounds six fundamental truth on soul which are also known as ''Satapada'' (six steps).
*The Saman Suttam is a compilation of ancient texts and doctrines recognised by all Jain sects, assembled primarily by
Jinendra Varni
Jinēndra Varṇī, one of the best-known Jain scholars of the 20th century, is known for his pioneering five-volume ''Jainendra Siddhanta Kosha'' and '' Saman Suttam'' compilation,Progressive Jains of India By Satish Kumar Jain, 1975,
Shrama ...
and then examined and approved by monks of different sects and other scholars in 1974.
Grammar
''Jainendra-vyakarana'' of Acharya
Pujyapada
Acharya Pujyapada or Pūjyapāda (464–524 CE) was a renowned grammarian and ''acharya'' (philosopher monk) belonging to the Digambara tradition of Jains. It was believed that he was worshiped by demigods on the account of his vast scholarship ...
and ''Sakatayana-vyakarana'' of Sakatayana are both works on grammar written in c. 9th century CE.
''Siddha-Hem-Shabdanushasana" ''by Acharya
Hemachandra
Hemachandra was a 12th century () Indian Jain saint, scholar, poet, mathematician, philosopher, yogi, grammarian, law theorist, historian, lexicographer, rhetorician, logician, and prosodist. Noted as a prodigy by his contemporaries, he gain ...
(c. 12th century CE) is considered by
F. Kielhorn
Lorenz Franz Kielhorn (31 May 1840, Osnabrück - 19 March 1908, Göttingen) was a German Indologist.
He studied under Theodor Benfey at the University of Göttingen, where he became member of Burschenschaft Hannovera (fraternity), and under Ad ...
as the best grammar work of the Indian middle age. Hemacandra's book Kumarapalacaritra is also noteworthy.'
Narrative literature and poetry
Jaina narrative literature mainly contains stories about sixty-three prominent figures known as ''
Salakapurusa
According to the Jain cosmology, the śalākapuruṣa ( sa, शलाकपुरूष) "illustrious or worthy persons" are 63 illustrious beings who appear during each half-time cycle. They are also known as the ''triṣaṣṭiśalākāpuru ...
'', and people who were related to them. Some of the important works are ''Harivamshapurana'' of
Jinasena
Jinasena (c. 9th century CE) was a monk and scholar in the ''Digambara'' tradition of Jainism. He was patronized by the Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha I. He was the author of ''Adipurana'' and '' Mahapurana''.Adi Pampa (c. 10th century CE), ''Pandavapurana'' of Shubhachandra (c. 16th century CE).
Mathematics
Jain literature covered multiple topics of mathematics around 150 AD including the theory of numbers, arithmetical operations, geometry, operations with fractions, simple equations, cubic equations, bi-quadric equations, permutations, combinations and logarithms.
Languages
Jains literature exists mainly in
Jain Prakrit
The Prakrits (; sa, prākṛta; psu, 𑀧𑀸𑀉𑀤, ; pka, ) are a group of vernacular Middle Indo-Aryan languages that were used in the Indian subcontinent from around the 3rd century BCE to the 8th century CE. The term Prakrit is us ...
,
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
,
Marathi
Marathi may refer to:
*Marathi people, an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group of Maharashtra, India
*Marathi language, the Indo-Aryan language spoken by the Marathi people
*Palaiosouda, also known as Marathi, a small island in Greece
See also
*
* ...
,
Tamil
Tamil may refer to:
* Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia
**Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils
**Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia
* Tamil language, nativ ...
,
Rajasthani
Rajasthani may refer to:
* something of, from, or related to Rajasthan, a state of India
* Rajasthani languages, a group of languages spoken there
* Rajasthani people, the native inhabitants of the region
* Rajasthani architecture
* Rajasthani art ...
,
Dhundari
Dhundhari (also known as Jaipuri) is a dialect of Rajasthani spoken in the Dhundhar region of northeastern Rajasthan state, India. Dhundari-speaking people are found in four districts – Jaipur, Sawai Madhopur, Dausa, Tonk and some parts of ...
Hindi
Hindi (Devanāgarī: or , ), or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi (Devanagari: ), is an Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in the Hindi Belt region encompassing parts of northern, central, eastern, and western India. Hindi has been de ...
,
Gujarati
Gujarati may refer to:
* something of, from, or related to Gujarat, a state of India
* Gujarati people, the major ethnic group of Gujarat
* Gujarati language, the Indo-Aryan language spoken by them
* Gujarati languages, the Western Indo-Aryan sub ...
,
Kannada
Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...
,
Malayalam
Malayalam (; , ) is a Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry (Mahé district) by the Malayali people. It is one of 22 scheduled languages of India. Malayalam was des ...
, and more recently in
English
English usually refers to:
* English language
* English people
English may also refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England
** English national ide ...
Kannada literature
Kannada literature is the Text corpus, corpus of written forms of the Kannada language, a member of the Dravidian language, Dravidian Language family, family spoken mainly in the Indian state of Karnataka and written in the Kannada script.
A ...
and many
Tamil
Tamil may refer to:
* Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia
**Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils
**Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia
* Tamil language, nativ ...
works were written by Jains. Some of the oldest known books in Hindi and Gujarati were written by Jain scholars.
The first autobiography in the ancestor of Hindi,
Braj Bhasha
The Braj language, ''Braj Bhasha'', also known as Vraj Bhasha or Vrij Bhasha or Braj Bhāṣā or Braji or Brij Bhasha or Braj Boli, is a Western Hindi language. Along with Awadhi (a variety of Eastern Hindi), it was one of the two predominant ...
, is called Ardhakathānaka and was written by a Jain,
Banarasidas
Banarasidas (15861643) was a Shrimal Jain businessman and poet of Mughal India. He is known for his poetic autobiography - ''Ardhakathānaka'', (The Half Story), composed in Braj Bhasa, an early dialect of Hindi linked with the region around M ...
a, an ardent follower of Acarya Kundakunda who lived in
Agra
Agra (, ) is a city on the banks of the Yamuna river in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, about south-east of the national capital New Delhi and 330 km west of the state capital Lucknow. With a population of roughly 1.6 million, Agra is ...
. Many
Tamil
Tamil may refer to:
* Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia
**Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils
**Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia
* Tamil language, nativ ...
classics
Classics or classical studies is the study of classical antiquity. In the Western world, classics traditionally refers to the study of Classical Greek and Roman literature and their related original languages, Ancient Greek and Latin. Classics ...
are written by Jains or with Jain beliefs and values as the core subject. Practically all the known texts in the Apabhramsha language are Jain works.
The oldest Jain literature is in
Shauraseni
Shauraseni Prakrit (, ) was a Middle Indo-Aryan language and a Dramatic Prakrit. Shauraseni was the chief language used in drama in northern medieval India. Most of the material in this language originates from the 3rd to 10th centuries, thoug ...
and the
Jain Prakrit
The Prakrits (; sa, prākṛta; psu, 𑀧𑀸𑀉𑀤, ; pka, ) are a group of vernacular Middle Indo-Aryan languages that were used in the Indian subcontinent from around the 3rd century BCE to the 8th century CE. The term Prakrit is us ...
(the Jain Agamas, Agama-Tulya, the Siddhanta texts, etc.). Many classical texts are in Sanskrit (Tattvartha Sutra,
Puranas
Purana (; sa, , '; literally meaning "ancient, old"Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature (1995 Edition), Article on Puranas, , page 915) is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly about legends an ...
, Kosh, Sravakacara, mathematics, Nighantus etc.). "Abhidhana Rajendra Kosha" written by
Acharya Rajendrasuri
Acharya Rajendrasuri was a Svetambara Jain monk and reformer of monk traditions of the 19th century. He wrote many books on Jainism including ''Abhidhānarājaindrakōśa'', a dictionary of Prakrit defining 60,000 terms used in Jain works.
Ea ...
, is only one available Jain encyclopedia or Jain dictionary to understand the Jain Prakrit, Ardha-Magadhi and other languages, words, their use and references within oldest Jain literature.
Jain literature was written in Apabhraṃśa (Kahas, rasas, and grammars),
Standard Hindi
Hindi (Devanāgarī: or , ), or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi (Devanagari: ), is an Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in the Hindi Belt region encompassing parts of northern, central, eastern, and western India. Hindi has been de ...
Nālaṭiyār
The Nālaṭiyār ( ta, நாலடியார்) is a Tamil poetic work of didactic nature belonging to the Eighteen Lesser Texts (''Patiṉeṇkīḻkaṇakku'') anthology of Tamil literature. This belongs to the post Sangam period cor ...
Valayapathi
''Valaiyapadhi'' ( ta, வளையாபதி, lit=Unbending Man, translit=Vaḷaiyāpati; ), also spelled ''Valayapathi'', is one of the five great Tamil epics, but one that is almost entirely lost. It is a story of a father who has two w ...
, and others), and
Kannada
Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...
(
Vaddaradhane
Vaddaradhane by Shivakotiacharya is the earliest extant prose work in Kannada. It is a didactic work consisting of nineteen stories and is based on Harisena's ''Brhatkathakosa''. The work is also known for mentioning the precursor to modern idl ...
and various other texts). Jain versions of the
Ramayana
The ''Rāmāyana'' (; sa, रामायणम्, ) is a Sanskrit literature, Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epic composed over a period of nearly a millennium, with scholars' estimates for the earliest stage of the text ranging from the 8th ...
and
Mahabharata
The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the ''Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the Kuruk ...
are found in Sanskrit, the Prakrits, Apabhraṃśa and Kannada.
Jain Prakrit is a term loosely used for the language of the ''Jain Agamas'' (canonical texts). The books of
Jainism
Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religions, Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current ...
were written in the popular vernacular dialects (as opposed to
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
which was the classical standard of
Brahmanism
The historical Vedic religion (also known as Vedicism, Vedism or ancient Hinduism and subsequently Brahmanism (also spelled as Brahminism)), constituted the religious ideas and practices among some Indo-Aryan peoples of northwest Indian Subco ...
), and therefore encompass a number of related dialects. Chief among these is
Ardha Magadhi
Ardhamagadhi Prakrit was a Middle Indo-Aryan language and a Dramatic Prakrit thought to have been spoken in modern-day Bihar and Uttar Pradesh and used in some early Buddhist and Jain drama. It was likely a Central Indo-Aryan language, related to ...
, which due to its extensive use has also come to be identified as the definitive form of
Prakrit
The Prakrits (; sa, prākṛta; psu, 𑀧𑀸𑀉𑀤, ; pka, ) are a group of vernacular Middle Indo-Aryan languages that were used in the Indian subcontinent from around the 3rd century BCE to the 8th century CE. The term Prakrit is usu ...
. Other dialects include versions of Maharashtri and
Sauraseni
Shauraseni Prakrit (, ) was a Middle Indo-Aryan language and a Dramatic Prakrit. Shauraseni was the chief language used in drama in northern medieval India. Most of the material in this language originates from the 3rd to 10th centuries, though ...
.
Influence on Indian literature
Parts of the
Sangam literature
The Sangam literature (Tamil: சங்க இலக்கியம், ''caṅka ilakkiyam'';) historically known as 'the poetry of the noble ones' (Tamil: சான்றோர் செய்யுள், ''Cāṉṟōr ceyyuḷ'') connotes ...
in Tamil are attributed to Jains. The authenticity and interpolations are controversial because it presents Hindu ideas. Some scholars state that the Jain portions were added about or after the 8th century CE, and are not ancient. Tamil Jain texts such as the ''
Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi
''Civaka Cintamani'' ( ta, சீவக சிந்தாமணி, lit=Jivaka, the Fabulous Gem, translit=Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi), also spelled as ''Jivaka Chintamani'', is one of the five great Tamil epics. Authored by a Madurai-based Jain ...
'' and ''
Nālaṭiyār
The Nālaṭiyār ( ta, நாலடியார்) is a Tamil poetic work of didactic nature belonging to the Eighteen Lesser Texts (''Patiṉeṇkīḻkaṇakku'') anthology of Tamil literature. This belongs to the post Sangam period cor ...
'' are credited to Digambara Jain authors. These texts have seen interpolations and revisions. For example, it is generally accepted now that the Jain nun Kanti inserted a 445-verse poem into ''Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi'' in the 12th century. The Tamil Jain literature, according to Dundas, has been "lovingly studied and commented upon for centuries by Hindus as well as Jains". The themes of two of the Tamil epics, including the ''Silapadikkaram'', have an embedded influence of Jainism.
Jain scholars also contributed to
Kannada literature
Kannada literature is the Text corpus, corpus of written forms of the Kannada language, a member of the Dravidian language, Dravidian Language family, family spoken mainly in the Indian state of Karnataka and written in the Kannada script.
A ...
. The Digambara Jain texts in Karnataka are unusual in having been written under the patronage of kings and regional aristocrats. They describe warrior violence and martial valor as equivalent to a "fully committed Jain ascetic", setting aside Jainism's absolute non-violence.
Jain manuscript libraries called ''bhandaras'' inside Jain temples are the oldest surviving in India. Jain libraries, including the Śvētāmbara collections at
Patan, Gujarat
Patan () is the administrative seat of Patan District in the Indian state of Gujarat and is an administered municipality. It was the capital of Gujarat's Chavda and Chaulukya dynasties in medieval times, and is also known as Anhilpur-Pata ...
and Jaiselmer, Rajasthan, and the Digambara collections in Karnataka temples, have a large number of well-preserved manuscripts. These include Jain literature and Hindu and Buddhist texts. Almost all have been dated to about, or after, the 11th century CE. The largest and most valuable libraries are found in the
Thar Desert
The Thar Desert, also known as the Great Indian Desert, is an arid region in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent, Subcontinent that covers an area of and forms a natural boundary between India and Pakistan. It is the world's Li ...
, hidden in the underground vaults of Jain temples. These collections have witnessed insect damage, and only a small portion have been published and studied by scholars.
See also
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Champat Rai Jain
Champat Rai Jain (6 August 1867–2 June 1942) was a Digambara Jain born in Delhi and who studied and practised law in England. He became an influential Jainism scholar and comparative religion writer between 1910s and 1930s who translated and ...
Bal Patil
Bal Patil (Marathi: बाळ पाटील; 1932–2011) was a Jain scholar, journalist, social activist and Jain minority status advocate from Mumbai, Maharashtra. He was appointed as a member of State Minority Commission by the Govt. of M ...
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Agama (Hinduism)
The Agamas (Devanagari: , IAST: ) are a collection of several Tantric literature and scriptures of Hindu schools.Julius Lipner (2004), Hinduism: the way of the banyan, in The Hindu World (Editors: Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby), Routledge, , pa ...
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Āgama (Buddhism)
In Buddhism, an āgama (आगम Sanskrit and Pāli, Tibetan ལུང་ (Wylie: lung) for "sacred work"Monier-Williams (1899), p. 129, see "Āgama," retrieved 12 Dec 2008 from "U. Cologne" at http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWS ...