Indian culture is the heritage of social norms,

ethical value In ethics and social sciences, value denotes the degree of importance of something or action, with the aim of determining which actions are best to do or what way is best to live (normative ethics in ethics), or to describe the significance of dif ...

s, traditional customs, belief systems,

political system In political science, a political system means the type of political organization that can be recognized, observed or otherwise declared by a state. It defines the process for making official government decisions. It usually comprizes the govern ...

s, artifacts and technologies that originated in or are associated with the ethno-linguistically diverse India. The term also applies beyond India to countries and cultures whose histories are strongly connected to India by immigration, colonisation, or influence, particularly in South Asia and Southeast Asia. India's

languages Language is a structured system of communication. The structure of a language is its grammar and the free components are its vocabulary. Languages are the primary means by which humans communicate, and may be conveyed through a variety of met ...

religions Religion is usually defined as a social-cultural system of designated behaviors and practices, morals, beliefs, worldviews, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics, or organizations, that generally relates humanity to supernatural, tran ...

dance Dance is a performing art form consisting of sequences of movement, either improvised or purposefully selected. This movement has aesthetic and often symbolic value. Dance can be categorized and described by its choreography, by its repertoir ...

, music, architecture,

food Food is any substance consumed by an organism for nutritional support. Food is usually of plant, animal, or fungal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The substance is inge ...

and customs differ from place to place within the country. Indian culture, often labelled as a combination of several cultures, has been influenced by a history that is several millennia old, beginning with the

Indus Valley civilization The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), also known as the Indus Civilisation was a Bronze Age civilisation in the northwestern regions of South Asia, lasting from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE, and in its mature form 2600 BCE to 1900&n ...

and other early cultural areas.John Keay (2012), ''India: A History'', 2nd Ed – Revised and Updated, Grove Press / Harper Collins, , see Introduction and Chapters 3 through 11Mohammada, Malika (2007), ''The foundations of the composite culture in India'', Aakar Books, Many elements of Indian culture, such as

Indian religions Indian religions, sometimes also termed Dharmic religions or Indic religions, are the religions that originated in the Indian subcontinent. These religions, which include Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism,Adams, C. J."Classification of ...

mathematics Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. These topics are represented in modern mathematics ...

philosophy Philosophy (from , ) is the systematized study of general and fundamental questions, such as those about existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language. Such questions are often posed as problems to be studied or resolved. Some ...

cuisine A cuisine is a style of cooking characterized by distinctive ingredients, techniques and dishes, and usually associated with a specific culture or geographic region. Regional food preparation techniques, customs, and ingredients combine to ...

, music and movies have had a profound impact across the Indosphere,

Greater India Greater India, or the Indian cultural sphere, is an area composed of many countries and regions in South and Southeast Asia that were historically influenced by Indian culture, which itself formed from the various distinct indigenous cultures ...

and the world. Specifically Southeast Asian and Himalayan influence on early India, had lasting impacts on the formation of Hinduism and Indian mythology. Hinduism itself formed from various distinct folk religions, which merged during the Vedic period and following periods. Especially Austroasiatic groups, such as early Munda and Mon Khmer, but also Tibetic and other Tibeto-Burmese groups, left noteworthy influence on local Indian peoples and culture. Several scholars, such as Professor Przyluski, among others, concluded that there is a significant cultural, linguistic, and political Mon-Khmer (Austroasiatic) influence on early India, which can also be observed by Austroasiatic loanwords within Indo-Aryan languages and rice cultivation, which was introduced by East/Southeast Asian rice-agriculturalists using a route from Southeast Asia through Northeast India into the Indian subcontinent. The British Raj further influenced Indian culture, such as through the widespread introduction of the English language, and a local dialect developed.

Religious culture

Indian-origin religions Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism,Adams, C. J.
Classification of religions: Geographical
, Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007. Accessed: 15 July 2010 are all based on the concepts of

dharma Dharma (; sa, धर्म, dharma, ; pi, dhamma, italic=yes) is a key concept with multiple meanings in Indian religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and others. Although there is no direct single-word translation for '' ...

and karma.

Ahimsa Ahimsa (, IAST: ''ahiṃsā'', ) is the ancient Indian principle of nonviolence which applies to all living beings. It is a key virtue in most Indian religions: Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism.Bajpai, Shiva (2011). The History of India � ...

, the philosophy of nonviolence, is an important aspect of native Indian faiths whose most well known proponent was Mahatma Gandhi, who used civil disobedience to unite India during the Indian independence movementthis philosophy further inspired Martin Luther King Jr. during the American civil rights movement. Foreign-origin religion, including

Abrahamic religion The Abrahamic religions are a group of religions centered around worship of the God of Abraham. Abraham, a Hebrew patriarch, is extensively mentioned throughout Abrahamic religious scriptures such as the Bible and the Quran. Jewish tradition ...

s, such as Judaism, Christianity and Islam, are also present in India, as well as Zoroastrianism, Volume 2Stepaniants Marietta, 2002, The Encounter of Zoroastrianism with Islam, journal=Philosophy East and West, volume 52, issue 2, University of Hawai'i Press, page 163. and Baháʼí FaithMottahedeh, Roy, ''The Mantle of the Prophet : Religion and Politics in Iran'', One World, Oxford, 1985, 2000, p.238 both escaping persecution by IslamAnn K. S. Lambton, 1981, State and government in medieval Islam: an introduction to the study of Islamic political theory: the jurists, Routledge, page 205, .Meri Josef W., Bacharach Jere L., 2006, Medieval Islamic Civilization: L-Z, index, series: Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia, volume = II, Taylor & Francis, pages 878, have also found shelter in India over the centuries. India has 28 states and 8 union territories with different culture and it is the second most populated country in the world. The Indian culture, often labeled as an amalgamation of several various cultures, spans across the Indian subcontinent and has been influenced and shaped by a history that is several thousand years old. Throughout the history of India, Indian culture has been heavily influenced by Dharmic religions.Nikki Staffor
Finding Lost"> Finding Lost
ECW Press, 2006 p. 174 Influence from East/Southeast Asian cultures onto ancient India and early Hinduism, specifically Austroasiatic groups, such as early Munda and Mon Khmer, but also Tibetic and other Tibeto-Burmese groups, had noteworthy impact on local Indian peoples and cultures. Several scholars, such as Professor Przyluski, Jules Bloch, and Lévi, among others, concluded that there is a significant cultural, linguistic, and political Mon-Khmer (Austroasiatic) influence on early India, which can also be observed by Austroasiatic loanwords within Indo-Aryan languages and rice cultivation, which was introduced by East/Southeast Asian rice-agriculturalists using a route from Southeast Asia through Northeast India into the Indian subcontinent. They have been credited with shaping much of Indian

, literature, architecture, art and music.

was the historical extent of Indian culture beyond the Indian subcontinent. This particularly concerns the spread of Hinduism, Buddhism, architecture, administration and writing system from India to other parts of Asia through the

Silk Road The Silk Road () was a network of Eurasian trade routes active from the second century BCE until the mid-15th century. Spanning over 6,400 kilometers (4,000 miles), it played a central role in facilitating economic, cultural, political, and reli ...

by the travelers and maritime traders during the early centuries of the Common Era.''Hindu-Buddhist Architecture in Southeast Asia'' by Daigorō Chihara p.226 To the west,

overlaps with Greater Persia in the Hindu Kush and

Pamir Mountains The Pamir Mountains are a mountain range between Central Asia and Pakistan. It is located at a junction with other notable mountains, namely the Tian Shan, Karakoram, Kunlun, Hindu Kush and the Himalaya mountain ranges. They are among the world ...

. Over the centuries, there has been a significant fusion of cultures between

Buddhists Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...

, Hindus,

Muslim Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abrah ...

s, Jains,

Sikhs Sikhs ( or ; pa, ਸਿੱਖ, ' ) are people who adhere to Sikhism (Sikhi), a monotheistic religion that originated in the late 15th century in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent, based on the revelation of Guru Nanak. The term ...

and various tribal populations in India. India is the birthplace of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, and other religions. They are collectively known as Indian religions. Indian religions are a major form of world religions along with Abrahamic ones. Today, Hinduism and Buddhism are the world's third and fourth-largest religions respectively, with over 2 billion followers altogether, and possibly as many as 2.5 or 2.6 billion followers. Followers of Indian religions – Hindus, Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists make up around 80–82% population of India. India is one of the most religiously and ethnically diverse nations in the world, with some of the most deeply religious societies and cultures. Religion plays a central and definitive role in the life of many of its people. Although India is a secular Hindu-majority country, it has a large Muslim population. Except for

Jammu and Kashmir Jammu and Kashmir may refer to: * Kashmir, the northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent * Jammu and Kashmir (union territory), a region administered by India as a union territory * Jammu and Kashmir (state), a region administered ...

, Punjab, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Mizoram and Lakshadweep, Hindus form the predominant population in all 27 states and 9 union territories. Muslims are present throughout India, with large populations in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,

Maharashtra Maharashtra (; , abbr. MH or Maha) is a states and union territories of India, state in the western India, western peninsular region of India occupying a substantial portion of the Deccan Plateau. Maharashtra is the List of states and union te ...

, Kerala, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal and Assam; while only

and Lakshadweep have majority Muslim populations. Christians are other significant minorities of India. Because of the diversity of religious groups in India, there has been a history of turmoil and violence between them. India has been a theatre for violent religious clashes between members of different religions such as Hindus, Christians, Muslims, and

. Several groups have founded various national-religious political parties, and in spite of government policies minority religious groups are being subjected to prejudice from more dominant groups in order to maintain and control resources in particular regions of India. According to the 2011 census, 79.8% of the

population of India Population typically refers to the number of people in a single area, whether it be a city or town, region, country, continent, or the world. Governments typically quantify the size of the resident population within their jurisdiction using a ...

practice Hinduism.

Islam Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic Monotheism#Islam, monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God in Islam, God (or ...

(14.2%), Christianity (2.3%), Sikhism (1.7%), Buddhism (0.7%) and Jainism (0.4%) are the other major religions followed by the people of India. Many

tribal religions In religious studies, an ethnic religion is a religion or belief associated with a particular ethnic group. Ethnic religions are often distinguished from universal religions, such as Christianity or Islam, in which gaining converts is a prima ...

, such as Sarnaism, are found in India, though these have been affected by major religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam and Christianity. Jainism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, and the Baháʼí Faith are also influential but their numbers are smaller.

Atheism Atheism, in the broadest sense, is an absence of belief in the existence of deities. Less broadly, atheism is a rejection of the belief that any deities exist. In an even narrower sense, atheism is specifically the position that there no d ...

and agnostics also have visible influence in India, along with a self-ascribed tolerance to other faiths. According to a study conducted by the Pew Research Centre, India will have world's largest populations of Hindus and Muslims by 2050. India is expected to have about 311 million Muslims making up around 19–20% of the population and yet about 1.3 billion Hindus are projected to live in India comprising around 76% of the population.

and

agnosticism Agnosticism is the view or belief that the existence of God, of the divine or the supernatural is unknown or unknowable. (page 56 in 1967 edition) Another definition provided is the view that "human reason is incapable of providing sufficient ...

have a long history in India and flourished within Śramaṇa movement. The ''

Cārvāka Charvaka ( sa, चार्वाक; IAST: ''Cārvāka''), also known as ''Lokāyata'', is an ancient school of Indian materialism. Charvaka holds direct perception, empiricism, and conditional inference as proper sources of knowledge, embrace ...

'' school originated in India around the 6th century BCE. It is one of the earliest form of

materialistic Materialism is the view that the universe consists only of organized matter and energy. Materialism or materialist may also refer to: * Economic materialism, the desire to accumulate material goods * Christian materialism, the combination of Chris ...

and atheistic movement in ancient India. Quote (page 557): "Aside from nontheistic schools like the

Samkhya ''Samkhya'' or ''Sankya'' (; Sanskrit सांख्य), IAST: ') is a Dualism (Indian philosophy), dualistic Āstika and nāstika, school of Indian philosophy. It views reality as composed of two independent principles, ''purusha, puruṣa' ...

, there have also been explicitly atheistic schools in the Hindu tradition. One virulently anti-supernatural system is/was the so-called Charvaka school.", Sramana, Buddhism, Jainism, Ājīvika and some schools of Hinduism consider atheism to be valid and reject the concept of creator deity, ritualism and

superstitions A superstition is any belief or practice considered by non-practitioners to be irrational or supernatural, attributed to fate or magic, perceived supernatural influence, or fear of that which is unknown. It is commonly applied to beliefs and ...

. India has produced some notable atheist politicians and social reformers. According to the 2012 WIN-Gallup Global Index of Religion and Atheism report, 81% of Indians were religious, 13% were not religious, 3% were convinced

atheist Atheism, in the broadest sense, is an absence of belief in the existence of deities. Less broadly, atheism is a rejection of the belief that any deities exist. In an even narrower sense, atheism is specifically the position that there no ...

s, and 3% were unsure or did not respond.''Oxford Dictionary of World Religions'', p. 259

Philosophy

Indian philosophy comprises the philosophical traditions of the Indian subcontinent. There are six schools of orthodox Hindu philosophy—

Nyaya (Sanskrit: न्याय, ''nyā-yá''), literally meaning "justice", "rules", "method" or "judgment",Vaisheshika,

, Yoga,

Mīmāṃsā ''Mīmāṁsā'' (Sanskrit: मीमांसा) is a Sanskrit word that means "reflection" or "critical investigation" and thus refers to a tradition of contemplation which reflected on the meanings of certain Vedic texts.

and Vedanta—and four heterodox schools— Jain, Buddhist, Ājīvika and

– last two are also schools of Hinduism. However, there are other methods of classification; Vidyarania for instance identifies sixteen schools of Indian philosophy by including those that belong to the Śaiva and Raseśvara traditions.Cowell and Gough, p. xii. Since medieval India (ca.1000–1500), schools of Indian philosophical thought have been classified by the Brahmanical traditionChatterjee and Datta, p. 5. as either orthodox or non-orthodox – āstika or nāstika – depending on whether they regard the Vedas as an infallible source of knowledge. The main schools of Indian philosophy were formalized chiefly between 1000 BCE to the early centuries of the Common Era. According to philosopher Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the earliest of these, which date back to the composition of the Upanishads in the later Vedic period (1000–500 BCE), constitute "the earliest philosophical compositions of the world." Competition and integration between the various schools were intense during their formative years, especially between 800 BCE and 200 CE. Some schools like Jainism, Buddhism, Śaiva, and Advaita Vedanta survived, but others, like

and Ājīvika, did not; they were either assimilated or became extinct. Subsequent centuries produced commentaries and reformulations continuing up to as late as the 20th century. Authors who gave contemporary meaning to traditional philosophies include Shrimad Rajchandra,

Swami Vivekananda Swami Vivekananda (; ; 12 January 1863 – 4 July 1902), born Narendranath Datta (), was an Indian Hindu monk, philosopher, author, religious teacher, and the chief disciple of the Indian mystic Ramakrishna. He was a key figure in the intro ...

, Ram Mohan Roy, and

Swami Dayananda Saraswati Dayanand Saraswati () (born Mool Shankar Tiwari; 2 February 1824 – 30 October 1883) also known as Maharshi Dayanand is an Indian philosopher, social leader and founder of the Arya Samaj, a Hindu reform movement. His Magnum Opus is the book ...

Family structure and marriage

For generations, India has had a prevailing tradition of the

joint family system An extended family is a family that extends beyond the nuclear family of parents and their children to include aunts, uncles, grandparents, cousins or other relatives, all living nearby or in the same household. Particular forms include the stem a ...

. It is when extended members of a family – parents, children, the children's spouses, and their offspring, etc. – live together. Usually, the oldest male member is the head of the joint Indian family system. He mostly makes all important decisions and rules, and other family members are likely to abide by them. With the current economy, lifestyle, and cost of living in most of the metro cities are high, the population is leaving behind the joint family model and adapting to the nuclear family model. Earlier living in a joint family was with the purpose of creating love and concern for the family members. However, now it's a challenge to give time to each other as most of them are out for survival needs. Rise in the trends of nuclear family settings has led to a change in the traditional family headship structure and older males are no longer the mandated heads of the family owing to the fact that they mostly live alone during old age and are far more vulnerable than before. In a 1966 study, Orenstein and Micklin analysed India's population data and family structure. Their studies suggest that Indian household sizes had remained similar over the 1911 to 1951 period. Thereafter, with urbanisation and economic development, India has witnessed a break up of traditional joint family into more nuclear-like families. Sinha, in his book, after summarising the numerous sociological studies done on the Indian family, notes that over the last 60 years, the cultural trend in most parts of India has been an accelerated change from joint family to nuclear families, much like population trends in other parts of the world. The traditionally large joint family in India, in the 1990s, accounted for a small percent of Indian households, and on average had lower per capita household income. He finds that joint family still persists in some areas and in certain conditions, in part due to cultural traditions and in part due to practical factors. Youth in lower socio-economic classes are more inclined to spend time with their families than their peers due to differing ideologies in rural and urban parenting. With the spread of education and growth of economics, the traditional joint-family system is breaking down rapidly across India and attitudes towards working women have changed.

Arranged marriage

Arranged marriages have long been the norm in Indian society. Even today, the majority of Indians have their marriages planned by their parents and other respected family members. In the past, the age of marriage was young. The average age of marriage for women in India has increased to 21 years, according to the 2011 Census of India. In 2009, about 7% of women got married before the age of 18. In most marriages, the bride's family provides a dowry to the bridegroom. Traditionally, the dowry was considered a woman's share of the family wealth, since a daughter had no legal claim on her natal family's real estate. It also typically included portable valuables such as jewelry and household goods that a bride could control throughout her life. Historically, in most families the inheritance of family estates passed down the male line. Since 1956, Indian laws treat males and females as equal in matters of inheritance without a legal will. Indians are increasingly using a legal will for inheritance and property succession, with about 20 percent using a legal will by 2004. In India, the divorce rate is low — 1% compared with about 40% in the United States. These statistics do not reflect a complete picture, though. There is a dearth of scientific surveys or studies on Indian marriages where the perspectives of both husbands and wives were

solicited Solicitation is the act of offering, or attempting to purchase, goods and/or services. Legal status may be specific to the time or place where it occurs. The crime of "solicitation to commit a crime" occurs when a person encourages, "solicits, r ...

in-depth. Sample surveys suggest the issues with marriages in India are similar to trends observed elsewhere in the world. The divorce rates are rising in India. Urban divorce rates are much higher. Women initiate about 80 percent of divorces in India. Recent studies suggest that Indian culture is trending away from traditional arranged marriages. Banerjee et al. surveyed 41,554 households across 33 states and union territories in India in 2005. They find that the marriage trends in India are similar to trends observed over the last 40 years in China, Japan, and other nations. The study found that fewer marriages are purely arranged without consent and that the majority of surveyed Indian marriages are arranged with consent. The percentage of self-arranged marriages (called love marriages in India) was also increasing, particularly in the urban parts of India.

Wedding rituals

Weddings are festive occasions in India with extensive decorations, colors, music, dance, costumes and rituals that depend on the religion of the bride and the groom, as well as their preferences.Sari nights and henna parties
, Amy Yee, The Financial Times, 17 May 2008 The nation celebrates about 10 million weddings per year, of which over 80% are

Hindu wedding A Hindu wedding, also known as Vivaha (Devanagari: विवाह; Kannada script: ವಿವಾಹ; ''Vivaaha'') (), Lagna (लग्न), or Kalyanam (Devanagari: कल्याणम्; Kannada script: ಕಲ್ಯಾಣಮ್; ta, கல ...

s. While there are many festival-related rituals in Hinduism, ''vivaha'' (wedding) is the most extensive personal ritual an adult Hindu undertakes in his or her life.Hindu Saṁskāras: Socio-religious Study of the Hindu Sacraments, Rajbali Pandey (1969), see Chapter VIII, , pages 153–233The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M, James G. Lochtefeld (2001), , Page 427 Typical Hindu families spend significant effort and financial resources to prepare and celebrate weddings. The rituals and processes of a Hindu wedding vary depending on the region of India, local adaptations, family resources and preferences of the bride and the groom. Nevertheless, there are a few key rituals common in

s – '' Kanyadaan'', ''Panigrahana'', and ''

Saptapadi Saptapadi () is regarded to be the most important rite (Sanskrit: ) of a Hindu wedding ceremony. After tying the sacred knot known as the Mangalsutra, mangalasutra, the newly-wed couple takes seven steps together, during which the marriage is so ...

''; these are respectively, gifting away of daughter by the father, voluntarily holding hand near the fire to signify impending union, and taking seven circles before firing with each circle including a set of mutual vows. Mangalsutra necklace of bond a Hindu groom ties with three knots around the bride's neck in a marriage ceremony. The practice is integral to a marriage ceremony as prescribed in Manusmriti, the traditional law governing Hindu marriage. After the seventh circle and vows of ''

'', the couple is legally husband and wife.P.H. Prabhu (2011), ''Hindu Social Organization'', , see pages 164–165 Sikhs get married through a ceremony called Anand Karaj. The couple walks around the holy book, the Guru Granth Sahib four times. Indian Muslims celebrate a traditional

Islamic wedding Muslim marriage and Islamic wedding customs are traditions and practices that relate to wedding ceremonies and marriage rituals prevailing within the Muslim world. Although Islamic marriage customs and relations vary depending on country of ori ...

following customs similar to those practiced in the Middle East. The rituals include ''Nikah'', payment of financial dower called ''Mahr'' by the groom to the bride, signing of a marriage contract, and a reception.Three Days of a Traditional Indian Muslim Wedding
, zawaj.com Indian Christian weddings follow customs similar to those practiced in the Christian countries in the West in states like Goa but have more Indian customs in other states.

Festivals

File:Deepawali-festival.jpg, Homes, buildings and temples are decorated with festive lights,

diya Diya may refer to: * ''Diya (film)'', 2018 Tamil- and Telugu-language film * Diya (Islam), Islamic term for monetary compensation for bodily harm or property damage * Diya (lamp), ghee- or oil-based candle often used in South Asian religious ceremo ...

, for

Diwali Diwali (), Dewali, Divali, or Deepavali ( IAST: ''dīpāvalī''), also known as the Festival of Lights, related to Jain Diwali, Bandi Chhor Divas, Tihar, Swanti, Sohrai, and Bandna, is a religious celebration in Indian religions. It is ...

, the festival of lights. File:Samaj gathering during Lathmar hoil.jpg, Color drenched

Gopi Gopi ( sa, गोपी, ) or Gopika in Hinduism are worshipped as the consorts and devotees of Krishna within the Vaishnavism and Krishnaism traditions for their unconditional love and devotion ('' Bhakti'') to god Krishna as described in the ...

s during the Holi celebrations in Krishna Temple, Mathura File:Navratri garba at Ambaji temple.jpg, The Navaratri festival is an occasion of classical and folk dance performances at Hindu temples. Pictured is the Ambaji Temple of Gujarat. File:Bihu dance Assam. jpg.jpg, The Bihu festival is an

Assamese Assamese may refer to: * Assamese people, a socio-ethnolinguistic identity of north-eastern India * People of Assam, multi-ethnic, multi-linguistic and multi-religious people of Assam * Assamese language, one of the easternmost Indo-Aryan language ...

tradition; it coincides with Vaisakhi in north India, which is observed by Sikhs and Hindus. File:Lalbaug cha raja.jpg, Procession of the famous “Lalbaug cha Raja” Ganesha idol during the

Ganesh Chaturthi Ganesh Chaturthi (ISO: ), also known as Vinayak Chaturthi (), or Ganeshotsav () is a Hindu festival commemorating the birth of the Hindu god Ganesha. The festival is marked with the installation of Ganesha's clay idols privately in homes and p ...

festival in Mumbai,

File:Kerala boatrace.jpg,

Vallamkali Vallam kali ('' vaḷḷaṃ kaḷi'', literally: boat game) also known as Snake Boat Race is a traditional boat race in Kerala, India. It is a form of canoe racing, and uses paddled war canoes. It is mainly conducted during the season of t ...

snakeboat races are a part of Onam festival tradition. File:Dahi Handi.JPG, Dahi Handi, a

Krishna Janmashtami Krishna Janmashtami , also known simply as Krishnashtami, Janmashtami, or Gokulashtami, is an annual Hindu festival that celebrates the birth of Krishna, the eighth avatar of Vishnu. According to the Hindu lunisolar calendar, it is observed ...

festive tradition, in progress near Adi Shankaracharya Road, Mumbai, India File:Durga Puja 2015.JPG, Durga Puja is a multi-day festival in Eastern India that features elaborate temple and stage decorations ('' pandals''), scripture recitation, performance arts, revelry, and processions. File:Angami 1863b.jpg, The Hornbill Festival, Kohima, Nagaland. The festival involves colourful performances, crafts, sports, food fairs, games and ceremonies. File:ꯍꯤꯍꯣꯟꯂꯤꯕꯤ ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯅꯤꯡꯉꯣꯜ ꯅꯤꯡꯊꯤꯖꯕꯤ.jpg, Meitei women in boat race Hiyang Tannaba festival, Manipur File:People offering Namaz on the occasion of Id-Ul-Zuha, at Jama Masjid, in New Delhi on August 12, 2019 (1).jpg, Muslims offering Namaz on the occasion of

Eid al-Fitr , nickname = Festival of Breaking the Fast, Lesser Eid, Sweet Eid, Sugar Feast , observedby = Muslims , type = Islamic , longtype = Islamic , significance = Commemoration to mark the end of fasting in Ramadan , dat ...

, at Jama Masjid Delhi File:Floats_for_Goa_carnaval.jpg,

Carnival in Goa Carnival in Goa, also called "Carnaval", "Intruz", "Entrado", or (colloquially) "''Viva Carnival''" refers to the festival of carnival, or Mardi Gras, in the Indian state of Goa. Though significantly smaller than the well-known Rio Carnival ...

or ''Viva Carnival'' is a Celebration prior to fasting season of Lent. It refers to the festival of

carnival Carnival is a Catholic Christian festive season that occurs before the liturgical season of Lent. The main events typically occur during February or early March, during the period historically known as Shrovetide (or Pre-Lent). Carnival typi ...

, or

Mardi Gras Mardi Gras (, ) refers to events of the Carnival celebration, beginning on or after the Christian feasts of the Epiphany (Three Kings Day) and culminating on the day before Ash Wednesday, which is known as Shrove Tuesday. is French for "Fat ...

, in the Indian state of Goa. File:Mahamastakabhisheka at Shravanabelagola in August 2018 2.jpg, Gommateshwara statue during the Grand Consecration Mahamastakabhisheka in August 2018 at Shravanabelagola, Karnataka. Mahamastakabhisheka is held every 12 years and it is considered Jainism's one of the most auspicious festival or celebration. Diya deepak Diwali rangoli in goa

India, being a multi-cultural, multi-ethnic and multi-religious society, celebrates holidays and festivals of various religions. The three national holidays in India, the

Independence Day An independence day is an annual event commemorating the anniversary of a nation's independence or statehood, usually after ceasing to be a group or part of another nation or state, or more rarely after the end of a military occupation. Man ...

, the Republic Day and the Gandhi Jayanti, are celebrated with zeal and enthusiasm across India. In addition, many Indian states and regions have local festivals depending on prevalent religious and linguistic demographics. Popular religious festivals include the Hindu festivals of Navratri, Janmashtami,

, Maha Shivratri,

, Durga Puja, Holi, Rath Yatra, Ugadi, Vasant Panchami,

Rakshabandhan Raksha Bandhan Quote: m Hindi ''rakśābandhan'' held on the full moon of the month of Savan, when sisters tie a talisman (rakhi q.v.) on the arm of their brothers and receive small gifts of money from them. is a popular and traditionally Hin ...

, and Dussehra. Several harvest festivals such as

Makar Sankranti Makar(a) Sankranti (), also referred to as Uttarayana, Maghi, or simply Sankranti, is a Hindu observance and a festival. Usually falling on the date of January 14 annually, this occasion marks the transition of the Sun from the zodiac of Sag ...

, Sohrai, Pusnâ,

Hornbill Hornbills (Bucerotidae) are a family (biology), family of bird found in tropical and subtropical Africa, Asia and Melanesia. They are characterized by a long, down-curved bill which is frequently brightly coloured and sometimes has a Casque (an ...

Chapchar Kut The Chapchar Kut is a festival of Mizoram, India. It is celebrated during March after completion of their most arduous task of jhum The traditional shifting cultivation farming technique of indigenous communities and Bengalis in the Chittago ...

, Pongal, Onam and Raja sankaranti swinging festival are also fairly popular. India celebrates a variety of festivals due to the large diversity of India. Many religious festivals like Diwali (Hindu) Eid (Muslim) Christmas (Christian), etc. are celebrated by all. The government also provides facilities for the celebration of all religious festivals with equality and grants road bookings, security, etc. providing equality to the diverse religions and their festivals. The Indian New Year festival is celebrated in different parts of India with a unique style at different times. Ugadi, Bihu,

Gudhi Padwa Gudhi Padwa is a spring-time festival that marks the traditional new year for Marathi and Konkani Hindus, but is also celebrated by other Hindus as well. It is celebrated in and around Maharashtra, Goa, Madhya Pradesh and the union territ ...

, Puthandu, Vaisakhi, Pohela Boishakh, Vishu and Vishuva Sankranti are the New Year festival of different part of India. Certain festivals in India are celebrated by multiple religions. Notable examples include

, which is celebrated by Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Jains across the country and Buddha Purnima,

, Ambedkar Jayanti celebrated by Buddhists and Hindus. Sikh festivals, such as

Guru Nanak Jayanti Guru Nanak Dev Ji Gurpurab also known as Guru Nanak's Prakash Utsav, celebrates the birth of the first Sikh guru, Guru Nanak. One of the most celebrated and important Sikh gurus and the founder of Sikhism, Guru Nanak Dev is highly revered by th ...

, Baisakhi are celebrated with full fanfare by Sikhs and Hindus of Punjab and Delhi where the two communities together form an overwhelming majority of the population. Adding colours to the culture of India, the Dree Festival is one of the tribal festivals of India celebrated by the Apatanis of the Ziro valley of Arunachal Pradesh, which is the easternmost state of India. Nowruz is the most important festival among the Parsi community of India. Islam in India is the second largest religion with over 172 million Muslims, according to India's 2011 census. The Islamic festivals which are observed and are declared public holiday in India are;

, Eid al-Adha (Bakri Eid), Milad-un-Nabi, Muharram and Shab-e-Barat. Some of the Indian states have declared regional holidays for the particular regional popular festivals; such as Arba'een, Jumu'ah-tul-Wida and

Shab-e-Qadar The Qadr Night or Laylat al-Qadr ( ar, لیلة القدر), variously rendered in English as the Night of Decree, Night of Power, Night of Value, Night of Destiny, or Night of Measures, is, in Islamic belief, the night when the Quran was fir ...

Christianity in India Christianity is India's third-largest religion with about 27.8 million adherents, making up 2.3 percent of the population as of the 2011 census. The written records of the Saint Thomas Christians state that Christianity was introduced to th ...

is the third-largest religion with over 27.8 million Christians, according to India's 2011 census. With over 27.8 million Christians, of which 17 million are Roman Catholics, India is home to many Christian festivals. The country celebrates Christmas and

Good Friday Good Friday is a Christian holiday commemorating the crucifixion of Jesus and his death at Calvary. It is observed during Holy Week as part of the Paschal Triduum. It is also known as Holy Friday, Great Friday, Great and Holy Friday (also Hol ...

as public holidays. Regional and community fairs are also a common festivals in India. For example, Pushkar Fair of Rajasthan is one of the world's largest markets of cattle and livestock.

Greetings

Indian greetings are based on Añjali Mudrā, including Pranāma and Puja. Greetings include ''Namaste (Hindi,Sanskrit and Kannada)'', ''Nômôskar'' in

Odia Odia, also spelled Oriya or Odiya, may refer to: * Odia people in Odisha, India * Odia language, an Indian language, belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European language family * Odia alphabet, a writing system used for the Odia languag ...

, ''Khulumkha'' ( Tripuri), ''

Namaskar ''Namaste'' (, Devanagari: नमस्ते), sometimes called ''namaskar'' and ''namaskaram'', is a customary Hindu non-contact manner of respectfully greeting and honouring a person or group, used at any time of day. It is found on the In ...

(

Marathi Marathi may refer to: *Marathi people, an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group of Maharashtra, India *Marathi language, the Indo-Aryan language spoken by the Marathi people *Palaiosouda, also known as Marathi, a small island in Greece See also * * ...

),'' ''Namaskara ''(Kannada and Sanskrit), ''Namaskaram'' (

Telugu Telugu may refer to: * Telugu language, a major Dravidian language of India *Telugu people, an ethno-linguistic group of India * Telugu script, used to write the Telugu language ** Telugu (Unicode block), a block of Telugu characters in Unicode S ...

, Malayalam), ''Vanakkam'' ( Tamil), ''Nômôshkar'' ( Bengali), ''Nomoskar'' (

), ''Aadab'' ( Urdu), and ''Sat Shri Akal'' (

Punjabi Punjabi, or Panjabi, most often refers to: * Something of, from, or related to Punjab, a region in India and Pakistan * Punjabi language * Punjabi people * Punjabi dialects and languages Punjabi may also refer to: * Punjabi (horse), a British Th ...

). All these are commonly spoken greetings or salutations when people meet and are forms of farewell when they depart. Namaskar is considered slightly more formal than Namaste but both express deep respect. Namaskar is commonly used in India and Nepal by Hindus, Jains and Buddhists, and many continue to use this outside the Indian subcontinent. In Indian and Nepali culture, the word is spoken at the beginning of written or verbal communication. However, the same hands folded gesture may be made wordlessly or said without the folded hand gesture. The word is derived from '' Sanskrit'' (''Namah''): to bow, reverential salutation, and

respect Respect, also called esteem, is a positive feeling or action shown towards someone or something considered important or held in high esteem or regard. It conveys a sense of admiration for good or valuable qualities. It is also the process of ...

, and (te): "to you". Taken literally, it means "I bow to you". In Hinduism it means "I bow to the divine in you." In most Indian families, younger men and women are taught to seek the blessing of their elders by reverentially bowing to their elders. This custom is known as Pranāma. An Oberoi Hotel employee doing Namaste, New Delhi

An Oberoi Hotel employee doing Namaste, New Delhi

Other greetings include ''Jai Jagannath'' (used in

) ''Ami Aschi'' (used in Bengali), ''Jai Shri Krishna'' (in Gujarati and the

Braj Bhasha The Braj language, ''Braj Bhasha'', also known as Vraj Bhasha or Vrij Bhasha or Braj Bhāṣā or Braji or Brij Bhasha or Braj Boli, is a Western Hindi language. Along with Awadhi (a variety of Eastern Hindi), it was one of the two predominant ...

and Rajasthani dialects of Hindi), ''Ram Ram/(Jai) Sita Ram ji'' ( Awadhi and

Bhojpuri Bhojpuri (;Bhojpuri entry, Oxford Dictionaries
, Oxford U ...

dialects of Hindi and other

Bihari dialects Bihari often refers to: * of Bihar, a state in central eastern India Bihari may also refer to: Populations and languages *Biharis, people of Bihar * Bihari languages, a language family * Languages of Bihar, the languages spoken in Bihar *Bih ...

), and '' Sat Sri Akal'' (

; used by followers of Sikhism), '' As-salamu alaykum'' ( Urdu; used by follower of

), '' Jai Jinendra'' (a common greeting used by followers of Jainism), '' Jai Bhim'' (used by followers of Ambedkarism), ''Namo Buddhay'' (used by followers of Buddhism), ''Allah Abho'' (used by followers of the Baháʼí Faith), '' Shalom aleichem'' (used by followers of Judaism), ''Hamazor Hama Ashobed'' (used by followers of Zoroastrianism), ''Sahebji'' ( Persian and Gujarati; used by the Parsi people), ''Dorood'' ( Persian and Gujarati; used by the Irani people), '' Om Namah Shivaya/Jai Bholenath'' Jaidev (used in Dogri and

Kashmiri Kashmiri may refer to: * People or things related to the Kashmir Valley or the broader region of Kashmir * Kashmiris, an ethnic group native to the Kashmir Valley * Kashmiri language, their language People with the name * Kashmiri Saikia Barua ...

, also used in the city of Varanasi), ''Jai Ambe Maa/Jai Mata di'' (used in

Eastern India East India is a region of India consisting of the Indian states of Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha and West Bengal and also the union territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The region roughly corresponds to the historical region of Magadha fr ...

), ''Jai Ganapati Bapa'' (used in

and Konkani), etc. These traditional forms of greeting may be absent in the world of business and in India's urban environment, where a handshake is a common form of greeting.

Animals

The varied and rich wildlife of India has a profound impact on the region's popular culture. Common name for wilderness in India is Jungle which was adopted by Britons living in India to the English language. The word has been also made famous in '' The Jungle Book'' by Rudyard Kipling. India's wildlife has been the subject of numerous other tales and fables such as the ''

Panchatantra The ''Panchatantra'' (IAST: Pañcatantra, ISO: Pañcatantra, sa, पञ्चतन्त्र, "Five Treatises") is an ancient Indian collection of interrelated animal fables in Sanskrit verse and prose, arranged within a frame story.

'' and the '' Jataka tales''. In Hinduism, the cow is regarded as a symbol of ''

ahimsa Ahimsa (, IAST: ''ahiṃsā'', ) is the ancient Indian principle of nonviolence which applies to all living beings. It is a key virtue in most Indian religions: Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism.Bajpai, Shiva (2011). The History of India � ...

'' (non-violence),

mother goddess A mother goddess is a goddess who represents a personified deification of motherhood, fertility goddess, fertility, creation, destruction, or the earth goddess who embodies the bounty of the earth or nature. When equated with the earth or th ...

and bringer of good fortune and wealth. For this reason, cows are revered in Hindu culture and feeding a cow is seen as an act of worship. This is why beef remains a taboo food in mainstream Hindu and Jain society. The Article 48 of the Constitution of India is one of the Directive Principles which directs that the state shall endeavor to prohibit slaughtering and smuggling of cattle, calves and other milch and

draught cattle An ox ( : oxen, ), also known as a bullock (in BrE, AusE, and IndE), is a male bovine trained and used as a draft animal. Oxen are commonly castrated adult male cattle; castration inhibits testosterone and aggression, which makes the ...

. As of January 2012, cow remains a divisive and controversial topic in India. Several states of India have passed laws to protect cows, while many states have no restrictions on the production and consumption of beef. Some groups oppose the butchering of cows, while other secular groups argue that what kind of meat one eats ought to be a matter of personal choice in a democracy. Madhya Pradesh enacted a law in January 2012, namely the Gau-Vansh Vadh Pratishedh (Sanshodhan) Act, which makes cow slaughter a serious offence. Gujarat, a western state of India, has the Animal Preservation Act, enacted in October 2011, that prohibits the killing of cows along with buying, selling and transport of beef. In contrast, Assam and Andhra Pradesh allow butchering of cattle with a fit-for-slaughter certificate. In the states of West Bengal and Kerala, consumption of beef is not deemed an offence. Contrary to stereotypes, a sizeable number of Hindus eat beef, and many argue that their scriptures, such as Vedic and Upanishadic texts do not prohibit its consumption. In southern Indian state Kerala, for instance, beef accounts for nearly half of all meat consumed by all communities, including Hindus. Sociologists theorise that the widespread consumption of cow meat in India is because it is a far cheaper source of animal protein for the poor than mutton or chicken, which retail at double the price. For these reasons, India's beef consumption post-independence in 1947 has witnessed a much faster growth than any other kind of meat; currently, India is one of the five largest producers and consumers of cattle livestock meat in the world. A beef ban has been made in Maharashtra and other states as of 2015. While states such as Madhya Pradesh are passing local laws to prevent cruelty to cows, other Indians are arguing "If the real objective is to prevent cruelty to animals, then why single out the cows when hundreds of other animals are maltreated?"

Cuisine

Indian food is as diverse as India. Indian cuisines use numerous ingredients, deploy a wide range of food preparation styles, cooking techniques, and culinary presentations. From salads to sauces, from vegetarian to meat, from spices to sensuous, from bread to desserts, Indian cuisine is invariably complex. Harold McGee, a favourite of many Michelin-starred chefs, writes "for sheer inventiveness with the milk itself as the primary ingredient, no country on earth can match India." New Punjab Club food spread

According to Sanjeev Kapoor, a member of Singapore Airlines' International Culinary Panel, Indian food has long been an expression of world cuisine. Kapoor claims, "if you looked back in India's history and study the food that our ancestors ate, you will notice how much attention was paid to the planning and cooking of a meal. Great thought was given to the texture and taste of each dish." One such historical record is , ( sa, मानसोल्लास, The Delight of Mind), written in the 12th century. The book describes the need to change cuisine and food with seasons, various methods of cooking, the best blend of flavours, the feel of various foods, planning and style of dining amongst other things. India is known for its love of food and spices. Indian cuisine varies from region to region, reflecting the local produce, cultural diversity, and varied demographics of the country. Generally, Indian cuisine can be split into five categories –

northern Northern may refer to the following: Geography * North, a point in direction * Northern Europe, the northern part or region of Europe * Northern Highland, a region of Wisconsin, United States * Northern Province, Sri Lanka * Northern Range, a ra ...

southern Southern may refer to: Businesses * China Southern Airlines, airline based in Guangzhou, China * Southern Airways, defunct US airline * Southern Air, air cargo transportation company based in Norwalk, Connecticut, US * Southern Airways Express, M ...

, eastern, western, and northeastern. The diversity of Indian cuisine is characterised by the differing use of many spices and herbs, a wide assortment of recipes and cooking techniques. Though a significant portion of Indian food is vegetarian, many Indian dishes also include meats like chicken, mutton, beef (both cow and buffalo), pork and fish, egg and other seafood. Fish-based cuisines are common in eastern states of India, particularly West Bengal and the southern states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Chum chums

Despite this diversity, some unifying threads emerge. Varied uses of spices are an integral part of certain food preparations and are used to enhance the flavour of a dish and create unique flavours and aromas. Cuisine across India has also been influenced by various cultural groups that entered India throughout history, such as the Central Asians, Arabs, Mughals, and European colonists. Sweets are also very popular among Indians, particularly in West Bengal where both Bengali Hindus and Bengali Muslims distribute sweets to mark joyous occasions. Chicken tikka masala

Indian cuisine is one of the most popular cuisines across the globe. In most Indian restaurants outside India, the menu does not do justice to the enormous variety of Indian cuisine available – the most common cuisine served on the menu would be Punjabi cuisine ( chicken tikka masala is a very popular dish in the United Kingdom). There do exist some restaurants serving cuisines from other regions of India, although these are few and far between. Historically, Indian spices and herbs were one of the most sought after trade commodities. The spice trade between India and Europe led to the rise and dominance of Arab traders to such an extent that European explorers, such as

Vasco da Gama Vasco da Gama, 1st Count of Vidigueira (; ; c. 1460s – 24 December 1524), was a Portuguese explorer and the first European to reach India by sea. His initial voyage to India by way of Cape of Good Hope (1497–1499) was the first to link E ...

and Christopher Columbus, set out to find new trade routes with India leading to the '' Age of Discovery''. The popularity of '' curry'', which originated in India, across Asia has often led to the dish being labeled as the "pan-Asian" dish. Regional Indian cuisine continues to evolve. A fusion of East Asian and Western cooking methods with traditional cuisines, along with regional adaptations of fast food are prominent in major Indian cities. Sadhya DSW

The cuisine of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana consists of the Telugu cuisine, of the Telugu people as well as Hyderabadi cuisine (also known as Nizami cuisine), of the Hyderabadi Muslim community. Hyderabadi food is based heavily on non-vegetarian ingredients while, Telugu food is a mix of both vegetarian and non-vegetarian ingredients. Telugu food is rich in spices and chillies are abundantly used. The food also generally tends to be more on the tangy side with tamarind and lime juice both used liberally as souring agents. Rice is the staple food of Telugu people. Starch is consumed with a variety of curries and lentil

soup Soup is a primarily liquid food, generally served warm or hot (but may be cool or cold), that is made by combining ingredients of meat or vegetables with stock, milk, or water. Hot soups are additionally characterized by boiling solid ing ...

s or broths. Vegetarian and non-vegetarian foods are both popular. Hyderabadi cuisine includes popular delicacies such as '' Biryani'', '' Haleem'', ''

Baghara baingan Baghāre baingan ( ur, ) is a curry from the Hyderabadi cuisine made with eggplant (''brinjal'') Hyderabad. It is also used as a side dish with the Hyderabadi biryani. Etymology The word ''baghār'' refers to tempering, and the word ''bai ...

'' and ''Kheema,'' while Hyderabadi day to day dishes see some commonalities with Telanganite Telugu food, with its use of tamarind, rice, and lentils, along with meat. Yogurt is a common addition to meals, as a way of tempering

spiciness Pungency () refers to the taste of food commonly referred to as spiciness, hotness or heat, found in foods such as chili peppers. Highly pungent tastes may be experienced as unpleasant. The term piquancy () is sometimes applied to foods with a l ...

Clothing

Traditional clothing in India greatly varies across different parts of the country and is influenced by local culture, geography, climate, and rural/urban settings. Popular styles of dress include draped garments such as sari and ''mekhela sador'' for women and dhoti or lungi or panche (in Kannada) for men. Stitched clothes are also popular such as churidar or ''salwar-kameez'' for women, with ''dupatta'' (long scarf) thrown over shoulder completing the outfit. The salwar is often loose fitting, while churidar is a tighter cut. The dastar, a headgear worn by

Sikh Sikhs ( or ; pa, ਸਿੱਖ, ' ) are people who adhere to Sikhism, Sikhism (Sikhi), a Monotheism, monotheistic religion that originated in the late 15th century in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent, based on the revelation of Gu ...

s is common in Punjab. Indian women perfect their sense of charm and fashion with makeup and ornaments. Bindi,

mehendi Mehndi () is a form of body art and temporary skin decoration from the Indian subcontinent usually drawn on hands or legs. They are decorative designs that are created on a person's body, using a paste, created from the powdered dry leaves of ...

, earrings,

bangle Bangles are traditionally rigid bracelets which are usually made of metal, wood, glass or plastic. These ornament are worn mostly by women in the Indian subcontinent, Southeastern Asia, Arabian Peninsula, and Africa. It is common to see a bride ...

s and other jewelry are common. On special occasions, such as marriage ceremonies and festivals, women may wear cheerful colours with various ornaments made with gold, silver or other regional stones and gems. Bindi is often an essential part of a Hindu woman's make up. Worn on their forehead, some consider the ''bindi'' as an auspicious mark. Traditionally, the red bindi was worn only by married Hindu women, and coloured bindi was worn by single women, but now all colours and glitter have become a part of women's fashion. Some women wear sindoor – a traditional red or orange-red powder (vermilion) in the parting of their hair (locally called ''mang''). Sindoor is the traditional mark of a married woman for Hindus. Single Hindu women do not wear ''sindoor''; neither do over 1 million Indian women from religions other than Hindu and agnostics/atheists who may be married. The make up and clothing styles differ regionally between the Hindu groups, and also by climate or religion, with Christians preferring Western and Muslim preferring the Arabic styles. For men, stitched versions include kurta- pyjama and European-style trousers and shirts. In urban and semi-urban centres, men and women of all religious backgrounds, can often be seen in jeans, trousers, shirts, suits, kurtas and variety of other fashions. File:Styles of Sari.jpg, Illustration of different styles of sari, gagra choli and

shalwar kameez Shalwar kameez (also salwar kameez and less commonly shalwar qameez) is a traditional combination dress worn by women, and in some regions by men, in South Asia, and Central Asia. ''Shalwars'' are trousers which are atypically wide at the wa ...

worn by women in India File:Didarganj Yakshi statue in the Bihar Museum.jpg, The Didarganj Yakshi (3rd century BCE) depicting the '' dhoti wrap'' File:Rajput Sherwani 2014-04-23 04-27.JPG, ''

Achkan Achkan ( ur, اچکن, hi, अचकन) also known as ''Baghal bandi'' is a knee length jacket worn by men in the Indian subcontinent much like the Angarkha. History Achkan evolved from Chapkan, a dress which earlier formed the costume of t ...

'' sherwani and '' churidar'' (lower body) worn by Arvind Singh Mewar and his kin during a

in Rajasthan, India File:DWIJEN (43).jpg, An

girl wearing

mekhela sador Mekhela Sador ( as, মেখেলা চাদৰ, Mekhela Sadowr, translit-std=ISO) is a traditional Assamese sarong traditionally worn by Assamese women. Information There are two main pieces of cloth that are draped around the body. ...

, 2010 and bindi on the centre of her forehead. File:Pakhi Hegde at Smt Netaji film launch (6).jpg, Indian actress Pakkhi Hegde wearing a string-sleeve

choli A choli (Hindi: चोली, Urdu: چولی, gu, ચોળી, mr, चोळी, Nepali: चोलो ''cholo'') (known in South India as ''ravike'' (Kannada: ರವಿಕೆ, Telugu: రవికె, Tamil: ரவிக்கை)) is a blou ...

and sari File:Shriya Saran at the launch of T P Aggarwal's trade magazine 'Blockbuster' 10.jpg, Indian actress Shriya Saran in woman's kameez with dupatta draped over the neck and decorative bindi on the centre of her forehead File:Priyanka on the ramp for Mijwan fashion show.jpg, Indian actress Priyanka Chopra wearing a lehenga and ghagra choli, exposing the midriff and navel, which has long been a fashion with Indian women in popular cultureBanerjee, Mukulika & Miller, Daniel (2003) ''The Sari''. Oxford; New York: Berg File:Its relatives from sikh community weddings.png,

man and women wearing Turban File:Traditional Hajong Argon and Pathin.jpg, Traditional Hajong Pathin and Argon from Northeast India File:Subhas Chandra Bose in traditional formal clothing.jpg, Indian nationalist

Subhas Chandra Bose Subhas Chandra Bose ( ; 23 January 1897 – 18 August 1945 * * * * * * * * *) was an Indian nationalist whose defiance of British authority in India made him a hero among Indians, but his wartime alliances with Nazi Germany and Imperia ...

wearing India's traditional costume dhuti and panjabi. File:Jawaharlal Nehru on horseback in Achkan and chooridar.jpg,

J. L. Nehru Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru (; ; ; 14 November 1889 – 27 May 1964) was an Indian Anti-colonial nationalism, anti-colonial nationalist, secular humanist, social democrat— * * * * and author who was a central figure in India du ...

wearing Nehru jacket and Chooridar. File:Maharani Ourmilla Of Jubbal.jpg, Maharani Gayatri Devi, in Nivi sari. The Nivi style drape was created during the colonial era of Indian history in order to create a fashion style which would conform to the Victorian-era sensibilities File:Varma Raja Ravi-Lady with Veena.jpg, Malayali lady wearing Mundum neriyatum. Painted by

Raja Ravi Varma Raja Ravi Varma ( ml, രാജാ രവിവർമ്മ; 29 April 1848 – 2 October 1906) was an Indian painter and artist. He is considered among the greatest painters in the history of Indian art. His works are one of the best examples ...

, c. 1900. File:Nocte Couple.jpg,

Nocte The Nocte are an ethnic Naga people, Naga tribe primarily living in Arunachal. They number about 111,679 (Census 2011), mainly found in the Patkai hills of Tirap District, Tirap district of Arunachal Pradesh, India. Ethnically related to the Kon ...

Naga Naga or NAGA may refer to: Mythology * Nāga, a serpentine deity or race in Hindu, Buddhist and Jain traditions * Naga Kingdom, in the epic ''Mahabharata'' * Phaya Naga, mythical creatures believed to live in the Laotian stretch of the Mekong Riv ...

couple in their traditional attire

Languages and literature

History

The

Rigvedic The ''Rigveda'' or ''Rig Veda'' ( ', from ' "praise" and ' "knowledge") is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns (''sūktas''). It is one of the four sacred canonical Hindu texts ('' śruti'') known as the Vedas. Only one ...

Sanskrit is one of the oldest attestations of any Indo-Aryan languages, and one of the earliest attested members of the Indo-European languages. The discovery of Sanskrit by early European explorers of India led to the development of comparative Philology. The scholars of the 18th century were struck by the far-reaching similarity of Sanskrit, both in grammar and vocabulary, to the classical languages of Europe. Intensive scientific studies that followed have established that Sanskrit and many Indian derivative languages belong to the family which includes English, German, French, Italian, Spanish, Celtic, Greek, Baltic, Armenian, Persian, Tocharian, and other Indo-European languages. Tamil, one of India's major classical language, descends from Proto-Dravidian languages spoken around the third millennium BCE in peninsular India. The earliest inscriptions of Tamil have been found on pottery dating back to 500 BC. Tamil literature has existed for over two thousand years: "... the most acceptable periodisation which has so far been suggested for the development of Tamil writing seems to me to be that of A Chidambaranatha Chettiar (1907–1967): 1. Sangam Literature – 200BC to AD 200; 2. Post Sangam literature – AD 200 – AD 600; 3. Early Medieval literature – AD 600 to AD 1200; 4. Later Medieval literature – AD 1200 to AD 1800; 5. Pre-Modern literature – AD 1800 to 1900" and the earliest

epigraphic Epigraphy () is the study of inscriptions, or epigraphs, as writing; it is the science of identifying graphemes, clarifying their meanings, classifying their uses according to dates and cultural contexts, and drawing conclusions about the wr ...

records found date from around the 3rd century BCE. The evolution of language within India may be distinguished over three periods: old, middle and modern Indo-Aryan. The classical form of old Indo-Aryan was ''Sanskrit'' meaning polished, cultivated and correct, in distinction to ''Prakrit'' – the practical language of the migrating masses evolving without concern to proper pronunciation or grammar, the structure of language changing as those masses mingled, settled new lands and adopted words from people of other native languages. ''Prakrita'' became middle Indo-Aryan leading to ''Pali'' (the language of early Buddhists and Ashoka era in 200–300 BCE), ''Prakrit'' (the language of Jain philosophers) and ''Apabhramsa'' (the language blend at the final stage of middle Indo-Aryan). It is ''Apabhramsa'', scholars claim, that flowered into Hindi, Gujarati, Bengali, Marathi, Punjabi, and many other languages now in use in India's north, east and west. All of these Indian languages have roots and structures similar to Sanskrit, to each other and to other Indo-European languages. Thus we have in India three thousand years of continuous linguistic history recorded and preserved in literary documents. This enables scholars to follow language evolution and observe how, by changes hardly noticeable from generation to generation, an original language alters into descendant languages that are now barely recognisable as the same. Sanskrit has had a profound impact on the languages and literature of India. Hindi, India's most spoken language, is a "Sanskritised register" of the Delhi dialect. In addition, all modern Indo-Aryan languages, Munda languages and Dravidian languages, have borrowed many words either directly from Sanskrit ('' tatsama'' words), or indirectly via middle Indo-Aryan languages ('' tadbhava'' words). Words originating in Sanskrit are estimated to constitute roughly fifty percent of the vocabulary of modern Indo-Aryan languages,Chatterji as cited in and the literary forms of (Dravidian)

, Malayalam and Kannada. Tamil, although to a slightly smaller extent, has also been significantly influenced by Sanskrit. Part of the Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, the Bengali language arose from the eastern

Middle Indic languages The Middle Indo-Aryan languages (or Middle Indic languages, sometimes conflated with the Prakrits, which are a stage of Middle Indic) are a historical group of languages of the Indo-Aryan family. They are the descendants of Old Indo-Aryan (OIA; ...

and its roots are traced to the 5th-century BCE Ardhamagadhi language. Another major Classical Dravidian language, Kannada is attested epigraphically from the mid-1st millennium AD, and literary Old Kannada flourished in the 9th- to 10th-century Rashtrakuta Dynasty. Pre-old Kannada (or ''Purava Hazhe-Gannada'') was the language of Banavasi in the early Common Era, the Satavahana and Kadamba periods and hence has a history of over 2000 years.Pai and Narasimhachar in Bhat (1993), p103 The

Ashoka rock edict The Edicts of Ashoka are a collection of more than thirty inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka, as well as boulders and cave walls, attributed to Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya Empire who reigned from 268 BCE to 232 BCE. Ashoka used the expres ...

found at Brahmagiri (dated 230 BCE) has been suggested to contain a word in identifiable Kannada.The word ''Isila'' found in the Ashokan inscription (called the Brahmagiri edict from Karnataka) meaning to ''shoot an arrow'' is a Kannada word, indicating that Kannada was a spoken language in the 3rd century BCE (Dr. D.L. Narasimhachar in Kamath 2001, p5)

is India's 6th classical language in addition to Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam. It is also one of the 22 official languages in the 8th schedule of Indian constitution. Odia's importance to Indian culture, from ancient times, is evidenced by its presence in Ashoka's Rock Edict X, dated to the 2nd century BC. The language with the largest number of speakers in India is Hindi and its various dialects. Early forms of present-day

Hindustani Hindustani may refer to: * something of, from, or related to Hindustan (another name of India) * Hindustani language, an Indo-Aryan language, whose two official norms are Hindi and Urdu * Fiji Hindi, a variety of Eastern Hindi spoken in Fiji, and ...

developed from the Middle Indo-Aryan ''

apabhraṃśa Apabhraṃśa ( sa, अपभ्रंश, , Prakrit: , ta, அவப்பிரஞ்சனம், , ) is a term used by '' vaiyākaraṇāḥ'' (native grammarians) since Patañjali to refer to languages spoken in North India before the ris ...

'' vernaculars of present-day North India in the 7th–13th centuries. During the time of Islamic rule in parts of India, it became influenced by Persian. The Persian influence led to the development of Urdu, which is more Persianized and written in the Perso-Arabic script. Modern

standard Hindi Hindi (Devanāgarī: or , ), or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi (Devanagari: ), is an Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in the Hindi Belt region encompassing parts of northern, central, eastern, and western India. Hindi has been de ...

has a lesser Persian influence and is written in the Devanagari script. During the 19th and 20th centuries, Indian English literature developed during the British Raj, pioneered by Rabindranath Tagore, Mulk Raj Anand and Munshi Premchand. In addition to Indo-European and Dravidian languages, Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman languages are in use in India. The 2011 Linguistic Survey of India states that India has over 780 languages and 66 different scripts, with its state of Arunachal Pradesh with 90 languages.

Epics

The

Mahābhārata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the ''Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the struggle between two groups of cousins in the Kuruk ...

and the Rāmāyaṇa are the oldest preserved and well-known epics of India. Versions have been adopted as the epics of Southeast Asian countries like Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. The Ramayana consists of 24,000 verses in seven books (') and 500 cantos ('), and tells the story of Rama (an incarnation or Avatar of the Hindu preserver-god Vishnu), whose wife Sita is abducted by the

demon A demon is a malevolent supernatural entity. Historically, belief in demons, or stories about demons, occurs in religion, occultism, literature, fiction, mythology, and folklore; as well as in media such as comics, video games, movies, ani ...

king of

Lanka Lanka (, ) is the name given in Hindu epics to the island fortress capital of the legendary asura king Ravana in the epics of the ''Ramayana'' and the ''Mahabharata''. The fortress was situated on a plateau between three mountain peaks known ...

, Ravana. This epic played a pivotal role in establishing the role of dhárma as a principal ideal guiding force for Hindu way of life. The earliest parts of the Mahabharata text date to 400 BCBrockington (1998, p. 26) and is estimated to have reached its final form by the early Gupta period (c. 4th century AD). Other regional variations of these, as well as unrelated epics include the Tamil Ramavataram, Assamese Saptakanda Ramayana, Kannada ''Pampa Bharata'', Hindi '' Ramacharitamanasa'', and Malayalam ''

Adhyathmaramayanam ''Adhyathmaramayanam Kilippattu'' is the most popular Malayalam version of the Sanskrit Hindu epic ''Ramayana''. It is believed to have been written by Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan in the early 17th century, and is considered to be a classic ...

''. In addition to these two great Indian epics, there are The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature composed in classical Tamil language — '' Manimegalai'', '' Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi'', '' Silappadikaram'', '' Valayapathi'' and '' Kundalakesi''. File:Kurukshetra.jpg, A manuscript illustration of the Battle of Kurukshetra, fought between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, recorded in the Mahābhārata File:Battle at Lanka, Ramayana, Udaipur, 1649-53.jpg, The ''Battle at Lanka, Ramayana'' by

Sahibdin Sahibdin () was an Indian miniature painter of the Mewar school of Rajasthan painting. He was one of the dominant painters of the era, and one of the few whose name is still known today (another being the painter Manohar Das). Sahibdin was a Mus ...

. It depicts the monkey army of the protagonist Rama (top left, blue figure) fighting Ravana—the demon-king of the

—to save Rama's kidnapped wife, Sita. The painting depicts multiple events in the battle against the three-headed demon general Trisiras, in the bottom left. Trisiras is beheaded by Hanuman, the monkey-companion of Rama. File:Rama and Hanuman fighting Ravana, an album painting on paper, c1820.jpg, Rama and Hanuman fighting Ravana from Ramavataram, an album painting on paper from Tamil Nadu, c. 1820 CE File:Puhar-ILango.jpg, Ilango Adigal is the author of '' Silappatikaram,'' one of the five great epics of Tamil literature. File:Kalighat Krishna killing Vakasura.jpg, Krishna killing Bakasura, still of ''

Harivamsa The ''Harivamsa'' ( , literally "the genealogy of Hari") is an important work of Sanskrit literature, containing 16,374 shlokas, mostly in the '' anustubh'' metre. The text is also known as the ''Harivamsa Purana.'' This text is believed to ...

'' from Mahabharata.

Performing arts

Dance

India has had a long romance with the art of dance. The Hindu Sanskrit texts ''

Natya Shastra The ''Nāṭya Śāstra'' (, ''Nāṭyaśāstra'') is a Sanskrit treatise on the performing arts. The text is attributed to sage Bharata Muni, and its first complete compilation is dated to between 200 BCE and 200 CE, but estimates vary ...

'' (Science of Dance) and ''

Abhinaya Darpana Nandikeshvara ( sa, नन्दिकेश्वर) (5th century-4th century BC) was a major theatrologist of ancient India. He was the author of the . Influence on Bharata Nandikeshvara seems to have preceded Bharata, according to Rama ...

'' (Mirror of Gesture) are estimated to be from 200 BCE to early centuries of the 1st millennium CE. The Indian art of dance as taught in these ancient books, according to Ragini Devi, is the expression of inner beauty and the divine in man. It is a deliberate art, nothing is left to chance, each gesture seeks to communicate the ideas, each facial expression the emotions. Mohiniyattam at Kerala School Kalolsavam 2019 02

Mohiniyattam at Kerala School Kalolsavam 2019 02

Indian dance includes eight classical dance forms, many in narrative forms with

mythological Myth is a folklore genre consisting of narratives that play a fundamental role in a society, such as foundational tales or origin myths. Since "myth" is widely used to imply that a story is not objectively true, the identification of a narrat ...

elements. The eight classical forms accorded classical dance status by India's '' National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama'' are: '' bharatanatyam'' of the state of Tamil Nadu, '' kathak'' of Uttar Pradesh, ''

kathakali Kathakali ( ml, കഥകളി) is a major form of classical Indian dance. It is a "story play" genre of art, but one distinguished by the elaborately colourful make-up and costumes of the traditional male actor-dancers. It is native to the M ...

'' and ''

mohiniattam Mohiniyattam, ( ml, മോഹിനിയാട്ടം), is an Indian classical dance form that developed and remained popular in the state of Kerala. Kathakali is another classical dance form of Kerala. Mohiniyattam dance gets its name fr ...

'' of Kerala, ''

kuchipudi Kuchipudi () ( Telugu: ) is one of the eight major Indian classical dances. It originates from a village named Kuchipudi in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. Kuchipudi is a dance-drama performance, with its roots in the ancient Hindu Sa ...

'' of Andhra Pradesh, '' yakshagana'' of Karnataka, '' manipuri'' of Manipur, '' odissi (orissi)'' of the state of Odisha and the '' sattriya'' of Assam. Bhangra-dance

In addition to the formal arts of dance, Indian regions have a strong free form, folksy dance tradition. Some of the folk dances include the '' bhangra'' of Punjab; the '' bihu'' of Assam; the zeliang of Nagaland; the Jhumair, Domkach, chhau of Jharkhand; the Ghumura Dance, Gotipua, Mahari dance and Dalkhai of Odisha; the , and of Uttar Pradesh; the jat-jatin, nat-natin and saturi of Bihar; the '' ghoomar'' of Rajasthan and Haryana; the ''

dandiya Raas or Dandiya Raas is the socio-religious folk dance originating from Indian state of Gujarat and popularly performed in the festival of Navaratri. The dance is performed in the Marwar region of Rajasthan too. The etymology of Dandiya-Raas i ...

'' and '' garba'' of Gujarat; the kolattam of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana; the '' yakshagana'' of Karnataka; ''

lavani Lavani () is a genre of music popular in Maharashtra, India. Lavani is a combination of traditional song and dance, which particularly performed to the beats of ''Dholki'', a percussion instrument. Lavani is noted for its powerful rhythm. Lavan ...

'' of

; ''

Dekhnni Deknni (also spelled dekni, dekṇi, dekhṇi) is a semi classical Goan dance form. The plural of dekṇi in Konkani remains the same. Overview One of the earliest which may be dated around 1869 is ''Kuxttoba'' in which he is called "heir to In ...

'' of Goa. Recent developments include adoption of international dance forms particularly in the urban centres of India, and the extension of Indian classical dance arts by the Kerala Christian community, to tell stories from the Bible. Saila and Karma dance by Gonds

Bhavai is a genre of folk dance popular in Rajasthan

Cham dance during Dosmoche festival in Leh Palace DSCN5692 1

Drama

File:Kathakali -Play with Kaurava.jpg,

Kathakali Kathakali ( ml, കഥകളി) is a major form of classical Indian dance. It is a "story play" genre of art, but one distinguished by the elaborately colourful make-up and costumes of the traditional male actor-dancers. It is native to the M ...

one of the classical theatre forms from Kerala, India File:Rasa Lila in Manipuri dance style.jpg, '' Rasa lila'' theatrical performance in Manipuri dance style File:Bhavai Artist.jpg,

Bhavai Bhavai, also known as ''Vesha'' or ''Swang'', is a popular folk theatre form of western India, especially in Gujarat. Etymology ''Bhavai'' may derive from the Sanskrit word ''Bhava'', meaning expression or emotion. It is also associated wit ...

Artist, Gujarat File:PSI India street play.jpg, A street play (''

nukkad natak Street theatre is a form of theatre, theatrical performance and presentation in outdoor public spaces without a specific paying audience. These spaces can be anywhere, including Shopping mall, shopping centres, Parking lot, car parks, recreatio ...

'') in Dharavi slums in Mumbai. File:Akrura1.jpg, Yakshagana An Ancient dance drama of Tulunadu. File:Bharat-s-tiwari-photography-IMG 6635 June 11, 2017.jpg, Koodiyattam performer ''Kapila Venu'' File:A still from play 'Nati Binodoni'.jpg, A still from play 'Nati Binodoni', Bengali Jatra Theatre. Jatra is a popular folk-theatre form of Bengali and Odia Theatre. Indian drama and theatre has a long history alongside its music and dance.

Kalidasa Kālidāsa (''fl.'' 4th–5th century CE) was a Classical Sanskrit author who is often considered ancient India's greatest poet and playwright. His plays and poetry are primarily based on the Vedas, the Rāmāyaṇa, the Mahābhārata and ...

's plays like

Shakuntala Shakuntala (Sanskrit: ''Śakuntalā'') is the wife of Dushyanta and the mother of Emperor Bharata. Her story is told in the '' Adi Parva'' of the ancient Indian epic ''Mahabharata'' and dramatized by many writers, the most famous adaption bein ...

and Meghadoota are some of the older dramas, following those of Bhasa. Kutiyattam of Kerala, is the only surviving specimen of the ancient Sanskrit theatre, thought to have originated around the beginning of the Common Era, and is officially recognised by UNESCO as a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity. It strictly follows the

. Nātyāchārya Māni Mādhava Chākyār is credited for reviving the age old drama tradition from extinction. He was known for mastery of

Rasa Abhinaya Indian art evolved with an emphasis on inducing special spiritual or philosophical states in the audience, or with representing them symbolically. Rasas in the performing arts The theory of rasas still forms the aesthetic underpinning of al ...

. He started to perform the Kalidasa plays like '' Abhijñānaśākuntala'', '' Vikramorvaśīya'' and '' Mālavikāgnimitra''; Bhasa's '' Swapnavāsavadatta'' and ''

Pancharātra ''Pancharātra'' is a Sanskrit drama written by Bhasa. The plot is based on the Hindu epic ''Mahabharata''. The play takes its name from the period of five nights referred in the plot. Pancha(५) means Five(5) and Raatra means nights. The Pand ...

''; Harsha's '' Nagananda''.

Puppetry

India has a long tradition of puppetry. In the ancient Indian epic '' Mahabharata'' there are references to puppets. Kathputli, a form of string puppet performance native to Rajasthan, is notable and there are many Indian ventriloquists and puppeteers. The first Indian ventriloquist, Professor

Y. K. Padhye Yeshwant Keshav Padhye was the pioneering Indian Ventriloquist who started ventriloquism in India in the 1920s. He was also a puppeteer and maker. Early life As a magician he performed magic shows in India. Eventually he brought puppets from Engla ...

, introduced this form of puppetry to India in the 1920s and his son, Ramdas Padhye, subsequently popularised ventriloquism and puppetry. Almost all types of puppets are found in India. *;String puppets India has a rich and ancient tradition of string puppets or marionettes. Marionettes with jointed limbs controlled by strings allow far greater flexibility and are therefore the most articulate of the puppets. Rajasthan, Orissa, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are some of the regions where this form of puppetry has flourished. The traditional marionettes of Rajasthan are known as '' Kathputli''. Carved from a single piece of wood, these puppets are like large dolls that are colourfully dressed. The string puppets of Orissa are known as '' Kundhei''. The string puppets of Karnataka are called ''Gombeyatta''. Puppets from Tamil Nadu, known as ''Bommalattam'', combine the techniques of rod and string puppets. *;Rod puppets Rod puppets are an extension of glove-puppets, but are often much larger and supported and manipulated by rods from below. This form of puppetry now is found mostly in West Bengal and Orissa. The traditional rod puppet form of West Bengal is known as ''Putul Nautch''. They are carved from wood and follow the various artistic styles of a particular region. The traditional rod puppet of Bihar is known as ''Yampuri''. *;Glove puppets Glove puppets are also known as sleeve, hand or palm puppets. The head is made of either papier mâché, cloth or wood, with two hands emerging from just below the neck. The rest of the figure consists of a long, flowing skirt. These puppets are like limp dolls, but in the hands of an able puppeteer, are capable of producing a wide range of movements. The manipulation technique is simple the movements are controlled by the human hand, the first finger inserted in the head and the middle finger and the thumb in the two arms of the puppet. With the help of these three fingers, the glove puppet comes alive. The tradition of glove puppets in India is popular in Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal and Kerala. In Uttar Pradesh, glove puppet plays usually present social themes, whereas in Orissa such plays are based on stories of Radha and Krishna. In Orissa, the puppeteer plays a ''

dholak The ''dholak'' is a two-headed hand drum, a folk percussion instrument. The instrument is about 45 cm in length and 27 cm in breadth and is widely used in ''qawwali'', '' kirtan'', '' lavani'' and '' bhangra''. The drum has two differ ...

'' (hand drum) with one hand and manipulates the puppet with the other. The delivery of the dialogue, the movement of the puppet and the beat of the dholak are well synchronised and create a dramatic atmosphere. In Kerala, the traditional glove puppet play is called ''Pavakoothu''.

Shadow play

Shadow puppets are an ancient part of India's culture and art, particularly regionally as the ''keelu bomme'' and '' Tholu bommalata'' of Andhra Pradesh, the ''

Togalu gombeyaata Togalu gombeyaata is a puppet show unique to the state of Karnataka, India. ''Togalu gombeyaata'' translates to "a play of leather dolls" in the native language of Kannada.A description of ''togalu gombeyaata'' is provided by It is a form of s ...

'' in Karnataka, the ''charma bahuli natya'' in

, the ''

Ravana chhaya Rabana Chhaya is a form of shadow puppetry from the eastern Indian state of Odisha. History ''Rabana Chhaya'' literally means 'the shadow of Ravana' and is named after the eponymous evil king of the South Asian epic Ramayana. The lyrics for the ...

'' in Odisha, the ''

Tholpavakoothu Tholpavakoothu (Malayalam:തോൽപാവകൂത്ത് , Tamil:தோல்பாவைக்கூத்து) is a form of shadow puppetry that is practiced in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, India. It is performed using leather puppets and is per ...

'' in Kerala and the ''thol bommalatta'' in Tamil Nadu. Shadow puppet play is also found in pictorial traditions in India, such as temple mural painting, loose-leaf folio paintings, and the narrative paintings. Dance forms such as the Chhau of Odisha literally mean "shadow". The shadow theatre dance drama theatre are usually performed on platform stages attached to Hindu temples, and in some regions these are called ''Koothu Madams'' or ''Koothambalams''. In many regions, the puppet drama play is performed by itinerant artist families on temporary stages during major temple festivals. Legends from the Hindu epics '' Ramayana'' and the '' Mahabharata'' dominate their repertoire. However, the details and the stories vary regionally. During the 19th century and early parts of the 20th century of the colonial era, Indologists believed that shadow puppet plays had become extinct in India, though mentioned in its ancient Sanskrit texts. In the 1930s and thereafter, states Stuart Blackburn, these fears of its extinction were found to be false as evidence emerged that shadow puppetry had remained a vigorous rural tradition in central Kerala mountains, most of Karnataka, northern Andhra Pradesh, parts of Tamil Nadu, Odisha and southern Maharashtra. The Marathi people, particularly of low caste, had preserved and vigorously performed the legends of Hindu epics as a folk tradition. The importance of Marathi artists is evidenced, states Blackburn, from the puppeteers speaking Marathi as their mother tongue in many non-Marathi speaking states of India. According to Beth Osnes, the '' tholu bommalata'' shadow puppet theatre dates back to the 3rd century BCE, and has attracted patronage ever since. The puppets used in a ''tholu bommalata'' performance, states Phyllis Dircks, are "translucent, lusciously multicolored leather figures four to five feet tall, and feature one or two articulated arms". The process of making the puppets is an elaborate ritual, where the artist families in India pray, go into seclusion, produce the required art work, then celebrate the "metaphorical birth of a puppet" with flowers and incense. The ''tholu pava koothu'' of Kerala uses leather puppets whose images are projected on a backlit screen. The shadows are used to creatively express characters and stories in the '' Ramayana''. A complete performance of the epic can take forty-one nights, while an abridged performance lasts as few as seven days. One feature of the ''tholu pava koothu'' show is that it is a team performance of puppeteers, while other shadow plays such as the ''wayang'' of Indonesia are performed by a single puppeteer for the same ''Ramayana'' story. There are regional differences within India in the puppet arts. For example, women play a major role in shadow play theatre in most parts of India, except in Kerala and Maharashtra. Almost everywhere, except Odisha, the puppets are made from tanned deer skin, painted and articulated. Translucent leather puppets are typical in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, while opaque puppets are typical in Kerala and Odisha. The artist troupes typically carry over a hundred puppets for their performance in rural India.

Music

Music is an integral part of India's culture. Natyasastra, a 2000-year-old Sanskrit text, describes five systems of taxonomy to classify musical instruments. One of these ancient Indian systems classifies musical instruments into four groups according to four primary sources of vibration: strings, membranes, cymbals, and air. According to Reis Flora, this is similar to the Western theory of organology. Archeologists have also reported the discovery of a 3000-year-old, 20-key, carefully shaped polished basalt lithophone in the highlands of Odisha. The oldest preserved examples of Indian music are the melodies of the ''

Samaveda The Samaveda (, from ' "song" and ' "knowledge"), is the Veda of melodies and chants. It is an ancient Vedic Sanskrit text, and part of the scriptures of Hinduism. One of the four Vedas, it is a liturgical text which consists of 1,875 verses. A ...

'' (1000 BC) that are still sung in certain Vedic Śrauta sacrifices; this is the earliest account of Indian musical hymns. It proposed a tonal structure consisting of seven notes, which were named, in descending order, as ''Krusht'', ''Pratham'', ''Dwitiya'', ''Tritiya'', ''Chaturth'', ''Mandra'' and ''Atiswār''. These refer to the notes of a flute, which was the only fixed frequency instrument. The Samaveda, and other

Hindu Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism.Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...

texts, heavily influenced India's classical music tradition, which is known today in two distinct styles: Carnatic and Hindustani music. Both the Carnatic music and Hindustani music systems are based on the melodic base (known as

Rāga A ''raga'' or ''raag'' (; also ''raaga'' or ''ragam''; ) is a melodic framework for improvisation in Indian classical music akin to a melodic mode. The ''rāga'' is a unique and central feature of the classical Indian music tradition, and as ...

), sung to a rhythmic cycle (known as

Tāla A tala ( IAST ''tāla'') literally means a 'clap, tapping one's hand on one's arm, a musical measure'. It is the term used in Indian classical music similar to musical meter, that is any rhythmic beat or strike that measures musical time. The ...

); these principles were refined in the nātyaśāstra (200 BC) and the

dattilam Dattilam (दत्तिलम्) is an ancient Indian musical text ascribed to the sage (muni) Dattila. It is believed to have been composed shortly after the Natya Shastra of Bharata, and is dated between the 1st and 4th century AD. But Bharat ...

(300 AD). The current music of India includes multiple varieties of religious, classical, folk, filmi, rock and pop music and dance. The appeal of traditional classical music and dance is on the rapid decline, especially among the younger generation. Prominent contemporary Indian musical forms included filmi and Indipop. Filmi refers to the wide range of music written and performed for mainstream Indian cinema, primarily Bollywood, and accounts for more than 70 percent of all music sales in the country. Indipop is one of the most popular contemporary styles of Indian music which is either a fusion of Indian folk, classical or Sufi music with Western musical traditions.

Visual arts

Painting

File:Bhimbetka Cave Paintings.jpg, A

Prehistoric Prehistory, also known as pre-literary history, is the period of human history between the use of the first stone tools by hominins 3.3 million years ago and the beginning of recorded history with the invention of writing systems. The use of ...

cave painting in Bhimbetka rock shelters. File:Meister des Mahâjanaka Jâtaka 001.jpg, The Jataka tales from

Ajanta Caves The Ajanta Caves are approximately thirty rock-cut Buddhist cave monuments dating from the second century BCE to about 480 CE in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra state in India. The caves include paintings and rock-cut sculptures des ...

File:Indischer Maler um 1650 (I) 001.jpg, A Kangra Style Painting of

Radha Radha ( sa, राधा, ), also called Radhika, is a Hindu goddess and the chief consort of the god Krishna. She is worshiped as the goddess of love, tenderness, compassion, and devotion. She is the avatar of goddess Lakshmi and is also de ...

, the companion of the Hindu god Krishna File:Indischer Maler um 1710 001.jpg,

iconography shown in Pattachitra File:Raja Ravi Varma - Mahabharata - Shakuntala.jpg,

's ''

'' (1870); oil on canvas File:Bharat Mata by Abanindranath Tagore.jpg, Bharat Mata by Abanindranath Tagore (1871-1951), a nephew of the poet Rabindranath Tagore, and a pioneer of the Bengal School of Art File:Victory of Meghanada by RRV.jpg, A painting of Meghanada after his victory over

Indra Indra (; Sanskrit: इन्द्र) is the king of the devas (god-like deities) and Svarga (heaven) in Hindu mythology. He is associated with the sky, lightning, weather, thunder, storms, rains, river flows, and war. volumes/ref> I ...

File:Manohar. Emperor Jahangir Weighs Prince Khurram. Page from Tuzuk-i Jahangiri. 1610-1615, British Museum, London.jpg, ''Emperor

Jahangir Nur-ud-Din Muhammad Salim (30 August 1569 – 28 October 1627), known by his imperial name Jahangir (; ), was the fourth Mughal Emperor, who ruled from 1605 until he died in 1627. He was named after the Indian Sufi saint, Salim Chishti. Ear ...

weighs Prince

Khurram Korran ( fa, كران, also Romanized as Korrān; also known as Khorram, Khorrān, Khurram, and Kooran) is a village in Saadatabad Rural District, Pariz District, Sirjan County, Kerman Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 36 ...

'' by Manohar Das, 1610–15, from Jahangir's own copy of the '' Tuzk-e-Jahangiri''. The names of the main figures are noted on their clothes, and the artist shown at bottom. File:Abanindranath Tagore - The Passing of Shah Jahan, 1902.jpg, '' The Passing of Shah Jahan'' by Abanindranath Tagore. File:Flute Player by Shanu Lahiri.jpg, A

Modern art Modern art includes artistic work produced during the period extending roughly from the 1860s to the 1970s, and denotes the styles and philosophies of the art produced during that era. The term is usually associated with art in which the tradi ...

named ''Flute Player'' by

Shanu Lahiri Shanu Lahiri (23 January 1928 – 1 February 2013) was a painter and art educator who belonged to one of the most prominent and culturally elevated families of Kolkata and a first-generation modernist who emerged post independence. She was one ...

Cave paintings from Ajanta,

Bagh Bagh ( fa, باغ, link=no, meaning "garden") may refer to: Places India * Bagh Caves in Madhya Pradesh, India * Bagh, Dhar, a town in Madhya Pradesh, India Iran * Bagh, Ardabil, a village in Ardabil Province * Bagh, Larestan, a village ...

Ellora Ellora is a UNESCO World Heritage Site located in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra, India. It is one of the largest rock-cut Hindu temple cave complexes in the world, with artwork dating from the period 600–1000 CE., Quote: "These 34 m ...

and Sittanavasal and temple paintings testify to a love of naturalism. Most early and medieval art in India is Hindu, Buddhist or Jain. A freshly made coloured floor design ( Rangoli) is still a common sight outside the doorstep of many (mostly South Indian) Indian homes.

is one of the classical painters from medieval India. Pattachitra, Madhubani painting,

Mysore painting Mysore painting ( kn, ಮೈಸೂರು ಚಿತ್ರಕಲೆ) is an important form of classical South Indian painting style that originated in and around the town of Mysore in Karnataka encouraged and nurtured by the Mysore rulers. Painti ...

, Rajput painting, Tanjore painting and Mughal painting are some notable Genres of Indian Art; while

Nandalal Bose Nandalal Bose (3 December 1882 – 16 April 1966) was one of the pioneers of modern Indian art and a key figure of Contextual Modernism. A pupil of Abanindranath Tagore, Bose was known for his "Indian style" of painting. He became the principa ...

M. F. Husain Maqbool Fida Husain (17 September 1915 – 9 June 2011) was an Indian artist known for executing bold, vibrantly coloured narrative paintings in a modified Cubist style. He was one of the most celebrated and internationally recognised Ind ...

, S. H. Raza,

Geeta Vadhera Geeta Vadhera is an Indian artist. She has exhibited her oil paintings and has published a book of poetry. Early life Geeta Vadhera was born in India to a father who was a poet and a mother who was an artist. She studied for a Bachelor of A ...

, Jamini Roy and B. VenkatappaKamath (2003), p. 283 are some modern painters. Among the present day artists, Atul Dodiya, Bose Krishnamacnahri,

Devajyoti Ray Devajyoti Ray is an Indian painter and installation artist whose works attained significance in the post-liberalization phase of the Indian economy. His works have been exhibited internationally and have been acquired by many art academies. De ...

and Shibu Natesan represent a new era of Indian art where global art shows direct amalgamation with Indian classical styles. These recent artists have acquired international recognition. Jehangir Art Gallery in Mumbai, Mysore Palace has on display a few good Indian paintings.

Sculpture

File:MET DP702288.jpg, Woman riding two bulls (bronze), from Kausambi, c. 2000-1750 BCE FIle:Sarnath_capital.jpg, The

Lion Capital of Asoka The Lion Capital of Ashoka is the capital, or head, of a column erected by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka in Sarnath, India, . Its crowning features are four life-sized lions set back to back on a drum-shaped abacus. The side of the abacus is a ...

, National Emblem of India, the most famous example of Mauryan art. File:Mumbai 03-2016 94 Kanheri Caves.jpg, 5th-century Buddha statue in Kanheri caves, Mumbai File:Elephanta Caves (27804449706) (cropped).jpg, The Colossal 6 metres (20 ft) high trimurti sculpture at the Elephanta Caves File:Bahubali Shravana Belagola.jpg, The iconic 57 ft high monolithic Statue of Gommateshwara, Shravanabelagola, 10th Century File:Bhutesvara Yakshis Mathura reliefs 2nd century CE front.jpg,

Bhutesvara Yakshis The Bhutesvara Yakshis, also spelled Bhutesar Yakshis, are a series of yakshi reliefs on a railing, dating to the 2nd century CE during the time of the Kushan Empire. The reliefs were found in the Bhuteshwar mound, around the remains of a Buddh ...

, reliefs from Mathura, 2nd century CE File:Pretty sculptures.jpg, Intricately carved sculptures on the exterior of one of the Khajuraho Group of Monuments File:Lalita statue.jpg,

Pala Pala may refer to: Places Chad *Pala, Chad, the capital of the region of Mayo-Kebbi Ouest Estonia * Pala, Kose Parish, village in Kose Parish, Harju County * Pala, Kuusalu Parish, village in Kuusalu Parish, Harju County *Pala, Järva County, vi ...

basalt statue of Lalita flanked by

Gaṇeśa Ganesha ( sa, गणेश, ), also known as Ganapati, Vinayaka, and Pillaiyar, is one of the best-known and most worshipped deities in the Hindu pantheon and is the Supreme God in Ganapatya sect. His image is found throughout India. Hindu d ...

and Kārttikeya, 11th century File:Thiruvalluvar Statue at Kanyakumari 02.jpg, The Thiruvalluvar Statue, or the Valluvar Statue, is a 133-feet (40.6 m) tall

stone sculpture A stone sculpture is an object made of stone which has been shaped, usually by carving, or assembled to form a visually interesting three-dimensional shape. Stone is more durable than most alternative materials, making it especial