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The Indian cobra (''Naja naja''), also known as the spectacled cobra, Asian cobra, or binocellate cobra, is a
species
In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate s ...
of
cobra found in
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
,
Pakistan
Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 243 million people, and has the world's second-lar ...
,
Bangladesh
Bangladesh (}, ), officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It is the eighth-most populous country in the world, with a population exceeding 165 million people in an area of . Bangladesh is among the mos ...
,
Sri Lanka,
Nepal
Nepal (; ne, :ne:नेपाल, नेपाल ), formerly the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal ( ne,
सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल ), is a landlocked country in S ...
, and
Bhutan
Bhutan (; dz, འབྲུག་ཡུལ་, Druk Yul ), officially the Kingdom of Bhutan,), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is situated in the Eastern Himalayas, between China in the north and India in the south. A mountainou ...
, and a member of the
"big four" species that are responsible for the most
snakebite
A snakebite is an injury caused by the bite of a snake, especially a venomous snake. A common sign of a bite from a venomous snake is the presence of two puncture wounds from the animal's fangs. Sometimes venom injection from the bite may occu ...
cases in India.
It is distinct from the
king cobra which belongs to the monotypic genus ''Ophiophagus''. The Indian cobra is revered in
Hindu mythology and
culture
Culture () is an umbrella term which encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, and habits of the individuals in these groups ...
, and is often seen with
snake charmer
Snake charming is the practice of appearing to hypnotize a snake (often a cobra) by playing and waving around an instrument called a pungi. A typical performance may also include handling the snakes or performing other seemingly dangerou ...
s. It is a protected species under the ''
Indian Wildlife Protection Act'' (1972).
Taxonomy
The
generic
Generic or generics may refer to:
In business
* Generic term, a common name used for a range or class of similar things not protected by trademark
* Generic brand, a brand for a product that does not have an associated brand or trademark, other ...
name and the
specific
Specific may refer to:
* Specificity (disambiguation)
* Specific, a cure or therapy for a specific illness
Law
* Specific deterrence, focussed on an individual
* Specific finding, intermediate verdict used by a jury in determining the fina ...
epithet ''naja'' is a Latinisation of the
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
word () meaning "cobra".
The Indian cobra is classified under the genus ''
Naja
''Naja'' is a genus of venomous elapid snakes commonly known as cobras (or "true cobras"). Members of the genus ''Naja'' are the most widespread and the most widely recognized as "true" cobras. Various species occur in regions throughout Afric ...
'' of the family
Elapidae
Elapidae (, commonly known as elapids ; grc, ἔλλοψ ''éllops'' "sea-fish") is a family of snakes characterized by their permanently erect fangs at the front of the mouth. Most elapids are venomous, with the exception of the genus Emydoce ...
. The genus was first described by
Josephus Nicolaus Laurenti
Josephus Nicolaus Laurenti (4 December 1735, Vienna – 17 February 1805, Vienna) was an Austrian naturalist and zoologist of Italian origin.
Laurenti is considered the auctor of the class Reptilia ( reptiles) through his authorship of ' (1 ...
in 1768.
The species ''Naja naja'' was first described by the
Swedish
Swedish or ' may refer to:
Anything from or related to Sweden, a country in Northern Europe. Or, specifically:
* Swedish language, a North Germanic language spoken primarily in Sweden and Finland
** Swedish alphabet, the official alphabet used by ...
physician, zoologist, and botanist
Carl Linnaeus
Carl Linnaeus (; 23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after his Nobility#Ennoblement, ennoblement in 1761 as Carl von Linné#Blunt, Blunt (2004), p. 171. (), was a Swedish botanist, zoologist, taxonomist, and physician who formalise ...
in 1758.
The genus ''Naja'' was split into several subgenera based on various factors, including morphology, diet, and habitat. ''Naja naja'' is part of the subgenus ''
Naja
''Naja'' is a genus of venomous elapid snakes commonly known as cobras (or "true cobras"). Members of the genus ''Naja'' are the most widespread and the most widely recognized as "true" cobras. Various species occur in regions throughout Afric ...
'', along with all the other species of Asiatic cobras, including ''
Naja kaouthia
The monocled cobra (''Naja kaouthia''), also called monocellate cobra and Indian spitting cobra, is a venomous cobra species widespread across South and Southeast Asia and listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List.
Taxonomy
The scientific n ...
'', ''
Naja siamensis
The Indochinese spitting cobra (''Naja siamensis'') ( th, งูเห่า, pronounced: nguu hao) also called the Thai spitting cobra, Siamese spitting cobra, is a species of spitting cobra found in Southeast Asia.
Description
This is a medium ...
'', ''
Naja sputatrix
The Javan spitting cobra (''Naja sputatrix''), also called Indonesian cobra, is a species of cobra in the family Elapidae, found in the Lesser Sunda Islands of Indonesia, including Java, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Komodo, and others.
E ...
'', and the rest.
''Naja naja'' is considered to be the prototypical
cobra species within the subgenus ''Naja'', and within the entire genus ''Naja''. All Asiatic species of ''Naja'' were considered conspecific with ''Naja naja'' until the 1990s, often as subspecies thereof. Many of the subspecies were later found to be artificial or composites. This causes much potential confusion when interpreting older literature.
Local names
The Indian cobra
or spectacled cobra,
being common in South Asia, is referred to by a number of local names deriving from the root of ''Naga.''
For
Indo-Aryan and
Dravidian languages:
* ''Phetigom'' (ফেতিগোম) in
Assamese
* ''Gokhra ''(গোখরো) in
Bengali
Bengali or Bengalee, or Bengalese may refer to:
*something of, from, or related to Bengal, a large region in South Asia
* Bengalis, an ethnic and linguistic group of the region
* Bengali language, the language they speak
** Bengali alphabet, the w ...
* ''Naag'' (नाग) in
Hindi
Hindi ( Devanāgarī: or , ), or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi (Devanagari: ), is an Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in the Hindi Belt region encompassing parts of northern, central, eastern, and western India. Hindi has been ...
,
* ''Fetaar'' (फेटार) in
Awadhi
Awadhi (; ), also known as Audhi (), is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in northern India and Nepal. It is primarily spoken in the Awadh region of present-day Uttar Pradesh, India. The name ''Awadh'' is connected to Ayodhya, the ancient city ...
* Gehuan (गेहुंअन)in
Magahi
The Magahi language (), also known as Magadhi (), is a language spoken in Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal states of eastern India, and in the Terai of Nepal. Magadhi Prakrit was the ancestor of Magahi, from which the latter's name derives. ...
* ''Domi'' (डोमी) in
Chhattisgarhi
* ''Naag''
(નાગ) in
Gujarati
Gujarati may refer to:
* something of, from, or related to Gujarat, a state of India
* Gujarati people, the major ethnic group of Gujarat
* Gujarati language, the Indo-Aryan language spoken by them
* Gujarati languages, the Western Indo-Aryan sub ...
* ''Nagara Haavu'' (ನಾಗರ ಹಾವು) in
Kannada
Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...
* ''Moorkkan'' (മൂര്ഖന്) in
Malayalam
Malayalam (; , ) is a Dravidian languages, Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry (union territory), Puducherry (Mahé district) by the Malayali people. It is one of 2 ...
* ''Naag'' (नाग) in
Marathi
Marathi may refer to:
*Marathi people, an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group of Maharashtra, India
*Marathi language, the Indo-Aryan language spoken by the Marathi people
*Palaiosouda, also known as Marathi, a small island in Greece
See also
*
* ...
* ''Gokhara Saapa'' (ଗୋଖର ସାପ) or ''Naaga Saapa'' (ନାଗ ସାପ) in
Odia
* ''Naya'' (නයා) or ''Nagaya'' (නාගයා) in
Sinhalese
Sinhala may refer to:
* Something of or related to the Sinhalese people of Sri Lanka
* Sinhalese people
* Sinhala language, one of the three official languages used in Sri Lanka
* Sinhala script, a writing system for the Sinhala language
** Sinha ...
* ''Nalla pambu'' (நல்ல பாம்பு) or ''Nagapambu'' (நாகப்பாம்பு) in
Tamil
Tamil may refer to:
* Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia
**Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils
**Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia
* Tamil language, nativ ...
* నాగు పాము (Nagu Paamu) in
Telugu
Telugu may refer to:
* Telugu language, a major Dravidian language of India
*Telugu people, an ethno-linguistic group of India
* Telugu script, used to write the Telugu language
** Telugu (Unicode block), a block of Telugu characters in Unicode
S ...
* Saanp (/sɑ̃ːp/) in
Description
![104808104 573911326897298 8431645140365739317 janakpur](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/104808104_573911326897298_8431645140365739317_janakpur.jpg)
The Indian cobra is a moderately sized, heavy bodied species. This cobra species can easily be identified by its relatively large and quite impressive hood, which it expands when threatened.
Many specimens exhibit a hood mark. This hood mark is located at the rear of the Indian cobra's hood. When the hood mark is present, are two circular
ocelli
A simple eye (sometimes called a pigment pit) refers to a form of eye or an optical arrangement composed of a single lens and without an elaborate retina such as occurs in most vertebrates. In this sense "simple eye" is distinct from a multi-l ...
patterns connected by a curved line, evoking the image of
spectacles
Glasses, also known as eyeglasses or spectacles, are vision eyewear, with lenses (clear or tinted) mounted in a frame that holds them in front of a person's eyes, typically utilizing a bridge over the nose and hinged arms (known as temples o ...
.
This species has a head which is elliptical, depressed, and very slightly distinct from the neck. The snout is short and rounded with large nostrils. The eyes are medium in size and the pupils are round.
The majority of adult specimens range from in length. Some specimens, particularly those from Sri Lanka, may grow to lengths of , but this is relatively uncommon.
![A 6](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/A_6.5_ft_Cobra.JPG)
The Indian cobra varies tremendously in colour and pattern throughout its range. The
ventral scales
In snakes, the ventral scales or gastrosteges are the enlarged and transversely elongated scales that extend down the underside of the body from the neck to the anal scale. When counting them, the first is the anteriormost ventral scale that cont ...
or the underside colouration of this species can be grey, yellow, tan, brown, reddish or black.
Dorsal scales
In snakes, the dorsal scales are the longitudinal series of plates that encircle the body, but do not include the ventral scales
In snakes, the ventral scales or gastrosteges are the enlarged and transversely elongated scales that extend down t ...
of the Indian cobra may have a hood mark or colour patterns. The most common visible pattern is a posteriorly convex light band at the level of the 20th to 25th ventrals. Salt-and-pepper speckles, especially in adult specimens, are seen on the dorsal scales.
Specimens, particularly those found in Sri Lanka, may exhibit poorly defined banding on the dorsum.
Ontogenetic
Ontogeny (also ontogenesis) is the origination and development of an organism (both physical and psychological, e.g., moral development), usually from the time of fertilization of the egg to adult. The term can also be used to refer to the st ...
colour change is frequently observed in specimens in the northwestern parts of their geographic range (southern Pakistan and northwestern India). In southern Pakistan, juvenile specimens may be grey in colour and may or may not have a hood mark. Adults on the other hand are typically uniformly black in colour on top (
melanistic), while the underside, outside the throat region, is usually light.
Patterns on the throat and ventral scales are also variable in this species. The majority of specimens exhibit a light throat area followed by dark banding, which can be 4–7 ventral scales wide. Adult specimens also often exhibit a significant amount of mottling on the throat and on the venter, which makes patterns on this species less clear relative to patterns seen in other species of cobra. With the exception of specimens from the northwest, there is often a pair of lateral spots on the throat where the ventral and dorsal scales meet. The positioning of these spots varies, with northwestern specimens having the spots positioned more anterior, while specimens from elsewhere in their range are more posterior.
Scalation
Dorsal scales are smooth and strongly oblique. Midbody scales are in 23 rows (21–25), with 171–197
ventrals
In snakes, the ventral scales or gastrosteges are the enlarged and transversely elongated scales that extend down the underside of the body from the neck to the anal scale. When counting them, the first is the anteriormost ventral scale that cont ...
. There are 48–75 divided
subcaudals
In snakes, the subcaudal scales are the enlarged plates on the underside of the tail.Wright AH, Wright AA. 1957. Handbook of Snakes. Comstock Publishing Associates (7th printing, 1985). 1105 pp. . These scales may be either single or divided (pair ...
and the
anal shield is single. There are seven
upper labials
In reptiles, the supralabial scales, also called upper-labials, are those scales that border the mouth opening along the upper jaw. They do not include the median scaleWright AH, Wright AA. 1957. Handbook of Snakes. Comstock Publishing Associates ...
(3rd the largest and in contact with nasal anteriorly, 3rd and 4th in contact with eye) and 9-10
lower labials In reptiles, the sublabial scales, also called lower-labials or infralabials, are those scales that border the mouth opening along the lower jaw. They do not include the median scaleWright AH, Wright AA. 1957. ''Handbook of Snakes''. Comstock Publis ...
(small angular cuneate scale present between 4th and 5th lower labial), as well as one
preocular
In scaled reptiles, the ocular scales are those forming the margin of the eye.Wright AH, Wright AA. 1957. ''Handbook of Snakes''. Comstock Publishing Associates (7th printing, 1985). 1105 pp. . The name originates from the term ''oculus'' which ...
in contact with internasals, and three
postoculars
In Squamata, scaled reptiles, the ocular scales are those forming the margin of the eye.Wright AH, Wright AA. 1957. ''Handbook of Snakes''. Comstock Publishing Associates (7th printing, 1985). 1105 pp. . The name originates from the term ''oculus ...
.
Temporals are 2 + 3.
Similar species
![Common Rat Snake (Ptyas mucosa) 水律6](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Common_Rat_Snake_%28Ptyas_mucosa%29_%E6%B0%B4%E5%BE%8B6.jpg)
The Oriental rat snake ''
Ptyas mucosa
''Ptyas mucosa'', commonly known as the oriental ratsnake, Indian rat snake, ''darash'' or ''dhaman'', is a common non-venomous species of colubrid snake found in parts of South and Southeast Asia. Dhamans are large snakes. Typical mature total l ...
'' is often mistaken for the Indian cobra; however, this snake is much longer and can easily be distinguished by the more prominent ridged appearance of its body. Other snakes that resemble ''Naja naja'' are the banded racer ''
Argyrogena fasciolata
The banded racer (''Platyceps plinii'') is a species of colubrid snake.
Geographic range
It is found in India except for North Bengal tamilnadu and Kashmir, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh
Bangladesh (}, ), officially the ...
'' and the Indian smooth snake ''
Wallophis brachyura''.
Also, the
monocled cobra (''Naja kaouthia'') may be confused with ''Naja naja''; however, the monocled cobra has an "O"-shaped pattern on the back of the hood, while the Indian cobra has a spectacles-shaped pattern on its hood. Confusions may exist with
Caspian cobra
The Caspian cobra (''Naja oxiana''), also called the Central Asian cobra, ladle snake, Oxus cobra, or Russian cobra, is a species of venomous snake in the family Elapidae. The species is endemic to Central Asia. Described by Karl Eichwald in 1831, ...
(''Naja oxiana''), as some Indian cobra specimens without a hood mark are sometimes confused with ''N. oxiana'', where these two species coexist in Pakistan and northern India, and are both the only true non-spitting cobras in Asia. Although some Caspian cobra specimens can be quite dark, they are never fully black like the Indian cobra. ''N. oxiana'' normally has several dark bands under the throat, whereas in the black phase of ''N. naja'' from Pakistan, almost the entire throat is black.
Distribution and habitat
The Indian cobra is native to the
Indian subcontinent
The Indian subcontinent is a list of the physiographic regions of the world, physiographical region in United Nations geoscheme for Asia#Southern Asia, Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian O ...
and can be found throughout
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
,
Pakistan
Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 243 million people, and has the world's second-lar ...
,
Sri Lanka,
Bangladesh
Bangladesh (}, ), officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It is the eighth-most populous country in the world, with a population exceeding 165 million people in an area of . Bangladesh is among the mos ...
, and southern
Nepal
Nepal (; ne, :ne:नेपाल, नेपाल ), formerly the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal ( ne,
सङ्घीय लोकतान्त्रिक गणतन्त्र नेपाल ), is a landlocked country in S ...
. In India, it may or may not occur in the
state of Assam
Assam (; ) is a state in northeastern India, south of the eastern Himalayas along the Brahmaputra and Barak River valleys. Assam covers an area of . The state is bordered by Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh to the north; Nagaland and Manipur to ...
, some parts of
Kashmir, and it does not occur in high altitudes of over and in extreme desert regions. In Pakistan, it is absent in most of
Balochistan province
Balochistan (; bal, بلۏچستان; ) is one of the four provinces of Pakistan. Located in the southwestern region of the country, Balochistan is the largest province of Pakistan by land area but is the least populated one. It shares land ...
, parts of
North-West Frontier Province
The North-West Frontier Province (NWFP; ps, شمال لویدیځ سرحدي ولایت, ) was a Chief Commissioner's Province of British India, established on 9 November 1901 from the north-western districts of the Punjab Province. Followi ...
, desert areas elsewhere and the
Northern Areas
Gilgit-Baltistan (; ), formerly known as the Northern Areas, is a region administered by Pakistan as an administrative territory, and constituting the northern portion of the larger Kashmir region which has been the subject of a dispute bet ...
. The most westerly record comes from Duki, Balochistan in Pakistan, while the most easterly record is from the
Tangail District
Tangail ( bn, টাঙ্গাইল জেলা) formerly a small Mohokuma of Greater Mymensingh district is a district (''zila'') in the central region of Bangladesh. In 1969, Tangail district was created by Tangail Mohokuma from its 237 ...
in Bangladesh. As this species has been observed in Drosh, in the
Chitral Valley
Chitral ( khw, , lit=field, translit=ćhitrār; ur, , translit=ćitrāl) is situated on the Chitral River in northern Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. It serves as the capital of the Chitral District and before that as the capital of Chitral ...
, it may also occur in the Kabul River Valley in extreme eastern
Afghanistan
Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan,; prs, امارت اسلامی افغانستان is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. Referred to as the Heart of Asia, it is bordere ...
.
There's been at least one report of this species occurring in
Bhutan
Bhutan (; dz, འབྲུག་ཡུལ་, Druk Yul ), officially the Kingdom of Bhutan,), is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is situated in the Eastern Himalayas, between China in the north and India in the south. A mountainou ...
.
The Indian cobra inhabits a wide range of habitats throughout its geographical range. It can be found in dense or open forests,
plain
In geography, a plain is a flat expanse of land that generally does not change much in elevation, and is primarily treeless. Plains occur as lowlands along valleys or at the base of mountains, as coastal plains, and as plateaus or uplands ...
s, agricultural lands (
rice paddy fields, wheat crops), rocky terrain, wetlands, and it can even be found in heavily populated urban areas, such as villages and city outskirts, ranging from sea level to in altitude. This species is absent from true
desert regions. The Indian cobra is often found in the vicinity of water. Preferred hiding locations are holes in embankments, tree hollows,
termite mounds, rock piles and small mammal dens.
[
]
Reproduction
Indian cobras are oviparous and lay their eggs
Humans and human ancestors have scavenged and eaten animal eggs for millions of years. Humans in Southeast Asia had domesticated chickens and harvested their eggs for food by 1,500 BCE. The most widely consumed eggs are those of fowl, especial ...
between the months of April and July. The female snake usually lays between 10 and 30 eggs in rat holes or termite mounds and the eggs hatch 48 to 69 days later. The hatchlings measure between in length. The hatchlings are independent from birth and have fully functional venom glands.
Venom
The Indian cobra's venom mainly contains a powerful post- synaptic neurotoxin and cardiotoxin
Cardiotoxicity is the occurrence of heart dysfunction as electric or muscle damage, resulting in heart toxicity. The heart becomes weaker and is not as efficient in pumping blood. Cardiotoxicity may be caused by chemotherapy (a usual example is th ...
.[ The venom acts on the synaptic gaps of the nerves, thereby paralyzing muscles, and in severe bites leading to ]respiratory failure
Respiratory failure results from inadequate gas exchange by the respiratory system, meaning that the arterial oxygen, carbon dioxide, or both cannot be kept at normal levels. A drop in the oxygen carried in the blood is known as hypoxemia; a rise ...
or cardiac arrest
Cardiac arrest is when the heart suddenly and unexpectedly stops beating. It is a medical emergency that, without immediate medical intervention, will result in sudden cardiac death within minutes. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and poss ...
. The venom components include enzymes such as hyaluronidase
Hyaluronidases are a family of enzymes that catalyse the degradation of hyaluronic acid (HA). Karl Meyer classified these enzymes in 1971, into three distinct groups, a scheme based on the enzyme reaction products. The three main types of hyal ...
that cause lysis and increase the spread of the venom. Envenomation symptoms may manifest between fifteen minutes and two hours following the bite.[
In mice, the preferred value is estimated to be 0.56 mg/kg via subcutaneous injection (SC).] However, there's a wide range of potency for this species, ranging from 0.22 mg/kg (in Pakistani ''N. naja karachiensis'') to 0.84 mg/kg (Indian specimens). ''Minton (1974)'' reported a value of 0.29 mg/kg SC for specimens from northwest India, along with an average venom yield per bite range between 170 and 250 mg (dry weight). In another study the average venom yield was 169 mg and a maximum yield of 610 mg (both are dry weight of milked venom). Though it is responsible for many bites, only a small percentage are fatal if proper medical treatment and antivenom are given.[ Mortality rate for untreated bite victims can vary from case to case, depending upon the quantity of venom delivered by the individual involved. According to one study, it is approximately 20–30%,] but in another study involving victims who were given prompt medical treatment, the mortality rate was only 9%. In Bangladesh it is responsible for most of the snake bite cases.[
]
The Indian cobra is one of the big four snakes of South Asia
South Asia is the southern subregion of Asia, which is defined in both geographical
Geography (from Greek: , ''geographia''. Combination of Greek words ‘Geo’ (The Earth) and ‘Graphien’ (to describe), literally "earth descr ...
which are responsible for the majority of human deaths by snakebite in Asia. Polyvalent serum is available for treating snakebite
A snakebite is an injury caused by the bite of a snake, especially a venomous snake. A common sign of a bite from a venomous snake is the presence of two puncture wounds from the animal's fangs. Sometimes venom injection from the bite may occu ...
s caused by these species., a local spice with a reputation for being effective against snakebite, has shown promise in experiments testing its activity against cobra venom.
The venom of young cobras has been used as a substance of abuse in India, with cases of snake charmers being paid for providing bites from their snakes. Though this practice is now seen as outdated, symptoms of such abuse include loss of consciousness, euphoria, and sedation.
, an antivenom is currently being developed by the
Costa Rican
Clodomiro Picado Institute
The Instituto Clodomiro Picado is a research center in Vázquez de Coronado (canton), Vázquez de Coronado, San José Province, Costa Rica. Established in 1970, the institute is a research unit of the Universidad de Costa Rica, responsible for the ...
, and the clinical trial phase is in Sri Lanka.
Envenomation and Clinical Manifestation
Indian cobras (''N. naja'') earliest clinical manifestation of systemic envenoming was drowsiness, which occurred in 60% of cases starting at 30 minutes (severe bites) post-envenomation to 3 hours post bite. Difficulty in opening the eyes, speaking, opening the mouth, moving the lips and swallowing followed 1 – 4 hours later.
Ptosis developed 1.6 – 6 hours post bite in all cases of systemic envenoming. General weakness was usually the last symptom to develop, followed by paralysis of the muscles in severe cases. Three patients developed respiratory paralysis and were given artificial respiration; 2 recovered and 1 died. The fatal case developed respiratory paralysis about 10 minutes before reaching hospital and patient became comatose; tracheostomy and artificial respiration were performed immediately and antivenom was administered intravenously. Patient survived for 8 days but finally died. The outstanding feature of systemic envenoming is paralysis of the muscles due to rapid action of neurotoxin at the myoneural junction. Respiratory paralysis may occur within 3 – 4 hours in severe cases.
Indian cobra bites are very common in many parts of India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and throughout their range in
South Asia
South Asia is the southern subregion of Asia, which is defined in both geographical
Geography (from Greek: , ''geographia''. Combination of Greek words ‘Geo’ (The Earth) and ‘Graphien’ (to describe), literally "earth descr ...
. Hundreds of individual case reports have been published in books and journals over the past century. It is astonishing, however, that no large prospective study of patients with proven bites by ''N. naja'' has been undertaken and reported. In a survey of snakebites in India, 91.4% of cases were bitten by an unidentified snake. Of the 6.1% of identified venomous snakes responsible for bites, 40% were ''N. naja''. As with bites by ''N. kaouthia'' and ''N. oxiana'', patients may show manifestations of systemic neurotoxic envenoming or local envenoming or both, although ''N. oxiana'' bites produce noticeable symptoms of envenomation more rapidly and prominent neurotoxicity (severe flaccid paralysis) is more common amongst patients bitten by ''N. oxiana''. A woman bitten by ''N. oxiana'' in northwestern Pakistan suffered prominent neurotoxicity and died while en route to the closest hospital nearly 50 minutes after envenomation (death occurred 45–50 minutes post envenomation).
[ (''Naja naja oxiana'', Ladle Snake, p. 124).]
Local necrosis was described after cobra bites in India in the 1860s and up to the 1920s but this was apparently forgotten until Reid's work in Malaysia. Severe local pain and swelling may begin almost immediately after the bite. The pain persists while swelling and tenderness extend up the bitten limb, sometimes spreading to the adjacent trunk. Darkening of the necrotic area of skin and blistering are apparent by about the third day with a characteristic putrid smell typical of necrotic cobra bites in Africa and Asia. Early systemic symptoms include headache, nausea, vomiting, dizziness and a feeling of lassitude, drowsiness and intoxication. "Many subjects describe their drowsiness as if they had imbibed large quantities of some potent intoxicant." Neurotoxic symptoms begin with ptosis (the patient puckers their brow, contracting the frontalis muscle, attempting to raise the eyelids or tilts the head back so as to see beneath the drooping upper lids), profuse viscid saliva, inability to clear secretions, sagging of the jaw or inability to open the mouth and progression to respiratory paralysis. It is not clear from the available literature whether the proportion of patients developing neurotoxicity and necrosis is different from that in patients bitten by ''N. kaouthia''.
Between 1968 - 1974, clinical observations were made on 20 cases of cobra bites in Thailand. Most of the patients came from the rural health centres and the cobra responsible for the bite was identified as ''Naja naja'' (Indian cobra). All 20 patients developed systemic envenoming. Antivenom for cobra bite was administered intravenously together with symptomatic and supportive treatment; 19 patients survived and 1 died from cerebral anoxia.
The outstanding feature of systemic envenoming is paralysis of the muscles due to rapid action of neurotoxin at the myoneural junction.
Respiratory paralysis
Respiratory failure results from inadequate gas exchange by the respiratory system, meaning that the arterial oxygen, carbon dioxide, or both cannot be kept at normal levels. A drop in the oxygen carried in the blood is known as hypoxemia; a rise ...
may occur within 3 – 4 hours in severe cases. Drowsiness is the first symptom, but it is difficult to assess because it is a subjective symptom. All of the cases developed ptosis 1.5 – 6 hours post bite. Since ptosis is easy to detect it is a valuable clinical sign for early diagnosis of systemic envenoming due to cobra bite. Restlessness, irregular breathing, and mental confusion usually developed before respiratory paralysis, indicating that they are significant early clinical signs of impending respiratory failure. It is important for clinicians to recognize the early signs of respiratory failure. Cases which show signs of systemic envenoming require
antivenom
Antivenom, also known as antivenin, venom antiserum, and antivenom immunoglobulin, is a specific treatment for envenomation. It is composed of antibodies and used to treat certain venomous bites and stings. Antivenoms are recommended only if th ...
. If some hours have elapsed since the bite the antivenom may be less successful. In general, 100 ml. of antivenom should be given in the first 30 minutes. If there is no distinct clinical improvement within 1 hour the dose should be repeated.
Tracheostomy
Tracheotomy (, ), or tracheostomy, is a surgical airway management procedure which consists of making an incision (cut) on the anterior aspect (front) of the neck and opening a direct airway through an incision in the trachea (windpipe). The r ...
and artificial respiration are essential in cases of respiratory failure. Necrosis is the outstanding feature of local envenoming. Most patients were bitten on foot while working in rice fields. Authors recommended the wearing of shoes or boots while working, and that persons bitten by a snake apply a firm ligature above the bite and go to the nearest health centre or hospital.
Genome
Previous cytogenetic analysis revealed the Indian cobra has a diploid
karyotype of 38 chromosomes, compromising seven pairs of macro-chromosomes, 11 pairs of micro-chromosomes and one pair of sexual chromosomes. Using
next-generation sequencing Massive parallel sequencing or massively parallel sequencing is any of several high-throughput approaches to DNA sequencing using the concept of massively parallel processing; it is also called next-generation sequencing (NGS) or second-generation ...
and emerging genomic technologies, a de novo high-quality ''N. naja'' reference genome was published in 2020.
[ ]
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The estimated size of this haploid genome is of 1.79 Gb, which has 43.22% of repetitive content and 40.46% of
GC content
In molecular biology and genetics, GC-content (or guanine-cytosine content) is the percentage of nitrogenous bases in a DNA or RNA molecule that are either guanine (G) or cytosine (C). This measure indicates the proportion of G and C bases out ...
. Specifically, macro-chromosomes, which represent 88% of the genome, have 39.8% of GC content, while micro-chromosomes, that represent only 12% of the genome, contain 43.5% of GC content.
Synteny analysis
Synteny
In genetics, the term synteny refers to two related concepts:
* In classical genetics, ''synteny'' describes the physical co-localization of genetic loci on the same chromosome within an individual or species.
* In current biology, ''synteny'' mo ...
analysis between the Indian cobra and the prairie
rattlesnake genome revealed large syntenic blocks within macro, micro, and sexual chromosomes. This study allowed the observation of chromosomic fusion and fission events that are consistent with the difference in chromosome number between these species. For example, chromosome 4 of the Indian cobra shares syntenic regions with chromosomes 3 and 5 of the rattlesnake genome, indicating a possible fusion event. Besides, chromosomes 5 and 6 of the Indian cobra are syntenic to rattlesnake chromosome 4, indicating a possible fusion event between these chromosomes.
On the other hand, by performing whole-genome synteny comparison between the Indian cobra and other reptilian and avian genomes, it was revealed the presence of large syntenic regions between macro, micro, and sexual chromosomes across species from these classes, which indicates changes in chromosome organization between reptile and avian genomes and is consistent with their evolutionary trajectories.
Gene organization
Using protein homology information and expression data from different tissues of the cobra, 23,248
protein-coding genes
The human genome is a complete set of nucleic acid sequences for humans, encoded as DNA within the 23 chromosome pairs in cell nuclei and in a small DNA molecule found within individual mitochondria. These are usually treated separately as the n ...
, 31,447 transcripts, and 31,036 proteins, which included
alternatively spliced
Alternative splicing, or alternative RNA splicing, or differential splicing, is an alternative splicing process during gene expression that allows a single gene to code for multiple proteins. In this process, particular exons of a gene may be ...
products, where predicted from this genome. 85% of these predicted proteins contained
start and
stop codon
In molecular biology (specifically protein biosynthesis), a stop codon (or termination codon) is a codon (nucleotide triplet within messenger RNA) that signals the termination of the translation process of the current protein. Most codons in mess ...
, and 12% contained an N-terminal secretion signal sequence, which is an important feature in terms of toxins secretion from venom glands.
Venom gland genes
Further studies on gene prediction and annotation of the Indian cobra genome identified 139 toxin genes from 33 protein families. These included families like
three-finger toxin
Three-finger toxins (abbreviated 3FTx) are a protein superfamily of small toxin proteins found in the venom of snakes. Three-finger toxins are in turn members of a larger superfamily of three-finger protein domains which includes non-toxic prote ...
s (3FTxs), snake venom
metalloproteinase
A metalloproteinase, or metalloprotease, is any protease enzyme whose catalytic mechanism involves a metal. An example is ADAM12 which plays a significant role in the fusion of muscle cells during embryo development, in a process known as myo ...
s (SVMP), cysteine-rich secretory venom proteins and other toxins including
natriuretic peptide A natriuretic peptide is a peptide that induces natriuresis, which is the excretion of sodium by the kidneys.
Known natriuretic peptides include the following:
* atrial natriuretic peptide, also known as ANP
* brain natriuretic peptide, also known ...
,
C-type lectin
A C-type lectin (CLEC) is a type of carbohydrate-binding protein known as a lectin. The C-type designation is from their requirement for calcium for binding. Proteins that contain C-type lectin domains have a diverse range of functions including c ...
, snake venom serine proteinase (SVSP),
Kunitz and venom complement-activating gene families, group I
phospholipase A2 (PLA2) and one cobra venom factor (CVF) gene. These major toxin gene families in the Indian cobra are mostly found in the snake's macro-chromosomes, which differs from ''
Crotalus virides''
(rattlesnake) that presents them in its micro-chromosomes, and is indicative of the differences in their venom evolution. Besides, comparison of venom gland genes between the Indian cobra and ''
C. virides'', identified 15 toxin gene families that are unique to the Indian cobra, which included
cathelicidin
Cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide (CAMP) is a polypeptide that is primarily stored in the lysosomes of macrophages and polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs); in humans, the ''CAMP'' gene encodes the peptide precursor CAP-18 (18 kDa), which is proce ...
s and
phospholipase B-like toxins.
Venom gland transcriptome and toxin gene identification
![Indian cobra venom cocktail](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/Indian_cobra_venom_cocktail_.jpg)
Analysis of transcriptomic data from 14 different tissues of the Indian cobra identified 19,426 expressed genes. Out of these genes, 12,346 belonged to the venom gland transcriptome, which included 139 genes from 33 toxin gene families. Additionally, differential expression analysis revealed that 109 genes from 15 different toxin gene families were significantly up-regulated (fold change > 2) in the venom gland and this included 19 genes that were exclusively expressed in this gland.
These 19 venom specific toxins (VSTs) encode the core effector toxin proteins and include 9 three-finger toxins (out of which six are
neurotoxins, one cytotoxin, one cardiotoxin and one muscarinic toxin), six snake venom
metalloproteinase
A metalloproteinase, or metalloprotease, is any protease enzyme whose catalytic mechanism involves a metal. An example is ADAM12 which plays a significant role in the fusion of muscle cells during embryo development, in a process known as myo ...
s, one
nerve growth factor, two venom
Kunitz serine proteases and a cysteine-rich secretory venom protein.
Additionally to these VSTs, other accessory venom proteins (AVPs) were also found to be highly expressed in the venom gland such as: cobra venom factor (CVF),
coagulation factors
Coagulation, also known as clotting, is the process by which blood changes from a liquid to a gel, forming a blood clot. It potentially results in hemostasis, the cessation of blood loss from a damaged vessel, followed by repair. The mechanism o ...
,
protein disulfide isomerases,
natriuretic peptide A natriuretic peptide is a peptide that induces natriuresis, which is the excretion of sodium by the kidneys.
Known natriuretic peptides include the following:
* atrial natriuretic peptide, also known as ANP
* brain natriuretic peptide, also known ...
s,
hyaluronidase
Hyaluronidases are a family of enzymes that catalyse the degradation of hyaluronic acid (HA). Karl Meyer classified these enzymes in 1971, into three distinct groups, a scheme based on the enzyme reaction products. The three main types of hyal ...
s,
phospholipase
A phospholipase is an enzyme that hydrolyzes phospholipids into fatty acids and other lipophilic substances. Acids trigger the release of bound calcium from cellular stores and the consequent increase in free cytosolic Ca2+, an essential step in ...
s,
L-amino acid oxidase (LAAO),
vascular endothelial growth factor
Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF, ), originally known as vascular permeability factor (VPF), is a signal protein produced by many cells that stimulates the formation of blood vessels. To be specific, VEGF is a sub-family of growth factors, ...
(VEGF) and
5' nucleotidases.
This transcriptomic data together with the information provided by the high quality Indian cobra genome generated by Susyamohan et al., 2020 suggest that these VSTs together with AVPs form the core toxic effector components of this venomous snake, which induce muscular paralysis, cardiovascular dysfunction, nausea, blurred vision and hemorrhage after snake bite.
The identification of these genes coding for core toxic effector components from the Indian cobra venom may allow the development of recombinant antivenoms based in neutralizing antibodies for VST proteins.
Popular culture
![Kalahandi Coat of Arms](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Kalahandi_Coat_of_Arms.png)
There are numerous myths about cobras in India, including the idea that they mate with
rat snake
Rat snakes are members – along with kingsnakes, milk snakes, vine snakes and indigo snakes – of the subfamily Colubrinae of the family Colubridae. They are medium to large constrictors and are found throughout much of the Northern Hemi ...
s.
Rudyard Kipling
Joseph Rudyard Kipling ( ; 30 December 1865 – 18 January 1936)''The Times'', (London) 18 January 1936, p. 12. was an English novelist, short-story writer, poet, and journalist. He was born in British India, which inspired much of his work.
...
's short story "
Rikki-Tikki-Tavi
"Rikki-Tikki-Tavi" is a short story in the 1894 anthology ''The Jungle Book'' by Rudyard Kipling about adventures of a valiant young Indian grey mongoose. It has often been anthologized and has been published several times as a short book. Book 5 ...
" features a pair of Indian cobras named Nag and Nagaina, the Hindi words for male and female snake, respectively.
Hinduism
The Indian cobra is greatly respected and feared, and even has its own place in Hindu mythology as a powerful deity. The Hindu god
Shiva
Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hindu ...
is often depicted with a cobra called
Vasuki
Vasuki (IAST: ) is the second king of the nagas in Hinduism. He is described as having a gem called ''Nagamani'' (serpent's ornament) on his head. Adishesha, the first king of the serpents and the mount of Narayana, is his elder brother, and ...
, coiled around his neck, symbolizing his mastery over "maya" or the world-illusion.
Vishnu
Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism.
Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" withi ...
is usually portrayed as reclining on the coiled body of
Adishesha
Shesha (Sanskrit: शेष; ) , also known as Sheshanaga (Sanskrit: शेषनाग; ) or Adishesha (), is a serpentine demigod (Naga) and Nagaraja (King of all serpents), as well as a primordial being of creation in Hinduism. In the Pura ...
, the ''Preeminent Serpent'', a giant snake deity with multiple cobra heads. Cobras are also worshipped during the
Hindu
Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...
festival of ''
Nag Panchami
Naga Panchami is a day of traditional worship of Nag (or Naja or Naga) or snakes (which are associated with the mythical Nāga beings) observed by Hindus, Jains, and Buddhists throughout India, Nepal, and other countries where Hindu, Jain, an ...
'' and ''
Nagula Chavithi''. When killed by humans, it is usually cremated with milk and ghee along with a cloth by Hindus.
Snake charming
The Indian cobra's celebrity comes from its popularity with
snake charmers. The cobra's dramatic threat posture makes for a unique spectacle, as it appears to sway to the tune of a snake charmer's flute. Snake charmers with their cobras in a wicker basket are a common sight in many parts of India only during the Nag Panchami or Naagula Chavithi festival. The cobra is deaf to the snake charmer's pipe, but follows the visual cue of the moving pipe and it can sense the
ground vibrations Ground vibrations is a technical term that is being used to describe mostly man-made vibrations of the ground, in contrast to natural vibrations of the Earth studied by seismology. For example, vibrations caused by explosions, construction works, ra ...
from the snake charmer's tapping. Sometimes, for the sake of safety, the cobra will either be
venomoid or the venom will have been milked prior to the snake charmer's act. The snake charmer may then sell this venom at a very high price. In the past Indian snake charmers also conducted cobra and
mongoose
A mongoose is a small terrestrial carnivorous mammal belonging to the family Herpestidae. This family is currently split into two subfamilies, the Herpestinae and the Mungotinae. The Herpestinae comprises 23 living species that are native to so ...
fights. These gory fight shows, in which the snake was usually killed, are now illegal.
Heraldry
Indian cobras were often a heraldic element in the official symbols of certain ancient
princely states of India such as
Gwalior
Gwalior() is a major city in the central Indian state of Madhya Pradesh; it lies in northern part of Madhya Pradesh and is one of the Counter-magnet cities. Located south of Delhi, the capital city of India, from Agra and from Bhopal, the s ...
,
Kolhapur
Kolhapur () is a city on the banks of the Panchganga River in the southern part of the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is the administrative headquarter of the Kolhapur district. In, around 2 C.E. Kolapur's name was 'Kuntal'.
Kolhapur is ...
,
Pal Lahara,
Gondal,
Khairagarh
Khairagarh is a city in Khairagarh-Chhuikhadan-Gandai district. Formerly, it was the part of Rajnandgaon district.
History
Khairagarh State was a feudatory state of the former Central Provinces of British India. Pandadah (8 kilometer from ...
and
Kalahandi
Kalahandi (locally pronounced ''Kalahani'') is a district of Odisha in India. Archaeological evidence of Stone Age and Iron Age human settlement has been recovered from the region. Asurgarh offered an advanced, well civilised, cultured and ur ...
, among others.
Heraldry of Madhya Pradesh
hubert-herald.nl
Gallery
Image:Indiancobra.jpg, Indian cobra displaying an impressive hood
Image:Albino specticled cobra.jpg, Albino spectacled cobra
Image:Indian Binocellate Cobra.JPG, Binocellate cobra
Image:Cobra home.JPG, Indian cobra outside a home in Yelandur
Yalandur is a taluk and town in Chamarajanagar district in southern Karnataka, India. It has historic and cultural importance in this region. Along with three other taluks, it was officially included into Chamarajanagar district when the distric ...
, Karnataka
Karnataka (; ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a state in the southwestern region of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reorganisation Act. Originally known as Mysore State , it was renamed ''Karnat ...
, South India
South India, also known as Dakshina Bharata or Peninsular India, consists of the peninsular southern part of India. It encompasses the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Telangana, as well as the union territ ...
File:Common Cobra Vomiting.JPG, Cobra regurgitating bones and hair
References
External links
Serpents in Indian culture
An article o
Biodiversity of India
website.
{{Authority control
Naja
Snakes of Asia
Reptiles of Bangladesh
Reptiles of Bhutan
Reptiles of India
Reptiles of Nepal
Reptiles of Pakistan
Reptiles of Sri Lanka
Fauna of South Asia
Reptiles described in 1758
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
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