History
Prussian
Historically, Lutheranism had a strong influence on German culture, including its education. Martin Luther advocated compulsory schooling so that all people would independently be able to read and interpret the Bible. This concept became a model for schools throughout Germany. German public schools generally haveGerman Empire
When theWeimar Republic
After 1919, the Weimar Republic established a free, universal four-year elementary school (). Most pupils continued at these schools for another four-year course. Those who were able to pay a small fee went on to a that provided a more challenging curriculum for an additional one or two years. Upon passing a rigorous entrance exam after year four, pupils could also enter one of the four types of secondary school.Nazi Germany
During the Nazi era (1933–1945), though the curriculum was reshaped to teach the beliefs of the regime, the basic structure of the education system remained unchanged.East Germany
The German Democratic Republic (East Germany) started its own standardized education system in the 1960s. The East German equivalent of both primary and secondary schools was the Polytechnic Secondary School (), which all students attended for 10 years, from the ages of 6 to 16. At the end of the 10th year, an exit examination was set. Depending upon the results, a pupil could choose to come out of education or undertake an apprenticeship for an additional two years, followed by an . Those who performed very well and displayed loyalty to the ruling party could change to the (extended high school), where they could take their examinations after 12 school years. Although this system was abolished in the early 1990s after reunification, it continues to influence school life in the eastern German states.West Germany
After World War II, the Allied powers (Soviet Union, France, United Kingdom, and the U.S.) ensured that Nazi ideology was eliminated from the curriculum. They installed educational systems in their respective occupation zones that reflected their own ideas. When West Germany gained partial independence in 1949, its new constitution ( Grundgesetz) granted educational autonomy to the state () governments. This led to widely varying school systems, often making it difficult for children to continue schooling whilst moving between states. Multi-state agreements ensure that basic requirements are universally met by all state school systems. Thus, all children are required to attend one type of school (five or six days a week) from the age of 6 to the age of 16. A pupil may change schools in the case of exceptionally good (or exceptionally poor) ability. Graduation certificates from one state are recognized by all the other states. Qualified teachers are able to apply for posts in any of the states.Federal Republic of Germany
Since the 1990s, a few changes have been taking place in many schools: * Introduction of bilingual education in some subjects * Experimentation with different styles of teaching * Equipping all schools with computers and Internet access * Creation of local school philosophy and teaching goals (), to be evaluated regularly * Reduction of school years ( after grade 12) and introduction of afternoon periods as in many other western countries (turned down in 2019) In 2000 after much public debate about Germany's perceived low international ranking in Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), there has been a trend towards a less ideological discussion on how to develop schools. These are some of the new trends: * Establishing federal standards on quality of teaching * More practical orientation in teacher training * Transfer of some responsibility from the Ministry of Education to local school Further outcomes: * Bilingual education now requires mandatory English lessons in * The ''educational act'' () in 2019 is designed to increase the use of the internet and computers in schools.Overview
In Germany, education is the responsibility of the states () and part of their constitutional sovereignty (). Teachers are employed by the Ministry of Education for the state and usually have a job for life after a certain period ( verbeamtet) (which, however, is not comparable in timeframe nor competitiveness to the typical tenure track, e.g. at universities in the US). This practice depends on the state and is currently changing. A parents' council is elected to voice the parents' views to the school's administration. Each class elects one or two (class presidents; if two are elected usually one is male and the other female), who meet several times a year as the (students' council). A team of school presidents is also elected by the pupils each year, whose main purpose is organizing school parties, sports tournaments and the like for their fellow students. The local town is responsible for the school building and employs the janitorial and secretarial staff. For an average school of 600 – 800 students, there may be two janitors and one secretary. School administration is the responsibility of the teachers, who receive a reduction in their teaching hours if they participate. Church and state are separated in Germany. Compulsory school prayers and compulsory attendance at religious services at state schools are against the constitution. (It is expected, though, to stand politely for the school prayer even if one does not pray along.)Literacy
Over 99% of Germans aged 15 and above are estimated to be able to read and write.Preschool
German preschool is known as a ''Kindergarten'' (plural ) or , short for (meaning "children's daycare center"). Children between the ages of 2 and 6 attend , which are not part of the school system. They are often run by city or town administrations, churches, or registered societies, many of which follow a certain educational approach as represented, e.g., by Montessori orHomeschooling
Primary education
Parents looking for a suitable school for their child have a wide choice of elementary schools * State school. State schools do not charge tuition fees. The majority of pupils attend state schools in their neighbourhood. Schools in affluent areas tend to be better than those in deprived areas. Once children reach school age, many middle-class and working-class families move away from deprived areas. * or, alternatively ** Waldorf school (2,006 schools in 2007) (covers grades from 1–13) **Secondary education
After children complete their primary education (at 10 years of age, 12 in Berlin and Brandenburg), there are five options for secondary schooling: # (grammar school) until grade 12 or 13 (with as exit exam, qualifying for university); and # admission after grade ten until grade twelve (with (between and ) as exit exam). It is also possible to leave after grade thirteen and receive either the (if one hasn't learned a foreign language other than English) or the (with a second language at European level B1) ; # until grade ten (with () as exit exam); # (the least academic, much like a modernized lementary school until grade nine (with and in some cases = as exit exam); in some federal states the does not exist and pupils are mainstreamed into a or instead. # (comprehensive school) After passing through any of the above schools, pupils can start a career with an apprenticeship in the (vocational school). The is normally attended twice a week during a two, three, or three-and-a-half-year apprenticeship; the other days are spent working at a company. This is intended to provide a knowledge of theory and practice. The company is obliged to accept the apprentice on its apprenticeship scheme. After this, the apprentice is registered on a list at the (''IHK'') (chamber of industry and commerce). During the apprenticeship, the apprentice is a part-time salaried employee of the company. After passing the and the exit exams of the IHK, a certificate is awarded and the young person is ready for a career up to a low management level. In some areas, the schemes teach certain skills that are a legal requirement (special positions in a bank, legal assistants). Some special areas provide different paths. After attending any of the above schools and gaining a leaving certificate like , (or , from a ) or from a or a , school leavers can start a career with an apprenticeship at a (vocational school). Here the student is registered with certain bodies, e.g. associations such as the German Bar Association (, GBA) (board of directors). During the apprenticeship, the young person is a part-time salaried employee of the institution, bank, physician or attorney's office. After leaving the and passing the exit examinations set by the German Bar Association or other relevant associations, the apprentice receives a certificate and is ready for a career at all levels except in positions which require a specific higher degree, such as a doctorate. In some areas, the apprenticeship scheme teaches skills that are required by law, including certain positions in a bank or those as legal assistants. The 16 states have exclusive responsibility in the field of education and professional education. The federal parliament and the federal government can influence the educational system only by financial aid to the states. There are many different school systems, but in each state the starting point is always the (elementary school) for a period of four years; or six years in the case of Berlin and Brandenburg. Grades 5 and 6 form an orientation or testing phase ( or ) during which students, their parents and teachers decide which of the above-mentioned paths the students should follow. In all states except Berlin and Brandenburg, this orientation phase is embedded into the program of the secondary schools. The decision for a secondary school influences the student's future, but during this phase changes can be made more easily. In practice this rarely comes to bear because teachers are afraid of sending pupils to more academic schools whereas parents are afraid of sending their children to less academic schools. In Berlin and Brandenburg, the orientation is embedded into that of the elementary schools. Teachers give a so-called educational (path) recommendation () based on scholastic achievements in the main subjects (mathematics, German, natural sciences, foreign language) and classroom behavior with details and legal implications differing from state to state: in some German states, those wishing to apply to a or require such a recommendation stating that the student is likely to make a successful transition to that type of school; in other cases anyone may apply. In Berlin 30% – 35% of places are allocated by lottery. A student's performance at primary school is immaterial. While the entry year is depending on the last year in the stepping back or skipping a grade is possible between 7th and 10th grade and only stepping back between 5th and 6th grade (so called , meaning testing grade) and 11th and 12th grade. The eastern states Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt and Thuringia combine and into and respectively. All German states have as one possibility for the more able children, and all states—except Saxony—have some , but in different forms. The states of Berlin and Hamburg have only two types of schools: comprehensive schools and Gymnasium. Learning a foreign language is compulsory throughout Germany in secondary schools and English is one of the more popular choices. Students at certain are required to learn Latin as their first foreign language and choose a second foreign language. The list of available foreign languages as well as the hours of compulsory foreign language lessons differ from state to state, but the more common choices besides Latin are English, French, Spanish, and ancient Greek. Many schools also offer voluntary study groups for the purpose of learning other languages. At which stage students begin learning a foreign language differs from state to state and is tailored to the cultural and socio-economical dynamics of each state. In some states, foreign language education starts in (primary school). For example, in North Rhine-Westphalia and Lower Saxony, English starts in the third year of elementary school. Baden-Württemberg starts with English or French in the first year. The Saarland, which borders France, begins with French in the third year of primary school and French is taught in high school as the main foreign language. It may cause problems in terms of education for families that plan to move from one German state to another as there are partially completely different curricula for nearly every subject. students gain the chance to take their at a with a good degree in the . Stepping up is always provided by the school system. Adults who did not achieve a or , or reached its equivalent, have the option of attending evening classes at an or .School organization
A few organizational central points are listed below. It should however be noted that due to the decentralized nature of the education system there are many more additional differences across the 16 states of Germany. * Every state has its own school system. * Each age group of students (born roughly in the same year) forms one or more grades or classes () per school which remain the same for elementary school (years 1 to 4 or 6), orientation school (if there are orientation schools in the state), orientation phase (at years 5 to 6), and secondary school (years 5 or 7 to 10 in and ; years 5 or 7 to 10 (differences between states) in ) respectively. Changes are possible, though, when there is a choice of subjects, e.g. additional languages; Then classes will be split (and newly merged) either temporarily or permanently for this particular subject. * Students usually sit at tables, not desks (usually two at one table), sometimes arranged in a semicircle or another geometric or functional shape. During exams in classrooms, the tables are sometimes arranged in columns with one pupil per table (if permitted by the room's capacities) to prevent cheating; at many schools, this is only the case for some exams in the two final years of school, i.e. some of the exams counting for the final grade on the high school diploma. * There is usually noSchool year
The school year starts after the summer break (different from state to state, usually end/mid of August) and is divided into two terms. There are typically 12 weeks of holidays in addition to public holidays. Exact dates differ between states, but there are generally six weeks of summer and two weeks of Christmas holiday. The other holiday periods occur in spring (during the period around Easter Sunday) and autumn (during the former harvest, where farmers used to need their children for field work). In some states schools can also schedule two or three special days off per term.Timetables
Students have about 30–40 periods of 45 minutes each per week (depending on year and state), but secondary schools in particular have switched to 90-minute lessons () which count as two 'traditional' lessons. To manage classes that are taught three or five lessons per week there are two common ways. At some schools with 90-minute periods there is still one 45-minute lesson each day, mostly between the first two blocks; at other schools those subjects are taught in weekly or term rotations. There are about 12 compulsory subjects: up to three foreign languages (the first is often begun in primary school, the second one in 6th or 7th grade, and the third somewhere between 7th and 11th grade), physics, biology, chemistry, civics/social/political studies, history, geography (starting between 5th and 7th grade), mathematics, music, visual arts, German, physical education, and religious education/ethics (to be taken from primary school on). The range of offered afternoon activities is different from school to school; however, most German schools offer choirs or orchestras, and sometimes sports, theater or languages. Many of these are offered as semi-scholastic (—literally "working groups"), which are noted in students' reports but not officially graded. Other common extracurricular activities are organized as private clubs, which are very popular in Germany. There are three blocks of lessons with each lesson taking 45 minutes. After each block, there is a break of 15–20 minutes, including after the sixth lesson (the number of lessons changes from year to year, so it's possible that one would be in school until 4 o'clock). (minor fields of study) are taught two times a week; (major subjects) are taught three times. In grades 11–13, 11–12, or 12–13 (depending on the school system), each student majors in two or three subjects (), in which there are usually five lessons per week. The other subjects () are usually taught three periods per week. is a compulsory class in which each student is prepared to turn in his/her own research paper at the end of the semester. The class is aimed at training students' scientific research skills that will later be necessary in university. There are significant differences between the 16 states' alternatives to this basic template, such as or other private schools. Adults can also go back to evening school and take the exam.Public and private schools
In 2006, six percent of German children attended private schools. In Germany, Article 7, Paragraph 4 of the Grundgesetz, the constitution of Germany, guarantees the right to establish private schools. This article belongs to the first part of the German basic law, which definesSpecial schools
Most German children with special needs attend a school called or (special school) that serves only such children. There are several types of special schools in Germany such as: *—a special school serving children who have learning difficulties *—a special school serving children who have very severe learning difficulties *—a special school serving children who have special emotional needs Only one in 21 German children attends such a special school. Teachers at those schools are qualified professionals who have specialized in special-needs education while at university. Special schools often have a very favourable student-teacher ratio and facilities compared with other schools. Special schools have been criticized. It is argued that special education separates and discriminates against those who are disabled or different. Some special-needs children do not attend special schools, but are mainstreamed into a or (comprehensive school) and/or, in rare cases, into a or even a .Elite schools
There are very few specialist schools for gifted children. As German schools do not IQ-test children, most intellectually gifted children remain unaware that they fall into this category. The German psychologist, Detlef H. Rost, carried out a pioneer long-term study on gifted children called the . In 1987/1988 he tested 7000 third graders on a test based on the German version of the Cattell Culture Fair III test. Those who scored at least two standard deviations above the mean were categorised as gifted. A total of 151 gifted subjects participated in the study alongside 136 controls. All participants in the study were tested blind with the result that they did not discover whether they were gifted or not. The study revealed that the gifted children did very well in school. The vast majority later attended a and achieved good grades. However, 15 percent, were classified as underachievers because they attended a (two cases) or a (one case), had repeated a grade (four cases) or had grades that put them in the lower half of their class (the rest of cases). The report also concluded that most gifted persons had high self-esteem and good psychological health. Rost said that he was not in favour of special schools for the gifted. Gifted children seemed to be served well by Germany's existing school system.International schools
As of January 2015 the International Schools Consultancy (ISC) listed Germany as having 164 international schools. ISC defines an 'international school' in the following terms: "ISC includes an international school if the school delivers a curriculum to any combination of pre-school, primary or secondary students, wholly or partly in English outside an English-speaking country, or if a school in a country where English is one of the official languages, offers an English-medium curriculum other than the country’s national curriculum and is international in its orientation." This definition is used by publications including The Economist. In 1971 the first International Baccalaureate World School was authorized in Germany. Today 70 schools offer one or more of the IB programmes including two who offer the new IB Career-related Programme.International comparisons
The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), coordinated by the OECD, assesses the skills of 15-year-olds in OECD countries and a number of partner countries. The assessment in the year 2000 demonstrated serious weaknesses in German pupils' performance. In the test of 41 countries, Germany ranked 21st in reading and 20th in both mathematics and the natural sciences, prompting calls for reform. Major newspapers ran special sections on the PISA results, which were also discussed extensively on radio and television. In response, Germany's states formulated a number of specific initiatives addressing the perceived problems behind Germany's poor performance. By 2006, German schoolchildren had improved their position compared to previous years, being ranked (statistically) significantly above average (rank 13) in science skills and statistically not significantly above or below average in mathematical skills (rank 20) and reading skills (rank 18). In 2012, Germany achieved above average results in all three areas of reading, mathematics, and natural sciences. The PISA Examination also found big differences in achievement between students attending different types of German schools. The socio-economic gradient was very high in Germany, the students' performance there being more dependent on socio-economic factors than in most other countries. Some German teachers' representatives and a number of scientists disputed the PISA findings. They claimed, amongst other things, that the questions had been ill-translated, that the samples drawn in some countries were not representative, that German students (most of whom had never done a multiple choice tests in their lives before) were disadvantaged by the multiple choice questions, that the PISA questions had no curricular validity and that PISA was "in fact an IQ-test", which according to them showed that dysgenic fertility was taking place in Germany. Additionally, the OECD was criticized for following its own agenda of a strictly economically utilitarian education policy—as opposed to humanist education policy following the German ideal of —and for trying to establish an educational testing industry without democratic legitimation.Apprenticeship
Germany has high standards for the education of craftspeople. Historically very few people attended college. In the 1950s for example, 80 percent had only ("primary school") education of 6 or 7 years. Only 5 percent of youths entered college at this time and still fewer graduated. In the 1960s, six percent of youths entered college. In 1961 there were still 8,000 cities in which no children received secondary education. However, this does not mean that Germany was a country of uneducated people. In fact, many of those who did not receive secondary education were highly skilled craftspeople and members of the upper middle class. Even though more people attend college today, a craftsperson is still highly valued in German society. Historically (prior to the 20th century) the relationship between a master craftsman and his apprentice was paternalistic. Apprentices were often very young when entrusted to a master craftsman by their parents. It was seen as the master's responsibility not only to teach the craft, but also to instill the virtues of a good craftsman. He was supposed to teach honour, loyalty, fair-mindedness, courtesy and compassion for the poor. He was also supposed to offer spiritual guidance, to ensure his apprentices fulfilled their religious duties and to teach them to "honour the Lord" (Jesus Christ) with their lives. The master craftsman who failed to do this would lose his reputation and would accordingly be dishonoured – a very bad fate in those days. The apprenticeship ended with the so-called (exculpation). The master announced in front of the trade heading that the apprentice had been virtuous and God-loving. The young person now had the right to call himself a (journeyman). He had two options: either to work for a master or to become a master himself. Working for another master had several disadvantages. One was that, in many cases, the journeyman who was not a master was not allowed to marry and found a family. Because the church disapproved of sex outside of marriage, he was obliged to become a master if he did not want to spend his life celibate. Accordingly, many of the so-called decided to go on a journey in order to become a master. This was called or Journeyman years. In those days, the crafts were called the "virtuous crafts" and the virtuousness of the craftspersons was greatly respected. For example, according to one source, a person should be greeted from "the bricklayer craftspersons in the town, who live in respectability, die in respectability, who strive for respectability and who apply respectability to their actions." In those days, the concept of the "virtuous crafts" stood in contrast to the concept of "academic freedom" as Brüdermann and Jost noticed. Nowadays, the education of craftspersons has changed – in particular self-esteem and the concept of respectability. Yet even today, a craftsperson does sometimes refer to the "craftsperson's codex of virtues" and the crafts sometimes may be referred to as the "virtuous crafts" and a craftsperson who gives a blessing at a roofing ceremony may, in many cases, remind of the "virtues of the crafts I am part of". Certain virtues are also ascribed to certain crafts. For example, a person might be called "always on time like a bricklayer" to describe punctuality. On the other hand, "virtue" and "respectability", which in the past had been the center of the life of any craftsperson became less and less important for such education. Today, a young person who wants to start an apprenticeship must first find an : this may be a master craftsperson, a master in the industrial sector () or someone else with proof of suitable qualifications in the training of apprentices. The must also provide proof of no criminal record and proof of respectability. The has to be at least 24 years of age. The has several duties, such as teaching the craft and the techniques, and instilling character and social skills. In some cases, the must also provide board and lodging. Agreement is reached on these points before the apprenticeship begins. The apprentice will also receive payment for his work. According to §17 , a first year apprentice will be paid less than someone who has been an apprentice for longer. An who provides board and lodging may set this off against the payment made. In the past, many of those who applied for an apprenticeship had only primary school education. Nowadays, only those with secondary school education apply for apprenticeships because secondary school attendance has become compulsory. In some trades, it has even become difficult for those holding the to find an apprenticeship because more and more pupils leave school with the or . The apprenticeship takes three years. During that time, the apprentice is trained by the and also attends a vocational school. This is called the German model or dual education system ().Tertiary education
Germany's universities are recognised internationally; in theTypes of universities
The German tertiary education system distinguishes between two types of institutions: The term (university) is reserved for institutions which have the right to confer doctorates. Other degree-awarding higher education institutions may use the more generic term . In addition, non-university institutions of tertiary level exist in the German education system. The admission requirement is usually a previous education including work experience. As an example, for technological subjects can be cited, which are completed with a state examination ( EQF level 6).Only have the right to confer doctorates and
''Fachhochschulen'' (Universities of Applied Sciences)
There is another type of university in Germany: the (Universities of Applied Sciences), which offer mostly the same degrees as , but often concentrate on applied science (as the English name suggests) and usually have no power to award PhD-level degrees, at least not in their own right. have a more practical profile with a focus on employability. In research, they are rather geared to applied research instead of fundamental research. At a traditional university, it is important to study "why" a method is scientifically right; however, this is less important at Universities of Applied Sciences. Here the emphasis is placed on what systems and methods exist, where they come from, what their advantages and disadvantages are, how to use them in practice, when they should be used, and when not. For professors at a , at least three years of work experience are required for appointment while a habilitation is not expected. This is unlike their counterparts at traditional universities, where an academic career with research experience is necessary. Prior to the Bologna Process, graduates received a ''Admission
University entrance qualification
Students wishing to attend a German ''Universität'' must, as a rule, hold the ''Abitur'' or a subject-restricted qualification for university entrance (''Fachgebundene Hochschulreife''). For ''Fachhochschulen'', the ''Abitur'', the ''Fachgebundene Hochschulreife'' certification or the ''Fachhochschulreife'' certification (general or subject-restricted) is required. Lacking these school leaving certifications, in some states potential students can qualify for university entrance if they present additional formal proof that they will be able to keep up with their fellow students. This may take the form of a test of cognitive functioning or passing the ''Begabtenprüfung'' ("aptitude test", consisting of a written and oral exam). In some cases, students who do not hold the Abitur may enter university even if they do not pass the aptitude or cognitive functioning tests if they 1) have received previous vocational training, and 2) have worked at least three years and passed the ''Eingangsprüfung'' (entrance exam). Such is the case, for example, in Hamburg. While there are numerous ways to achieve entrance qualification to German universities, the most traditional route has always been graduation from a Gymnasium with the Abitur; however this has become less common over time. As of 2008, less than half of university freshmen in some German states had graduated from a Gymnasium. Even in Bavaria (a state with a policy of strengthening the Gymnasium) only 56 percent of freshmen had graduated from a Gymnasium. The rest were awarded the Abitur from another type of school or did not hold the Abitur certification at all. High school diplomas received from countries outside of Germany are, in many cases, not considered equivalent to the Abitur, but rather to a Realschulabschluss and therefore do not qualify the bearer for admission to a German university. However, it is still possible for such applicants to be admitted to a German university if they fulfill additional formal criteria, such as a particular grade point average or points on a standardized admissions test. These criteria depend on the school leaving certificate of the potential student and are agreed upon by the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs. For example, holders of the US high school diploma with a combined math and verbal score of 1300 on the SAT or 29 on the ACT may qualify for university admission. Foreign students lacking the entrance qualification can acquire a degree at a '' Studienkolleg'', which is often recognized as an equivalent to the ''Abitur''. The one-year course covers similar topics as the ''Abitur'' and ensures sufficient language skills to take up studies at a German university.Admissions procedure
The process of application depends on the degree program applied for, the applicant's origin and the university entrance qualification. Generally, all programs of study follow one of three admissions procedures. * Free admissions: Every applicant who fulfills the university entrance qualification will be admitted. This is usually practiced in subjects in which many students quit their studies, e.g., mathematics, physics or engineering. Sometimes, the number of students who fail a course can be as high as 94 percent in these programs. * Local admission restrictions: For degree programs where only a limited number of places are available ('' numerus clausus'', often abbreviated NC), criteria by which applications will be evaluated differ from university to university and from program to program. Commonly used criteria include the final grade of the university entrance qualification (which takes into account the grades of the final exams as well as course grades), a weighted grade point average which increases the weight of relevant school subjects, interviews, motivational letters, letters of recommendation by previous professors, essays, relevant practical experience, and subject-specific entrance exams. Such restrictions are increasingly common at German universities. * Nationwide admission restrictions: In the subjects medicine, dentistry, veterinary medicine, and pharmacy, a nationwide ''numerus clausus'' is in place. In these subjects, applications of Germans and foreigners who are legally treated like Germans (e.g., EU citizens) are handled centrally for all universities by a public trust (''Stiftung für Hochschulzulassung''). The following quotas are applied in this procedure: ** 20 percent of available admission slots are admitted by the final grade of the university entrance qualification ** 20 percent of slots are granted to students who have the highest number of so-called waiting semesters in which they were not enrolled at university ** 60 percent of slots are awarded by criteria at the university's discretion. Criteria universities commonly apply are: 1) final grade of the university entrance qualification (used most often), 2) interviews, 3) essays or motivational letters, and 4) entrance exams. ** some additional slots are reserved for special cases and do not count into the previous three quotas: For example, up to 2 percent of slots can be so called hardship cases (''Härtefälle''), which are granted preferential admission. An applicant may be counted as a hardship case only if there are exceptional circumstances making it impossible for the applicant to wait even a single semester for a place at university, e.g., because of a progressing disease. According to German law, universities are not permitted to discriminate against or grant preferential treatment to persons on basis of race, ethnic group, gender, social class, religion or political opinion.Tuition fees
Public universities in Germany are funded by the federal states and do not charge tuition fees. However, all enrolled students do have to pay a semester fee (''Semesterbeitrag''). This fee consists of an administrative fee for the university (only in some of the states), a fee for ''Students
Since the end of World War II, the number of young people entering a university has more than tripled in Germany, but university attendance is still lower than that of many other European nations. This can be explained with the dual education system with its strong emphasis on apprenticeships and vocational schools. Many jobs which do require an academic degree in other countries (such as nursing) require completed vocational training instead in Germany. The rate of university graduates varies by federal state. The number is the highest in Berlin and the lowest in Schleswig-Holstein. Similarly, the ratio of school graduates with university entrance qualification varies by state between 38% and 64%. The organizational structure of German universities goes back to the university model introduced by Wilhelm von Humboldt in the early 19th century, which identifies the unity of teaching and research as well as academic freedom as ideals. Colleges elsewhere had previously dedicated themselves to religion and classic literature, and Germany's shift to a research-based model was an institutional innovation. This model lead to the foundation of Humboldt University of Berlin and influenced the higher education systems of numerous countries. Some critics argue that nowadays German universities have a rather unbalanced focus, more on education and less on research. At German universities, students enroll for a specific program of study (''Studiengang''). During their studies, students can usually choose freely from all courses offered at the university. However, all bachelor's degree programs require a number of particular compulsory courses and all degree programs require a minimum number of credits that must be earned in the core field of the program of study. It is not uncommon to spend longer than the regular period of study (''Regelstudienzeit'') at university. There are no fixed classes of students who study and graduate together. Students can change universities according to their interests and the strengths of each university. Sometimes students attend multiple different universities over the course of their studies. This mobility means that at German universities there is a freedom and individuality unknown in the US, the UK, or France. Professors also choose their subjects for research and teaching freely. This academic freedom is laid down in the German constitution. Since German universities do not offer accommodation or meals, students are expected to organize and pay for board and lodging themselves. Inexpensive places in dormitories are available from ''Degrees
Recently, the implementation of theResearch
Scientific research in Germany is conducted by universities and research institutes. The raw output of scientific research from Germany consistently ranks among the world's best. The national academy of Germany is the Leopoldina Academy of Sciences. Additionally, theOrganizations funding research
* Alexander von Humboldt Foundation * Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) * Federal Ministry for Economics and Technology (BMWi) * German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD), promoting international exchange of scientists and studentsNational libraries
* German National Library of Economics (ZWB) *Research institutes
* Helmholtz Association of German Research Centres, an association of advanced research centers in science, technology, biology and medicine *Prizes
Every year, ''Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft'' awards ten outstanding scientists working at German research institutions with theDeterminants of academic attainment
50 years ago the person least likely to attend a Gymnasium was a "Catholic working-class girl from the rural parts of Germany". Nowadays however the person least likely to attend a Gymnasium is a "minority youngster from the ghetto", who is "the son of immigrants" The influence of social class on educational achievement is much greater in western Germany than it is in eastern Germany (former GDR). An analysis of PISA data on Gymnasium pupils for the year 2000 showed that, while in western Germany the child of an academic was 7.26 times as likely as that of a skilled worker to attend, in eastern Germany a child from an academic family was only 2.78 times as likely as a working-class child to attend.Deutsches PISA-Konsortium (Hrsg.)(2002): PISA 2000 – Die Länder der Bundesrepublik im Vergleich, Opladen: Leske und Budrich, p. 166 The reasons for this were unclear. Some people believed that immigrants were responsible, because more uneducated immigrant families lived in western than in eastern Germany. This assumption however could not be confirmed. The difference between east and west was even stronger when only ethnic German children were studied. Social class differences in educational achievement are much more marked in Germany's big cities than they are in the rural parts of Germany. In cities with more than 300,000 inhabitants, children of academics are 14.36 times as likely as children of skilled workers to attend Gymnasium.Gender
Educational achievement varies more in German males than it does in German females: boys are more likely to attend special education schools but also more likely to be postgraduate students; 63% of pupils attending special education programs for the academically challenged are male. Males are less likely to meet the statewide performance targets, more likely to drop out of school and more likely to be classified emotionally disturbed. 86% of the pupils receiving special training because of emotional disturbance are male.Renate Rastätter, MdLSocioeconomic factors
Children from poor immigrant or working-class families are less likely to succeed in school than children from middle- or upper-class backgrounds. This disadvantage for the financially challenged of Germany is greater than in any other industrialized nation. However, the true reasons stretch beyond economic ones. The poor also tend to be less educated. After allowing for parental education, money does not play a major role in children's academic outcomes. Immigrant children and youths, mostly of lower-class background, are the fastest-growing segment of the German population. So their prospects bear heavily on the well-being of the country. More than 30% of Germans aged 15 years and younger have at least one parent born abroad. In the big cities, 60% of children aged 5 years and younger have at least one parent born abroad. Immigrant children academically underperform their peers. Immigrants have tended to be less educated than native Germans. Immigrants from Pakistan, India, China and Vietnam perform exceptionally well. In eastern Germany, Vietnamese and Chinese of lower-class backgrounds outperform students from European backgrounds despite the fact that in most cases their parents are poorer and less educated than the parents of their European-born peers. Teachers in eastern Germany have also been shown to be more motivated than teachers in western Germany. That might be another reason for this Asian achievement.Studies
;ELEMENT-study Multiple Regression Analysis The ELEMENT study dealt with determinants of academic achievement in Berlin. It was carried out in Berlin, where some of the pupils started at a Gymnasium after the 4th grade, while others stayed in primary school until 6th grade and started at different schools after the 6th grade. Factors correlated with academic achievement tend to be intercorrelated (that means that they are also correlated with other factors that determine academic achievement). The number of books owned by a pupil's parents, for example, is correlated with the parents' education. Because of thisChildren
Children whose families receive welfare, children whose parents dropped out of school, children of teenage parents, children raised by a lone parent, children raised in crime-ridden inner-city neighbourhoods, children who have multiple young siblings, and children who live in overcrowded substandard apartments are at risk of poor educational achievement in Germany. Often these factors go together, making it very hard for children to overcome the odds. A number of measures have been assessed to help those children reach their full potential.Hans Weiß (Hrsg.): Frühförderung mit Kindern und Familien in Armutslagen. München/Basel: Ernst Reinhardt Verlag. Kindergarten has been shown to improve school readiness in children at risk. Children attending a kindergarten were less likely to have impaired speech or impaired motor development. Only 50% of children whose parents did not graduate from school are ready for school at age six. If such children were enrolled in a high-quality three-year Kindergarten programme, 87% were ready for school at age six. Thus Kindergarten helps to overcome unequal opportunities. Families whose children are at risk for low academic achievement may be visited by trained professionals. They offer a wide variety of services that relate to each child's and each family's background and needs. Such professionals may visit pregnant low-income women and talk with them about positive health-related behaviors, such as following a healthy diet or refraining from the use of alcohol or tobacco while pregnant. Positive health-related behavior may have a major impact on children's school performance. Home visitors may provide information on childcare and social services, help parents in crisis and model problem-solving skills. They may help implement the preschool/school curriculum at home or provide a curriculum of educational games designed to improve language, development and cognitive skills. In most cases, such support is offered to families on a voluntary basis. Families who are eligible for the program may decide for themselves whether or not they want to participate. There are no penalties if they decide against it or against continuing with the program.Working class pupils
In Germany most children are streamed by ability into different schools after fourth grade. The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study revealed that working class children needed better reading abilities than middle-class children to be nominated for the Gymnasium. After allowing for reading abilities, odds to be nominated to Gymnasium for upper-middle-class children were still 2.63 times better than for working-class children. Germany's '' Left Party'' brought up the discussion about affirmative action. According to Stefan Zillich, quotas should be "a possibility" to help working class children who did not do well in school gain access to a Gymnasium. Headmasters of Gymnasien have objected, saying that this type of policy would "be a disservice" to poor children, that they would not be able to academically keep up with their classmates and that they would not feel welcome at a Gymnasium. Wolfgang Harnischfeger, headmaster of a well known Berlin Gymnasium, stated: "It can be noticed in children as young as kindergarten-age, that children take after their parents. They emulate their language, their way of dressing, their way of spending their freetime. Children fromContemporary issues
There is a constant public debate about tracking students by ability into several types of secondary school (i.e. Gymnasium, Realschule and Hauptschule). Opponents of streaming by ability claim that streaming is unfair, that parents from higher socio-economic groups are more effective in sending children of similar aptitude to higher-level schools (Gymnasium). Proponents of streaming claim that it limits income segregation between rich and poor areas, as wealthier parents in poor neighborhoods may still send their gifted children to a fairly good public school due to streaming, giving them less motivation to move to a wealthier area. They also say that potential access to a Selective school would allow gifted children of lower-class parents living in poor neighborhoods better educational opportunities than if they were confined to schools with the average pupil population of their neighborhoods. Opponents of streaming have pointed out that countries that performed very well in PISA, such as Finland, do not stream by ability. Proponents have pointed out that German comprehensive schools ranked below other German schools on PISA and that children from the lower socio-economic groups attending comprehensive schools fare worse in PISA than middle-class students attending the same schools.International students in Germany from Africa
In Germany international students according to the latest official data, make up nearly 15 percent of Germany's student population. Around 325,000 international students attended German universities of the winter semester 2020/2021. In 2019 according to German statistics service international students from Africa is 40,146 for schools of general education, 35,025 for vocational schools and 2,877 schools for nurses, midwives and others. For an African student willing to study in Germany, you are required to have the following documentations: * Entry Visa * Aptitude Test * German language skills for certain programs * Proof of financial resources * Proof of health insurance In Germany scholarships are also an opportunity to finance your studies. As a country which welcomes a large number of international students, there are many scholarships offered to talented and skilled students. There are different scholarship opportunities offered by different organizations in Germany to international students from Africa seeking to study in Germany.See also
* Abitur after twelve years * Education in East Germany *References
Further reading
* Bernstein, George, and Lottelore Bernstein. "Attitudes toward Women's Education in Germany, 1870-1914." ''International Journal of Women's Studies'' 2 (1979): 473-488. * Foght, H.W. ed. ''Comparative education'' (1918), compares United States, England, Germany, France, Canada, and DenmarExternal links