The gens Papiria was a
patrician family at
ancient Rome
In modern historiography, ancient Rome refers to Roman civilisation from the founding of the city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. It encompasses the Roman Kingdom (753–509 B ...
. According to tradition, the Papirii had already achieved prominence in the time of the
kings
Kings or King's may refer to:
*Monarchs: The sovereign heads of states and/or nations, with the male being kings
*One of several works known as the "Book of Kings":
**The Books of Kings part of the Bible, divided into two parts
**The ''Shahnameh'' ...
, and the first
Rex Sacrorum
In ancient Roman religion, the ''rex sacrorum'' ("king of the sacred things", also sometimes ''rex sacrificulus'') was a senatorial priesthood reserved for patricians. Although in the historical era, the '' pontifex maximus'' was the head of Rom ...
and
Pontifex Maximus of the
Republic
A republic () is a "state in which power rests with the people or their representatives; specifically a state without a monarchy" and also a "government, or system of government, of such a state." Previously, especially in the 17th and 18th c ...
were members of this
gens
In ancient Rome, a gens ( or , ; plural: ''gentes'' ) was a family consisting of individuals who shared the same Roman naming conventions#Nomen, nomen and who claimed descent from a common ancestor. A branch of a gens was called a ''stirps'' (p ...
.
Lucius Papirius Mugillanus was the first of the Papirii to obtain the
consulship in 444 BC. The patrician members of the family regularly occupied the highest offices of the Roman state down to the time of the
Punic Wars
The Punic Wars were a series of wars between 264 and 146BC fought between Roman Republic, Rome and Ancient Carthage, Carthage. Three conflicts between these states took place on both land and sea across the western Mediterranean region and i ...
. Their most famous member was
Lucius Papirius Cursor
Lucius Papirius Cursor (c.365–after 310 BC) was a celebrated politician and general of the early Roman Republic, who was five times consul, three times magister equitum, and twice dictator. He was the most important Roman commander during the S ...
, five times consul between 326 and 313 BC, who earned three
triumphs
''Triumphs'' (Italian language, Italian: ''I Trionfi'') is a 14th-century Italian series of poems, written by Petrarch in the Tuscan language. The poem evokes the Roman triumph, Roman ceremony of triumph, where victorious generals and their armies ...
during the
Samnite Wars
The First, Second, and Third Samnite Wars (343–341 BC, 326–304 BC, and 298–290 BC) were fought between the Roman Republic and the Samnites, who lived on a stretch of the Apennine Mountains south of Rome and north of the Lucanian tribe.
...
. Most of the Papirii who held office under the later
Republic
A republic () is a "state in which power rests with the people or their representatives; specifically a state without a monarchy" and also a "government, or system of government, of such a state." Previously, especially in the 17th and 18th c ...
belonged to various
plebeian
In ancient Rome, the plebeians (also called plebs) were the general body of free Roman citizens who were not patricians, as determined by the census, or in other words " commoners". Both classes were hereditary.
Etymology
The precise origins of ...
branches of the family. Although the most illustrious Papirii flourished in the time of the Republic, a number of the family continued to hold high office during the first two centuries of the
Empire
An empire is a "political unit" made up of several territories and peoples, "usually created by conquest, and divided between a dominant center and subordinate peripheries". The center of the empire (sometimes referred to as the metropole) ex ...
.
[''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'', vol. III, p. 118 ("]Papiria Gens
The gens Papiria was a patrician family at ancient Rome. According to tradition, the Papirii had already achieved prominence in the time of the kings, and the first Rex Sacrorum and Pontifex Maximus of the Republic were members of this gens. L ...
").
Origin
Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the estab ...
described the history of the Papirii to his friend, Papirius Paetus, a plebeian member of the family, who was unaware of the patrician origin of the family. According to Cicero, the Papirii were one of the ''gentes minores'', the lesser of two divisions made amongst the patrician gentes at Rome.
[Cicero, ''Epistulae ad Familiares'']
ix. 21
The ''gentes maiores'' were the greatest or most noble patrician houses, while the rest of the patrician families made up the ''gentes minores''. The precise distinction between the two divisions is not known, nor have any lists of the families belonging to each survived from antiquity. However, it has been suggested that the ''gentes maiores'' consisted, at least in part, of the families who came to Rome in the time of
Romulus
Romulus () was the legendary foundation of Rome, founder and King of Rome, first king of Ancient Rome, Rome. Various traditions attribute the establishment of many of Rome's oldest legal, political, religious, and social institutions to Romulus ...
, while the ''gentes minores'' consisted of the patrician families that were enrolled after the destruction of
Alba Longa
Alba Longa (occasionally written Albalonga in Italian sources) was an ancient Latin city in Central Italy, 12 miles (19 km) southeast of Rome, in the vicinity of Lake Albano in the Alban Hills. Founder and head of the Latin League, it was d ...
, or under the Tarquins.
The original form of the
nomen ''Papirius'' was ''Papisius'', and all of the early Papirii would have been known by this name, although in later times they were always referred to as Papirii. A number of other ancient nomina experienced the same evolution; ''Fusius'' becoming ''Furius'', ''Valesius'' becoming ''Valerius'', and ''Vetusius'' becoming ''Veturius''. Cicero writes that the first of the Papirii to adopt the "modern" spelling was Lucius Papirius Crassus, consul in BC 336.
Praenomina
The chief
praenomina of the Papirii during the Republic were ''
Lucius,
Marcus Marcus, Markus, Márkus or Mărcuș may refer to:
* Marcus (name), a masculine given name
* Marcus (praenomen), a Roman personal name
Places
* Marcus, a main belt asteroid, also known as (369088) Marcus 2008 GG44
* Mărcuş, a village in Dobârl ...
,
Gaius
Gaius, sometimes spelled ''Gajus'', Kaius, Cajus, Caius, was a common Latin praenomen; see Gaius (praenomen).
People
*Gaius (jurist) (), Roman jurist
*Gaius Acilius
*Gaius Antonius
*Gaius Antonius Hybrida
*Gaius Asinius Gallus
*Gaius Asinius Pol ...
,
Manius'', and ''
Spurius
Spurius is a small genus of passalid beetles from Mesoamerica
Mesoamerica is a historical region and cultural area in southern North America and most of Central America. It extends from approximately central Mexico through Belize, Guatema ...
''. The first three were the most common of all Roman names, while ''Manius'' and ''Spurius'' were much more distinctive. The only other praenomina found among the patrician Papirii are ''
Tiberius
Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (; 16 November 42 BC – 16 March AD 37) was the second Roman emperor. He reigned from AD 14 until 37, succeeding his stepfather, the first Roman emperor Augustus. Tiberius was born in Rome in 42 BC. His father ...
'', and perhaps ''
Sextus
Sextus is an ancient Roman '' praenomen'' or "first name". Its standard abbreviation is Sex., and the feminine form would be Sexta. It is one of the numeral ''praenomina'', like Quintus ("fifth") and Decimus ("tenth"), and means "sixth". Althoug ...
'' or ''
Publius'', known from individual instances, but only ''Publius'' is known from the other members of the gens. The plebeian Papirii Carbones used primarily ''Gaius'' and ''
Gnaeus''; this last was a common name not found among the ancient patrician stirpes, but which was still used by the Papirii of imperial times.
Branches and cognomina
From at least the time of the early Republic, the Papirii are divided into a number of branches, or ''stirpes'', distinguished by their surnames. Cicero lists the patrician
cognomina
A ''cognomen'' (; plural ''cognomina''; from ''con-'' "together with" and ''(g)nomen'' "name") was the third name of a citizen of ancient Rome, under Roman naming conventions. Initially, it was a nickname, but lost that purpose when it became here ...
of the Papirii as ''Crassus, Cursor, Maso'', and ''Mugillanus'', while the plebeian families included those of ''Carbo, Paetus'', and ''Turdus''.
The Papirii Mugillani were the first of these families to obtain the consulship. Their surname was derived from an ancient city of
Latium
Latium ( , ; ) is the region of central western Italy in which the city of Rome was founded and grew to be the capital city of the Roman Empire.
Definition
Latium was originally a small triangle of fertile, volcanic soil (Old Latium) on whi ...
known as ''Mugilla'', the ancestral home of the Papirii. According to
Dionysius of Halicarnassus
Dionysius of Halicarnassus ( grc, Διονύσιος Ἀλεξάνδρου Ἁλικαρνασσεύς,
; – after 7 BC) was a Greek historian and teacher of rhetoric, who flourished during the reign of Emperor Augustus. His literary sty ...
, Mugilla was conquered by
Coriolanus after he was banished from Rome and went over to the
Volsci. It must have been in the vicinity of the Volscian towns of
Pollusca Pollusca was a town in ancient times in the territory of the Volsci in central Italy. It was located south of Rome, north of the Volscian capital Antium, and just west of Corioli.
In 493 BC it was captured by a Roman army under the command of the ...
and
Corioli Corioli was a town in ancient times in the territory of the Volsci in central Italy, in Latium adiectum.
Etymology
Linguist Roger Woodard, based on McCone, suggests the name of the town, ''Corioli'', may derive from the Proto-Indo-European root *'' ...
, but it was evidently deserted at a very early date, as
Pliny does not mention it among his list of former cities in Latium.
The Papirii Crassi appear almost simultaneously with the Mugillani, and remained a distinct family down to the
Second Samnite War. Their surname, ''Crassus'', which means "thick" or "fat", was common to a number of prominent gentes, including the
Claudii
The gens Claudia (), sometimes written Clodia, was one of the most prominent patrician houses at ancient Rome. The gens traced its origin to the earliest days of the Roman Republic. The first of the Claudii to obtain the consulship was Appius C ...
and the
Licinii.
''Cursor'', the surname of the third branch of the Papirii to achieve prominence, means "a runner", and was probably bestowed upon the dictator
Lucius Papirius Cursor
Lucius Papirius Cursor (c.365–after 310 BC) was a celebrated politician and general of the early Roman Republic, who was five times consul, three times magister equitum, and twice dictator. He was the most important Roman commander during the S ...
because of his speed. The Papirii Cursores appear in history from the early fourth century BC to the beginning of the third. The Cursores likely descended from the Mugillani, as Lucius Papirius Cursor, the dictator, is sometimes found with this cognomen.
Friedrich Münzer
Friedrich Münzer (22 April 1868 – 20 October 1942) was a German classical scholar noted for the development of prosopography, particularly for his demonstrations of how family relationships in ancient Rome connected to political struggles. He d ...
writes that he was the first named Cursor, and his grandfather—the first with this name in the sources—actually bore the cognomen Mugillanus.
The surname ''Maso'', sometimes spelled ''Masso'', is derived from the
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
''massa'', a "mass" or "lump". The Papirii Masones were the last of the distinct patrician families of this gens, although some of the other Papirii were also patricians, including Lucius Papirius Praetextatus,
censor in 272 BC. The Masones occur from the end of the fourth century BC down to the time of Cicero.
[Broughton, vol. I, p. 198.]
Among the plebeian branches of the Papiria gens, the most important was that surnamed ''Carbo'', referring to a piece of coal or charcoal; metaphorically, something black, or of little value.
[Chase, p. 113.] The Papirii Carbones appear in the first half of the second century BC, and continued down to the time of Cicero.
[''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'', vol. I, pp. 610–612 ("]Carbo Carbo or accented Carbó may refer to
Places
* Carbó Municipality, a municipality in Sonora, Mexico
** Carbó, the municipal seat of Carbó Municipality, Sonora, Mexico
* Enrique Carbó, Argentina, a village and municipality in Entre Ríos Provinc ...
").
''Paetus'', the surname of Cicero's plebeian friend, referred to a mild defect of vision, variously described as "blink-eyed", or "squinty". This common cognomen implied a lesser deficit than ''Strabo'', "squinty", ''Luscus'', "one-eyed", or ''Caecus'', "blind", and could even be regarded as endearing; it was an epithet of
Venus
Venus is the second planet from the Sun. It is sometimes called Earth's "sister" or "twin" planet as it is almost as large and has a similar composition. As an interior planet to Earth, Venus (like Mercury) appears in Earth's sky never fa ...
.
Cicero describes the Papirii Turdi as a plebeian family, although only one of them is mentioned in history: Gaius Papirius Turdus, tribune of the plebs in 177 BC. Their surname signified a
thrush
''The Man from U.N.C.L.E.'' is an American spy fiction television series produced by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Television and first broadcast on NBC. The series follows secret agents, played by Robert Vaughn and David McCallum, who work for a secret ...
.
Members
* Sextus Papirius, collected the ''
leges regiae
The ('royal laws') were early Roman laws, which classical historians, such as Plutarch, mentioned had been introduced by the Kings of Rome.
Though sometimes questioned, scholars generally accept that the laws (or their ultimate sources) originate ...
'', the laws of the
Roman kings
The king of Rome ( la, rex Romae) was the ruler of the Roman Kingdom. According to legend, the first king of Rome was Romulus, who founded the city in 753 BC upon the Palatine Hill. Seven legendary kings are said to have ruled Rome until 509 ...
, which came to be known as the ''Ius Papirianum'', during the reign of
Tarquinius Superbus
Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (died 495 BC) was the legendary seventh and final king of Rome, reigning 25 years until the popular uprising that led to the establishment of the Roman Republic.Livy, ''ab urbe condita libri'', I He is commonly known a ...
.
[''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'', vol. III, p. 118 (" Gaius or Sextus Papirius").]
*
Gaius Papirius
Gaius, sometimes spelled ''Gajus'', Kaius, Cajus, Caius, was a common Latin praenomen; see Gaius (praenomen).
People
*Gaius (jurist) (), Roman jurist
*Gaius Acilius
*Gaius Antonius
*Gaius Antonius Hybrida
*Gaius Asinius Gallus
*Gaius Asinius Pol ...
,
Pontifex Maximus in 509 BC, collected the religious ordinances of
Numa Pompilius
Numa Pompilius (; 753–672 BC; reigned 715–672 BC) was the legendary second king of Rome, succeeding Romulus after a one-year interregnum. He was of Sabine origin, and many of Rome's most important religious and political institutions are a ...
, which
Ancus Marcius
Ancus Marcius was the legendary fourth king of Rome, who traditionally reigned 24 years. Upon the death of the previous king, Tullus Hostilius, the Roman Senate appointed an interrex, who in turn called a session of the assembly of the people who ...
had carved on oaken tablets, and placed in the
Roman Forum
The Roman Forum, also known by its Latin name Forum Romanum ( it, Foro Romano), is a rectangular forum (plaza) surrounded by the ruins of several important ancient government buildings at the center of the city of Rome. Citizens of the ancient ...
.
* Manius Papirius, appointed the first
Rex Sacrorum
In ancient Roman religion, the ''rex sacrorum'' ("king of the sacred things", also sometimes ''rex sacrificulus'') was a senatorial priesthood reserved for patricians. Although in the historical era, the '' pontifex maximus'' was the head of Rom ...
in 509 BC, in order to carry out the religious duties that had previously been performed by the king.
* Lucius Papirius, a creditor, who accepted a boy, Gaius Publilius, as ''nexus'', or collateral for his father's debt, in 326 BC. When his lustful advances toward the boy were rejected, Papirius caused the boy to be stripped and lashed; popular outrage led to the abolition of ''
nexum ''Nexum'' was a debt bondage contract in the early Roman Republic. A debtor pledged his person as collateral if he defaulted on his loan. Details as to the contract are obscure and some modern scholars dispute its existence. It was allegedly abolish ...
'' by a law ironically named the ''
lex Poetelia Papiria
The ''lex Poetelia Papiria'' was a law passed in Ancient Rome that abolished the contractual form of Nexum, or debt bondage. Livy dates the law in 326 BC, during the third consulship of Gaius Poetelius Libo Visolus,Livy, ''History of Rome'' VIII. ...
'', after the consuls
Gaius Poetelius Libo and
Lucius Papirius Cursor
Lucius Papirius Cursor (c.365–after 310 BC) was a celebrated politician and general of the early Roman Republic, who was five times consul, three times magister equitum, and twice dictator. He was the most important Roman commander during the S ...
.
* Lucius Papirius L. f. M. n. Praetextatus, censor in 272 BC, died in office.
* Gaius Papirius Turdus, tribune of the plebs in 177 BC, he and his colleague, Aulus Licinius Nerva, charged the proconsul
Aulus Manlius Vulso with maladministration in
Istria
Istria ( ; Croatian language, Croatian and Slovene language, Slovene: ; ist, Eîstria; Istro-Romanian language, Istro-Romanian, Italian language, Italian and Venetian language, Venetian: ; formerly in Latin and in Ancient Greek) is the larges ...
, but their attempt to recall him was thwarted by Quintus Aelius, another tribune.
* Lucius Papirius, a contemporary of
Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, father of the
Gracchi
The Gracchi brothers were two Roman brothers, sons of Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus who was consul in 177 BC. Tiberius, the elder brother, was tribune of the plebs in 133 BC and Gaius, the younger brother, was tribune a decade later in ...
. Cicero considered Papirius among the finest orators of his age, and mentions a speech that Papirius gave in the senate on behalf of the people of
Fregellae and the Latin
colonies
In modern parlance, a colony is a territory subject to a form of foreign rule. Though dominated by the foreign colonizers, colonies remain separate from the administration of the original country of the colonizers, the '' metropolitan state'' ...
.
* Papirius Potamo, a
scriba and friend of Quintus Caecilius Niger, the
quaestor
A ( , , ; "investigator") was a public official in Ancient Rome. There were various types of quaestors, with the title used to describe greatly different offices at different times.
In the Roman Republic, quaestors were elected officials who ...
of
Verres, who became his employer when Caecilius left
Sicily
(man) it, Siciliana (woman)
, population_note =
, population_blank1_title =
, population_blank1 =
, demographics_type1 = Ethnicity
, demographics1_footnotes =
, demographi ...
. Potamo became one of those through whom Verres worked his depredations upon the people, and was derided by Cicero for his role.
* Lucius Papirius Paetus, a friend of Cicero, who describes him as a learned man, and an
Epicurean. He possessed little knowledge of his family, and did not realize that the Papirii were of patrician origin. In one letter, Cicero undertook to enlighten him, extolling the virtues of his patrician ancestors, whom he encouraged Paetus to emulate, while denigrating the follies of the plebeians.
Papirii Mugillani et Cursores
*
Lucius Papirius Mugillanus, was elected
consul
Consul (abbrev. ''cos.''; Latin plural ''consules'') was the title of one of the two chief magistrates of the Roman Republic, and subsequently also an important title under the Roman Empire. The title was used in other European city-states throug ...
''suffectus'' in 444 BC, the year in which the first college of
consular tribunes
A consular tribune was putatively a type of magistrate in the early Roman Republic. According to Roman tradition, colleges of consular tribunes held office throughout the fifth and fourth centuries BC during the so-called "Conflict of the Or ...
was obliged to resign due to a fault in the
auspices
Augury is the practice from ancient Roman religion of interpreting omens from the observed behavior of birds. When the individual, known as the augur, interpreted these signs, it is referred to as "taking the auspices". "Auspices" (Latin ''au ...
. The following year, he was one of the first
censors, together with
Lucius Sempronius Atratinus, his colleague in the consulship.
[''Fasti Capitolini''.]
*
Lucius Papirius L. f. Mugillanus, consul in 427 BC, and
consular tribune
A consular tribune was putatively a type of magistrate in the early Roman Republic. According to Roman tradition, colleges of consular tribunes held office throughout the fifth and fourth centuries BC during the so-called "Conflict of the Or ...
in 422. As
interrex
The interrex (plural interreges) was literally a ruler "between kings" (Latin ''inter reges'') during the Roman Kingdom and the Roman Republic. He was in effect a short-term regent.
History
The office of ''interrex'' was supposedly created follow ...
for holding the
comitia in 420 BC, he authored a law permitting the election of plebeian
quaestor
A ( , , ; "investigator") was a public official in Ancient Rome. There were various types of quaestors, with the title used to describe greatly different offices at different times.
In the Roman Republic, quaestors were elected officials who ...
s. He was censor in 418.
*
Marcus Papirius Mugillanus
Marcus Papirius Mugillanus was a consular tribune in 418 and 416 BC, and perhaps consul of the Roman Republic in 411.
Papirius belonged to the Papiria gens, one of the oldest patrician families. The family had, according to legend, been among th ...
, consular tribune in 418 and 416 BC, and perhaps consul in 411.
* Lucius Papirius Mugillanus, consular tribune in 382, 380, and 376 BC.
* Lucius Papirius (Mugillanus), censor in 393 BC, and consular tribune in 387 and 385.
* Spurius Papirius L. f. (Mugillanus), father of the dictator Lucius Papirius Cursor.
*
Lucius Papirius Sp. f. L. n. Cursor, was appointed
magister equitum
The , in English Master of the Horse or Master of the Cavalry, was a Roman magistrate appointed as lieutenant to a dictator. His nominal function was to serve as commander of the Roman cavalry in time of war, but just as a dictator could be nomi ...
by his cousin, the dictator
Lucius Papirius Crassus, in 340 BC. He was consul in 326, the first year of the Second Samnite War, and was nominated dictator the following year, in which he earned a
triumph. Consul again in 320 and 319, he earned a second triumph. He was consul twice more, in 315 and 313, and dictator for a second time in 310, following which he received a third triumph.
* Lucius Papirius L. f. S. n. Cursor, consul in 293 BC, during the Third Samnite War, together with his colleague,
Spurius Carvilius Maximus Spurius Carvilius C. f. C. n., later surnamed Maximus, was the first member of the plebeian ''gens Carvilia'' to obtain the consulship, which he held in 293 BC, and again in 272 BC.
Early career
Born of equestrian rank, Carvilius served as curule ...
, won several important victories and celebrated a triumph. The two were elected again in 272, during an insurrection in southern Italy, and obtained a second triumph over the Samnites,
Lucani, and
Bruttii The Bruttians (alternative spelling, Brettii) ( la, Bruttii) were an ancient Italic people. They inhabited the southern extremity of Italy, from the frontiers of Lucania to the Sicilian Straits and the promontory of Leucopetra. This roughly corresp ...
. During his first consulship, Papirius is said to have erected the first public
sundial
A sundial is a horological device that tells the time of day (referred to as civil time in modern usage) when direct sunlight shines by the apparent position of the Sun in the sky. In the narrowest sense of the word, it consists of a flat ...
at Rome.
Papirii Crassi
*
Manius Papirius Crassus
Manius Papirius Crassus was consul of the Roman Republic in 441 BC.
Papirius belonged to the patrician Papiria gens. He was probably a brother or close relative to Lucius Papirius Crassus, consul in 436 BC, and Gaius Papirius Crassus, consul in ...
, consul in 441 BC.
*
Lucius Papirius Crassus, consul in 436 BC, carried on the war against
Veii
Veii (also Veius; it, Veio) was an important ancient Etruscan city situated on the southern limits of Etruria and north-northwest of Rome, Italy. It now lies in Isola Farnese, in the comune of Rome. Many other sites associated with and in the ...
and
Falerii
Falerii (now Fabrica di Roma) was a city in southern Etruria, 50 km (31 mi) northeast of Rome, 34 km (21 mi) from Veii (a major Etruscan city-state near the River Tiber) and about 1.5 km (0.9 mi) west of the ancient Via Flaminia. It was the main c ...
. As the enemy refused to engage, Papirius and his colleague laid waste to the countryside around those cities. Papirius was censor in 430.
*
Gaius Papirius Crassus
Gaius Papirius Crassus ( 430 BC) was a Roman senator who held the executive state office of Roman consul, consul in 430 BC, as the colleague of Lucius Julius Iullus (consul), Lucius Julius. During their year in office, an eight year long truce may ...
, consul in 430 BC. He and his colleague anticipated a popular law planned by the
tribunes of the plebs, and passed it themselves.
* Lucius Papirius Crassus, grandfather of the consular tribune of 336 and 330 BC.
* Gaius Papirius Crassus, consular tribune in 384 BC.
* Spurius Papirius C. f. Crassus, consular tribune in 382 BC, fought successfully against the armies of
Velitrae
Velletri (; la, Velitrae; xvo, Velester) is an Italian ''comune'' in the Metropolitan City of Rome, approximately 40 km to the southeast of the city centre, located in the Alban Hills, in the region of Lazio, central Italy. Neighbouring comm ...
and
Praeneste
Palestrina (ancient ''Praeneste''; grc, Πραίνεστος, ''Prainestos'') is a modern Italian city and ''comune'' (municipality) with a population of about 22,000, in Lazio, about east of Rome. It is connected to the latter by the Via Pre ...
.
* Tiberius Papirius Crassus, consular tribune in 380 BC.
* Marcus Papirius Crassus, grandfather of the consul of 318 BC.
[Broughton, vol. I, p. 155.]
* Lucius Papirius L. f. Crassus, father of the consular tribune of 336 and 330 BC. Some authorities describe a Lucius Papirius Crassus of this generation as consular tribune in 382 and 376 BC, but that Papirius was probably one of the Mugillani.
* Lucius Papirius S. f. C. n. Crassus, consular tribune in 368 BC.
* Lucus Papirius M. f. Crassus, father of the censor of 318 BC.
*
Lucius Papirius L. f. L. n Crassus, nominated
dictator
A dictator is a political leader who possesses absolute power. A dictatorship is a state ruled by one dictator or by a small clique. The word originated as the title of a Roman dictator elected by the Roman Senate to rule the republic in times ...
in 340 BC, to carry on the war against
Antium. He was consul in 336, and fought against the
Ausones
"Ausones" (; ), the original Greek form for the Latin "Aurunci", was a name applied by Greek writers to describe various Italic peoples inhabiting the southern and central regions of Italy. The term was used, specifically, to denote the partic ...
at
Cales
Cales was an ancient city of Campania, in today's ''comune'' of Calvi Risorta in southern Italy, belonging originally to the Aurunci/Ausoni, on the Via Latina.
The Romans captured it in 335 BC and established a colony with Latin rights of 2,500 ...
. Consul for the second time in 330 BC, he defeated Vitruvius Flaccus of
Privernum. In 325, he was ''
praefectus urbi
The ''praefectus urbanus'', also called ''praefectus urbi'' or urban prefect in English, was prefect of the city of Rome, and later also of Constantinople. The office originated under the Roman kings, continued during the Republic and Empire, and ...
''.
* Marcus Papirius L. f. L. n. Crassus, appointed dictator in 332 BC, amid panic over a
Gallic invasion; but the rumoured invasion never materialized.
* Lucius Papirius L. f. M. n., censor in 318 BC.
Papirii Masones
* Lucius Papirius Maso,
aedile ''circa'' 312 BC.
* Gaius Papirius L. f. Maso, father of the consul of 231 BC.
* Gaius Papirius C. f. L. n. Maso, consul in 231 BC, defeated the
Corsicans, and used the spoils of war to dedicate a temple of
Fontus. Refused a triumph by the
senate
A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate (Latin: ''Senatus''), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin: ''senex'' meaning "the el ...
, he became the first victorious general to celebrate one outside the city of Rome, which he did on the
Alban mount. Maso was a
pontifex
A pontiff (from Latin ''pontifex'') was, in Roman antiquity, a member of the most illustrious of the colleges of priests of the Roman religion, the College of Pontiffs."Pontifex". "Oxford English Dictionary", March 2007 The term "pontiff" was late ...
, and was known for wearing a wreath of
myrtle rather than one of
laurel
Laurel may refer to:
Plants
* Lauraceae, the laurel family
* Laurel (plant), including a list of trees and plants known as laurel
People
* Laurel (given name), people with the given name
* Laurel (surname), people with the surname
* Laurel (mus ...
.
[Broughton, vol. I, pp. 225, 226.]
* Gaius Papirius Maso, according to
Livy
Titus Livius (; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( ), was a Ancient Rome, Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled , covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditiona ...
, one of the triumviri appointed in 218 BC to establish colonies at
Placentia and
Cremona
Cremona (, also ; ; lmo, label= Cremunés, Cremùna; egl, Carmona) is a city and ''comune'' in northern Italy, situated in Lombardy, on the left bank of the Po river in the middle of the ''Pianura Padana'' ( Po Valley). It is the capital of th ...
in
Cisalpine Gaul
Cisalpine Gaul ( la, Gallia Cisalpina, also called ''Gallia Citerior'' or ''Gallia Togata'') was the part of Italy inhabited by Celts (Gauls) during the 4th and 3rd centuries BC.
After its conquest by the Roman Republic in the 200s BC it was con ...
.
* Gaius Papirius L. f. Maso, one of the
decemviri sacris faciundis, who died in 213 BC. He might perhaps be the same as the triumvir of 218.
* Lucius Papirius Maso,
praetor
Praetor ( , ), also pretor, was the title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to a man acting in one of two official capacities: (i) the commander of an army, and (ii) as an elected '' magistratus'' (magistrate), assigned to discharge vario ...
''urbanus'' in 176 BC, was perhaps the same as the Lucius Papirius, who when praetor, established that a child born within thirteen months of its possible conception could be recognized among a man's heirs.
* Marcus Papirius Maso, the brother of Aelius Ligur, one of the
tribunes of the plebs in 58 BC, who opposed Cicero's recall from exile. According to Cicero, Maso disinherited his brother for his stance. He may be the same as the
eques
Eques, ''horseman'' or ''rider'' in Latin, may refer to:
* Equites, a member of the Roman Equestrian order
* the Latin word for a knight
A knight is a person granted an honorary title of knighthood by a head of state (including the Pope) or ...
Marcus Papirius who was a friend of
Pompeius
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (; 29 September 106 BC – 28 September 48 BC), known in English as Pompey or Pompey the Great, was a leading Roman general and statesman. He played a significant role in the transformation of ...
, and was slain by
Publius Clodius Pulcher during his fatal encounter with
Titus Annius Milo
Titus Annius Milo (died 48 BC) was a Roman political agitator. The son of Gaius Papius Celsus, he was adopted by his maternal grandfather, Titus Annius Luscus. In 52 BC, he was prosecuted for the murder of Publius Clodius Pulcher and exiled from ...
along the
Appian Way
The Appian Way (Latin and Italian language, Italian: ''Via Appia'') is one of the earliest and strategically most important Roman roads of the ancient Roman Republic, republic. It connected Rome to Brindisi, in southeast Italy. Its importance is ...
.
* Gaius Papirius Maso, accused of ''repetundae'' by Titus Coponius of
Tibur
Tivoli ( , ; la, Tibur) is a town and in Lazio, central Italy, north-east of Rome, at the falls of the Aniene river where it issues from the Sabine hills. The city offers a wide view over the Roman Campagna.
History
Gaius Julius Solinu ...
. He was condemned, and Coponius rewarded with
Roman citizenship.
Papirii Carbones
* Gaius Papirius Carbo, praetor in 168 BC, received the province of
Sardinia
Sardinia ( ; it, Sardegna, label=Italian, Corsican and Tabarchino ; sc, Sardigna , sdc, Sardhigna; french: Sardaigne; sdn, Saldigna; ca, Sardenya, label=Algherese and Catalan) is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after ...
, but the senate asked him to remain at Rome, and oversee a number of judicial claims.
*
Gaius Papirius C. f. Carbo, a friend and ally of the Gracchi. As tribune of the plebs in 131 BC, he passed two important reforms. He was accused of having murdered
Scipio Aemilianus, but after the death of
Gaius Gracchus, Carbo was elected consul for 120. He suddenly distanced himself from the policies of his former friends, and having alienated both sides, was left vulnerable to an accusation the following year. He took his own life rather than be condemned.
*
Gnaeus Papirius C. f. Carbo, consul in 113 BC, was sent against the
Cimbri
The Cimbri (Greek Κίμβροι, ''Kímbroi''; Latin ''Cimbri'') were an ancient tribe in Europe. Ancient authors described them variously as a Celtic people (or Gaulish), Germanic people, or even Cimmerian. Several ancient sources indicate that ...
, who had entered Italy and
Illyricum. He was defeated, and subsequently accused by
Marcus Antonius
Marcus Antonius (14 January 1 August 30 BC), commonly known in English as Mark Antony, was a Roman politician and general who played a critical role in the transformation of the Roman Republic from a constitutional republic into the autoc ...
. Like his brother, he took his own life rather than face condemnation.
* Marcus Papirius C. f. Carbo, praetor ''circa'' 114 BC, was accused of corruption in
Sicily
(man) it, Siciliana (woman)
, population_note =
, population_blank1_title =
, population_blank1 =
, demographics_type1 = Ethnicity
, demographics1_footnotes =
, demographi ...
, and condemned.
*
Gnaeus Papirius Cn. f. C. n. Carbo, a partisan of Marius and
Cinna, was consul in 85, 84 and 82 BC, fought unsuccessfully against
Sulla
Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (; 138–78 BC), commonly known as Sulla, was a Roman general and statesman. He won the first large-scale civil war in Roman history and became the first man of the Republic to seize power through force.
Sulla had ...
and was put to death by
Pompeius
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (; 29 September 106 BC – 28 September 48 BC), known in English as Pompey or Pompey the Great, was a leading Roman general and statesman. He played a significant role in the transformation of ...
.
*
Gaius Papirius C. f. C. n. Carbo Arvina, tribune of the plebs in 90 BC, described by Cicero as a distinguished and persuasive orator, and the only Papirius Carbo to be a good citizen. He was murdered at the
senate house Senate House may refer to:
* The building housing a legislative senate
** List of legislative buildings
**Senate House State Historic Site, in Kingston, New York, where the state's first Constitution was ratified in 1777.
* The building (formerly) h ...
in 82 BC by the praetor
Damasippus, a partisan of
the younger Marius.
* Gaius Papirius (Cn. or M. f.) C. n. Carbo, tribune of the plebs in 89 BC, succeeded in passing
a law providing for grants of citizenship to certain allies. Despite his family connection to the consul Gnaeus, Gaius joined the party of
Sulla
Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (; 138–78 BC), commonly known as Sulla, was a Roman general and statesman. He won the first large-scale civil war in Roman history and became the first man of the Republic to seize power through force.
Sulla had ...
, and was murdered while besieging
Volaterrae in 80 BC.
* Gnaeus Papirius (M. f.?) C. n. Carbo, brother of Gaius, the tribune in 89 BC, was an acquaintance of Cicero, who described him as a scoundrel.
Manutius
Aldus Pius Manutius (; it, Aldo Pio Manuzio; 6 February 1515) was an Italian printer and humanist who founded the Aldine Press. Manutius devoted the later part of his life to publishing and disseminating rare texts. His interest in and preserv ...
and Shackleton Bailey rejected his identity with the consul of 85 BC.
* Gaius Papirius Carbo, described by Cicero as the son of Rubria, and one of his friends, although he appears to have said this ironically.
* Gaius Papirius C. f. Carbo, a
military tribune and quaestor ''pro praetore'' in the early Augustan period, was a senator by 31 BC. His wife was Antullia.
[''PIR'', vol. III, p. 11.]
Papirii of imperial times
*
Papirius Fabianus
Papirius Fabianus was an Ancient Roman rhetorician and philosopher from the ''gens'' Papirius in the time of Tiberius and Caligula, in the first half of the 1st century AD.
Biography
Fabianus was the pupil of Arellius Fuscus and of Blandus in rhet ...
, an orator and philosopher in the time of
the elder Seneca. He was a prolific writer, admired by
the younger Seneca and
Pliny the Elder
Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/2479), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist and natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic '' ...
.
* Papirius, a
centurion
A centurion (; la, centurio , . la, centuriones, label=none; grc-gre, κεντυρίων, kentyríōn, or ) was a position in the Roman army during classical antiquity, nominally the commander of a century (), a military unit of around 80 ...
, who had assisted in the murder of
Lucius Clodius Macer
Lucius Clodius Macer was a ''legatus'' of the Roman Empire in Africa in the time of Nero. He revolted in May 68, cutting off the food supply of Rome, possibly at the instigation of Calvia Crispinilla. Although encouraged by Galba, Macer raised ...
in AD 68, was despatched by
Gaius Licinius Mucianus
Gaius Licinius Mucianus (fl. 1st century AD) was a Roman general, statesman and writer. He is considered to have played a role behind the scenes in the elevation of Vespasian to the throne.
Life
His name shows that he had passed by adoption f ...
to assassinate Calpurnius Piso Galerianus, the proconsul of
Africa
Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...
, in AD 70. Piso was warned in time to intercept Papirius, whom he questioned, and put to death.
* Papirius Fronto, a jurist who probably lived during the early second century. He is frequently cited by
Marcian
Marcian (; la, Marcianus, link=no; grc-gre, Μαρκιανός, link=no ; 392 – 27 January 457) was Roman emperor of the East from 450 to 457. Very little of his life before becoming emperor is known, other than that he was a (personal as ...
.
* Papirius Justus, a jurist who lived during the latter part of the second century. He collected the various constitutions issued by the emperors, and a number of fragments relating to the constitutions of Marcus Aurelius are preserved in the ''Digest''.
* Gaius Papirius C. f. Masso, served as military tribune, plebeian aedile, ''quaesitor judex'', and ''curator frumenti''. He was married twice; his first wife was Ofania Quarta, and his second Statia Quinta.
* Papirius Rufus,
procurator in
Dacia
Dacia (, ; ) was the land inhabited by the Dacians, its core in Transylvania, stretching to the Danube in the south, the Black Sea in the east, and the Tisza in the west. The Carpathian Mountains were located in the middle of Dacia. It thus r ...
.
*
Gnaeus Papirius Aelianus,
governor
A governor is an administrative leader and head of a polity or political region, ranking under the head of state and in some cases, such as governors-general, as the head of state's official representative. Depending on the type of political ...
of Dacia from AD 132 to 133, and
Britain ''circa'' 145 to 147.
* Gnaeus Papirius Aelianus, consul ''suffectus'' in AD 157.
* Gnaeus Papirius Aelianus, consul in AD 184.
* Papirius Dionysius, ''
praefectus annonae
The ("prefect of the provisions"), also called the ("prefect of the grain supply") was a Roman official charged with the supervision of the grain supply to the city of Rome. Under the Republic, the job was usually done by an aedile. However, in ...
'' in the time of
Commodus
Commodus (; 31 August 161 – 31 December 192) was a Roman emperor who ruled from 177 to 192. He served jointly with his father Marcus Aurelius from 176 until the latter's death in 180, and thereafter he reigned alone until his assassination. ...
. In AD 190, he intentionally worsened a grain shortage at Rome in order to bring about the downfall of the
praetorian prefect
The praetorian prefect ( la, praefectus praetorio, el, ) was a high office in the Roman Empire. Originating as the commander of the Praetorian Guard, the office gradually acquired extensive legal and administrative functions, with its holders be ...
Marcus Aurelius Cleander. His victory was short-lived, as he was one of the prominent men whom Commodus had murdered shortly thereafter.
* Marcus Papirius Candidus, a senator, and patronus of the colony at
Canusium in AD 223.
* Saint Papirius, better known as
Papylus, an early Christian physician, said to have been put to death together with his sister, Agathonice, and others at
Pergamum, about AD 166. His feast day is April 13.
[''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'', vol. III, p. 121 (" St. Papylus").]
See also
*
List of Roman gentes
Footnotes
References
Bibliography
*
Marcus Tullius Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the estab ...
, ''
Brutus'', ''
De Legibus
The ''De Legibus'' (''On the Laws'') is a dialogue written by Marcus Tullius Cicero during the last years of the Roman Republic. It bears the same name as Plato's famous dialogue, '' The Laws''. Unlike his previous work ''De re publica,'' in wh ...
'', ''
De Natura Deorum
''De Natura Deorum'' (''On the Nature of the Gods'') is a philosophical dialogue by Roman Academic Skeptic philosopher Cicero written in 45 BC. It is laid out in three books that discuss the theological views of the Hellenistic philosophies of ...
'', ''
De Oratore
''De Oratore'' (''On the Orator''; not to be confused with ''Orator'') is a dialogue written by Cicero in 55 BC. It is set in 91 BC, when Lucius Licinius Crassus dies, just before the Social War and the civil war between Marius and Sulla, du ...
'', ''
De Republica
''De re publica'' (''On the Commonwealth''; see below) is a dialogue on Roman politics by Cicero, written in six books between 54 and 51 BC. The work does not survive in a complete state, and large parts are missing. The surviving sections derive ...
'', ''
Divinatio in Quintum Caecilium
Cicero's ''Divinatio in Caecilium'' is his oration against Quintus Caecilius in the process for selecting a prosecutor of Gaius Verres (70 BC). Cicero asserts that he, rather than Q. Caecilius, will make the better prosecutor of Gaius Verres, Ver ...
'', ''
Epistulae ad Atticum
''Epistulae ad Atticum'' (Latin for "Letters to Atticus") is a collection of letters from Roman politician and orator Marcus Tullius Cicero to his close friend Titus Pomponius Atticus. The letters in this collection, together with Cicero's othe ...
'', ''
Epistulae ad Familiares'', ''
In Verrem
"In Verrem" ("Against Verres") is a series of speeches made by Cicero in 70 BC, during the corruption and extortion trial of Gaius Verres, the former governor of Sicily. The speeches, which were concurrent with Cicero's election to the aedileship, ...
'', ''
Laelius de Amicitia
''Laelius de Amicitia'' (or simply ''De Amicitia'') is a treatise on friendship (''amicitia'') by the Roman statesman and author Marcus Tullius Cicero, written in 44 BC.
Background
The work is written as a dialogue between prominent figures of th ...
'', ''
Pro Archia Poeta
Cicero's oration ''Pro Archia Poeta'' ("On Behalf of Archias the Poet") is the published literary form of his defense of Aulus Licinius Archias, a poet accused of not being a Roman citizen. The accusation is believed to have been a political move ...
'', ''Pro Balbo'', ''Pro Domo Sua'', ''
Pro Milone'', ''
Tusculanae Quaestiones''.
*
Diodorus Siculus
Diodorus Siculus, or Diodorus of Sicily ( grc-gre, Διόδωρος ; 1st century BC), was an ancient Greek historian. He is known for writing the monumental universal history ''Bibliotheca historica'', in forty books, fifteen of which su ...
, ''
Bibliotheca Historica
''Bibliotheca historica'' ( grc, Βιβλιοθήκη Ἱστορική, ) is a work of universal history by Diodorus Siculus. It consisted of forty books, which were divided into three sections. The first six books are geographical in theme, ...
'' (Library of History).
*
Dionysius of Halicarnassus
Dionysius of Halicarnassus ( grc, Διονύσιος Ἀλεξάνδρου Ἁλικαρνασσεύς,
; – after 7 BC) was a Greek historian and teacher of rhetoric, who flourished during the reign of Emperor Augustus. His literary sty ...
, ''Romaike Archaiologia'' (Roman Antiquities).
* Titus Livius (
Livy
Titus Livius (; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( ), was a Ancient Rome, Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled , covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditiona ...
), ''
History of Rome
The history of Rome includes the history of the city of Rome as well as the civilisation of ancient Rome. Roman history has been influential on the modern world, especially in the history of the Catholic Church, and Roman law has influenced m ...
''.
*
Marcus Velleius Paterculus, ''Compendium of Roman History''.
*
Valerius Maximus, ''
Factorum ac Dictorum Memorabilium
''Factorum ac dictorum memorabilium libri IX'' ("nine books of memorable deeds and sayings", also known as ''De factis dictisque memorabilibus'' or ''Facta et dicta memorabilia'') by Valerius Maximus (c. 20 BC – c. AD 50) was written arou ...
'' (Memorable Facts and Sayings).
* Lucius Annaeus Seneca (
Seneca the Elder
Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Elder (; c. 54 BC – c. 39 AD), also known as Seneca the Rhetorician, was a Roman writer, born of a wealthy equestrian family of Corduba, Hispania. He wrote a collection of reminiscences about the Roman schools of rheto ...
), ''Controversiae'', ''Suasoriae'' (Rhetorical Exercises).
* Lucius Annaeus Seneca (
Seneca the Younger
Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Younger (; 65 AD), usually known mononymously as Seneca, was a Stoic philosopher of Ancient Rome, a statesman, dramatist, and, in one work, satirist, from the post-Augustan age of Latin literature.
Seneca was born in ...
), ''
Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium'' (Moral Letters to Lucilius), ''
Naturales Quaestiones'' (Natural Questions).
* Gaius Plinius Secundus (
Pliny the Elder
Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/2479), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist and natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic '' ...
), ''
Naturalis Historia'' (Natural History).
*
Sextus Julius Frontinus
Sextus Julius Frontinus (c. 40 – 103 AD) was a prominent Roman civil engineer, author, soldier and senator of the late 1st century AD. He was a successful general under Domitian, commanding forces in Roman Britain, and on the Rhine and Danube ...
, ''
De Aquaeductu'' (On Aqueducts), ''Strategemata'' (Stratagems).
* Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus (
Plutarch
Plutarch (; grc-gre, Πλούταρχος, ''Ploútarchos''; ; – after AD 119) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for his ''P ...
), ''
Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans''.
*
Publius Cornelius Tacitus, ''
Historiae'', ''
Dialogus de Oratoribus
The ''Dialogus de oratoribus'' is a short work attributed to Tacitus, in dialogue form, on the art of rhetoric. Its date of composition is unknown, though its dedication to Lucius Fabius Justus places its publication around 102 AD.
Summary
The ...
'' (Dialogue on Oratory).
* Appianus Alexandrinus (
Appian
Appian of Alexandria (; grc-gre, Ἀππιανὸς Ἀλεξανδρεύς ''Appianòs Alexandreús''; la, Appianus Alexandrinus; ) was a Greek historian with Roman citizenship who flourished during the reigns of Emperors of Rome Trajan, Hadr ...
), ''Bellum Civile'' (The Civil War).
*
Granius Licinianus''Fasti''
*
Cassius Dio
Lucius Cassius Dio (), also known as Dio Cassius ( ), was a Roman historian and senator of maternal Greek origin. He published 80 volumes of the history on ancient Rome, beginning with the arrival of Aeneas in Italy. The volumes documented the ...
, ''Roman History''.
* ''
Chronograph of 354''.
*
Sextus Aurelius Victor, ''
De Viris Illustribus
''De Viris Illustribus'', meaning "concerning illustrious men", represents a genre of literature which evolved during the Italian Renaissance in imitation of the exemplary literature of Ancient Rome. It inspired the widespread commissioning of g ...
'' (On Famous Men).
*
Eutropius, ''Breviarium Historiae Romanae'' (Abridgement of the History of Rome).
*
Paulus Orosius, ''Historiarum Adversum Paganos'' (History Against the Pagans).
* ''Digesta seu Pandectae'' (
The Digest
''The Digest'', formerly published as ''The English and Empire Digest'', is a digest of case law. It is the "major modern work" of this kind. Its coverage is "wide" but incomplete, and it can be "complicated to use" if the user does not understa ...
).
*
Paulus Diaconus, ''Epitome de Sex. Pompeio Festo de Significatu Verborum'' (Epitome of
Festus
Festus may refer to:
People Ancient world
*Porcius Festus, Roman governor of Judea from approximately 58 to 62 AD
*Sextus Pompeius Festus (later 2nd century), Roman grammarian
*Festus (died 305), martyr along with Proculus of Pozzuoli
*Festus (h ...
' ''De Significatu Verborum'').
*
Joannes Zonaras
Joannes or John Zonaras ( grc-gre, Ἰωάννης Ζωναρᾶς ; 1070 – 1140) was a Byzantine Greek historian, chronicler and theologian who lived in Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul, Turkey). Under Emperor Alexios I Komnenos he held th ...
, ''Epitome Historiarum'' (Epitome of History).
*
Barthold Georg Niebuhr, ''The History of Rome'', Julius Charles Hare and Connop Thirlwall, trans., John Smith, Cambridge (1828).
* Henricus Meyerus (Heinrich Meyer), ''Oratorum Romanorum Fragmenta ab Appio inde Caeco usque ad Q. Aurelium Symmachum'' (Fragments of Roman Orators from Appius Claudius Caecus to Quintus Aurelius Symmachus), L. Bourgeois-Mazé, Paris (1837).
* ''
Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology
The ''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'' (1849, originally published 1844 under a slightly different title) is an encyclopedia/biographical dictionary. Edited by William Smith, the dictionary spans three volumes and 3,700 p ...
'',
William Smith, ed., Little, Brown and Company, Boston (1849).
*
Theodor Mommsen
Christian Matthias Theodor Mommsen (; 30 November 1817 – 1 November 1903) was a German classical scholar, historian, jurist, journalist, politician and archaeologist. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest classicists of the 19th cent ...
''et alii'', ''
Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum
The ''Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum'' (''CIL'') is a comprehensive collection of ancient Latin inscriptions. It forms an authoritative source for documenting the surviving epigraphy of classical antiquity. Public and personal inscriptions throw ...
'' (The Body of Latin Inscriptions, abbreviated ''CIL''), Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften (1853–present).
* ''
Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography
The ''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography'' is the last in a series of classical dictionaries edited by the English scholar William Smith (1813–1893), following ''A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities'' and the ''Dictionary of Gr ...
'',
William Smith, ed., Little, Brown and Company, Boston (1854).
*
August Pauly
August Friedrich von Pauly (; ; 9 May 1796, in Benningen am Neckar – 2 May 1845, in Stuttgart) was a German educator and classical philologist.
From 1813 to 1818 he studied at the University of Tübingen, then furthered his education at Heidelb ...
,
Georg Wissowa,
Friedrich Münzer
Friedrich Münzer (22 April 1868 – 20 October 1942) was a German classical scholar noted for the development of prosopography, particularly for his demonstrations of how family relationships in ancient Rome connected to political struggles. He d ...
, ''et alii'', ''
Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft'' (Scientific Encyclopedia of the Knowledge of Classical Antiquities, abbreviated ''RE'' or ''PW''), J. B. Metzler, Stuttgart (1894–1980).
* George Davis Chase, "The Origin of Roman Praenomina", in ''Harvard Studies in Classical Philology'', vol. VIII (1897).
*
Paul von Rohden
Paul von Rohden (12 December 1862, Barmen – 28 February 1939, Pieterlen) was a German-Swiss schoolteacher and historian known for his research in the field of prosopography. He was the son of theologian Ludwig von Rohden (1815–1889) and the bro ...
,
Elimar Klebs
Elimar Klebs (15 October 1852 – 16 May 1918) was a German historian of ancient history. He was the brother of botanist Georg Klebs.
Biography
Klebs was born in Braunsberg (Braniewo), Prussia. He studied in Berlin under Theodor Mommsen a ...
, &
Hermann Dessau
Hermann Dessau (6 April 1856, Frankfurt am Main – 12 April 1931, Berlin) was a German ancient historian and epigrapher. He is noted for a key work of textual criticism published in 1889 on the ''Historia Augusta'', which uncovered reasons to ...
, ''
Prosopographia Imperii Romani
The ', abbreviated ''PIR'', is a collective historical work to establish the prosopography of high-profile people from the Roman empire. The time period covered extends from the Battle of Actium in 31 BC to the reign of Diocletian. The final volum ...
'' (The Prosopography of the Roman Empire, abbreviated ''PIR''), Berlin (1898).
*
* {{cite book , editor-last=Shackleton Bailey , year=1977 , editor-first=D.R. , title=Cicero: Epistulae Ad Familiares, Volume II, 47–43 B.C. , publisher=Cambridge University Press , isbn=0-521-21152-2 , editor-link=D. R. Shackleton Bailey , ref={{sfnref, Shackleton Bailey
* John C. Traupman, ''The New College Latin & English Dictionary'', Bantam Books, New York (1995).
*
Stephen P. Oakley
Stephen or Steven is a common English first name. It is particularly significant to Christians, as it belonged to Saint Stephen ( grc-gre, Στέφανος ), an early disciple and deacon who, according to the Book of Acts, was stoned to death; ...
, ''A Commentary on Livy: Books VI–X, Volume I, Introduction and Book VI'', Oxford University Press, 1997.
* ——, ''A Commentary on Livy: Books VI–X, Volume II, Books VI-VIII'', Oxford University Press, 1998.
* ——, ''A Commentary on Livy: Books VI–X, Volume IV, Book X'', Oxford University Press, 2005.
Roman gentes