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The ''Doctrine of the Mean'' or ''Zhongyong'' is one of the
Four Books The Four Books and Five Classics () are the authoritative books of Confucianism, written in China before 300 BCE. The Four Books and the Five Classics are the most important classics of Chinese Confucianism. Four Books The Four Books () are C ...
of classical Chinese philosophy and a central doctrine of
Confucianism Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, a way of governing, or a ...
. The text is attributed to
Zisi Zisi (; c. 481–402 BCE), born Kong Ji (孔伋), was a Chinese philosopher and the grandson of Confucius. Intellectual genealogy, teaching, criticism Zisi was the son of Kong Li (孔鯉) ( Boyu (伯鱼)) and the only grandson of Confucius. ...
(Kong Ji), the only grandson of
Confucius Confucius ( ; zh, s=, p=Kǒng Fūzǐ, "Master Kǒng"; or commonly zh, s=, p=Kǒngzǐ, labels=no; – ) was a Chinese philosopher and politician of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages. C ...
(Kong Zi). It was originally a chapter in the ''
Classic of Rites The ''Book of Rites'', also known as the ''Liji'', is a collection of texts describing the social forms, administration, and ceremonial rites of the Zhou dynasty as they were understood in the Warring States and the early Han periods. The ''Book ...
''. The phrase "doctrine of the mean" first occurs in Book VI, verse 29 of the '' Analects'' of
Confucius Confucius ( ; zh, s=, p=Kǒng Fūzǐ, "Master Kǒng"; or commonly zh, s=, p=Kǒngzǐ, labels=no; – ) was a Chinese philosopher and politician of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages. C ...
, which states: The ''Analects'' never expands on what this term means, but Zisi's text, ''The Doctrine of the Mean'', explores its meaning in detail, as well as how to apply it to one's life. The application of Confucian metaphysics to politics and
virtue ethics Virtue ethics (also aretaic ethics, from Greek ἀρετή arete_(moral_virtue).html"_;"title="'arete_(moral_virtue)">aretḗ''_is_an_approach_to_ethics_that_treats_the_concept_of_virtue.html" ;"title="arete_(moral_virtue)">aretḗ''.html" ; ...
. The text was adopted into the canon of the
Neo-Confucian Neo-Confucianism (, often shortened to ''lǐxué'' 理學, literally "School of Principle") is a moral, ethical, and metaphysical Chinese philosophy influenced by Confucianism, and originated with Han Yu (768–824) and Li Ao (772–841) in t ...
movement, as compiled by
Zhu Xi Zhu Xi (; ; October 18, 1130 – April 23, 1200), formerly romanized Chu Hsi, was a Chinese calligrapher, historian, philosopher, poet, and politician during the Song dynasty. Zhu was influential in the development of Neo-Confucianism. He con ...
. While
Burton Watson Burton Dewitt Watson (June 13, 1925April 1, 2017) was an American sinologist, translator, and writer known for his English translations of Chinese and Japanese literature.Stirling 2006, pg. 92 Watson's translations received many awards, includi ...
translated ''Zhōngyōng'' as ''Doctrine of the Mean'', other English-language translators have rendered it differently.
James Legge James Legge (; 20 December 181529 November 1897) was a Scottish linguist, missionary, sinologist, and translator who was best known as an early translator of Classical Chinese texts into English. Legge served as a representative of the London ...
called it ''Constant Mean'', Pierre Ryckmans (aka Simon Leys) used ''Middle Way'', while
Arthur Waley Arthur David Waley (born Arthur David Schloss, 19 August 188927 June 1966) was an English orientalist and sinologist who achieved both popular and scholarly acclaim for his translations of Chinese and Japanese poetry. Among his honours were ...
chose ''Middle Use''. Ezra Pound's translations include ''Unswerving Pivot'' and ''Unwobbling Pivot''. Roger T. Ames and David L. Hall titled their 2001 translation ''Focusing the Familiar''.


Authorship

The authorship of The Doctrine of the Mean is controversial. Traditionally, authorship of the treatise (which was actually a chapter from Liji, one of the Five Classics of antiquity) was attributed to
Zisi Zisi (; c. 481–402 BCE), born Kong Ji (孔伋), was a Chinese philosopher and the grandson of Confucius. Intellectual genealogy, teaching, criticism Zisi was the son of Kong Li (孔鯉) ( Boyu (伯鱼)) and the only grandson of Confucius. ...
(Kong Ji / Tzu Ssu / Zi Si / 子思), a grandson of Confucius and disciple of Zeng Shen; however, this was first questioned by Qing dynasty scholar Cui Shu (1740—1816). According to some modern scholars parts of it may have been written or edited by Confucians during the (transition from the Qin to) Han Dynasties. However, it is widely agreed that the book presents the ethical core of Confucian teachings. (Others seem to attribute it to Confucius himself.)


Interpretation

''The Doctrine of the Mean'' is a text rich with symbolism and guidance to perfecting oneself. The mean is also described as the "unswerving pivot" or ''zhongyong''. ''Zhong'' means bent neither one way or another, and ''yong'' represents unchanging. In
James Legge James Legge (; 20 December 181529 November 1897) was a Scottish linguist, missionary, sinologist, and translator who was best known as an early translator of Classical Chinese texts into English. Legge served as a representative of the London ...
's translation of the text, the goal of the mean is to maintain balance and harmony from directing the mind to a state of constant equilibrium. The person who follows the mean is on a path of duty and must never leave it. A superior person is cautious, a gentle teacher and shows no contempt for his or her inferiors. S/he always does what is natural according to her or his status in the world. Even common men and women can carry the mean into their practices, as long as they do not exceed their natural order. ''The Doctrine of the Mean'' represents moderation, rectitude, objectivity, sincerity, honesty and propriety. The guiding principle is that one should never act in excess. ''The Doctrine of the Mean'' is divided into three parts: # The Axis –
Confucian Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China. Variously described as tradition, a philosophy, a religion, a humanistic or rationalistic religion, a way of governing, or ...
Metaphysics # The Process – Politics # The Perfect Word/Sincerity – Ethics (The Great Digest and Unwobbling Pivot, 1951).


Guidelines

''Doctrine of the Mean'' proposed three guidelines—Self-watchfulness, Leniency and Sincerity—for how to pursue the Doctrine of the Mean, and one who follows these guidelines can be called a respectable person: " Zhong-ni said, 'The respectable person embodies the course of the Mean; the average person acts contrary to the course of the Mean."


Self-watchfulness

This guideline requires self-education, self-questioning and self-discipline during the process of self-cultivation. This principle was exposited in the first chapter of ''Doctrine of the Mean'': "The respectable person does not wait till he sees things to be cautious, nor till he hears things to be apprehensive. There is nothing more visible than what is secret, and nothing more manifest than what is minute. Therefore the superior person is watchful over himself, when he is alone."


Leniency

This guideline requires understanding, concern and tolerance towards one another. Leniency was exposited in the 13th chapter: "When one cultivates to the utmost the principles of his nature, and exercises them on the principle of reciprocity, he is not far from the path. What you do not like when done to yourself, do not do to others." In this chapter, Confucius explained this guideline with four examples: "to serve my father, as I would require my son to serve me", " to serve my prince as I would require my minister to serve me", "to serve my elder brother as I would require my younger brother to serve me", "to set the example in behaving to a friend, as I would require him to behave to me."


Sincerity

Sincerity contributes to a close connection between Heaven and human. This guideline was exposited in the 23rd chapter: "It is only he who is possessed of the most complete sincerity that can exist under heaven, who can give its full development to his nature. Able to give its full development to his own nature, he can do the same to the nature of other men. Able to give its full development to the nature of other men, he can give their full development to the natures of animals and things. Able to give their full development to the natures of creatures and things, he can assist the transforming and nourishing powers of Heaven and
Earth Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to harbor life. While large volumes of water can be found throughout the Solar System, only Earth sustains liquid surface water. About 71% of Earth's surfa ...
. Able to assist the transforming and nourishing powers of Heaven and Earth, he may with Heaven and Earth form a ternion."


In Chinese society

In China prior to the twentieth century the ''Doctrine of the Mean'' was integrated into the education system statewide. Also, one of the prerequisites for employment in the imperial government was the study and understanding of the Four Classics, included in this is the ''Doctrine of the Mean''. The imperial state wanted to reinforce the three bonds of society; between the parent and child, husband and wife, and ruler and subject. This was believed to emphasize a peaceful home and an orderly state. Recently in China, the
New Confucians New Confucianism () is an intellectual movement of Confucianism that began in the early 20th century in Republic of China (1912–1949), Republican China, and further developed in post-Mao era People's Republic of China, contemporary China. It ...
revisited the Classics, because of its strong foundation in the educational system. Using the ''Doctrine of the Mean'' has become a useful source for New Confucians due to the similarities in the terminology and expression used by them and found within the text. This is further reinforced by the support from ancient sages and worthies who prefer education systems more closely linked to traditional Confucian thought.


Criticisms by Modern Statesmen

Chiang Kai-shek and Sun Yat-sen both analyzed the doctrine.
Mao Zedong Mao Zedong pronounced ; also romanised traditionally as Mao Tse-tung. (26 December 1893 – 9 September 1976), also known as Chairman Mao, was a Chinese communist revolutionary who was the founder of the People's Republic of China (PRC) ...
, the founding father of the
People's Republic of China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
, viewed ''Doctrine of the Mean'' as a mutation of
eclecticism Eclecticism is a conceptual approach that does not hold rigidly to a single paradigm or set of assumptions, but instead draws upon multiple theories, styles, or ideas to gain complementary insights into a subject, or applies different theories i ...
, which draws upon multiple theories, styles, or ideas to gain complementary insights into a subject. According to Mao's comment on
Ai Siqi Ài Sīqí () is the pen name of Li Shengxuan (李生萱, 2 March 1910 – 22 March 1966), a Yunnan Mongol Chinese philosopher and author. He was born in Tengchong, Yunnan, later traveling to Hong Kong, where he studied English and French ...
's analysis of ''Doctrine of the Mean'', ''Doctrine of the Mean'' is an eclecticism which simultaneously opposes the abolishment of
exploitation Exploitation may refer to: *Exploitation of natural resources *Exploitation of labour ** Forced labour *Exploitation colonialism *Slavery ** Sexual slavery and other forms *Oppression *Psychological manipulation In arts and entertainment *Exploi ...
and excessive exploitation. According to Mao, ''Doctrine of the Mean'' failed to realize that something deserves absolute negation, and in compromise, ''Doctrine of the Mean'' prevented China from progress. In his comment, Mao said that ''Doctrine of the Mean'' also goes against dialectics as it stops qualitative change by emphasizing maintaining balance and harmony.
Lu Xun Zhou Shuren (25 September 1881 – 19 October 1936), better known by his pen name Lu Xun (or Lu Sun; ; Wade–Giles: Lu Hsün), was a Chinese writer, essayist, poet, and literary critic. He was a leading figure of modern Chinese literature. ...
, a leading figure of modern Chinese literature, saw ''Doctrine of the Mean'' as major contributing factor of the abject
ethnic stereotype An ethnic stereotype, racial stereotype or cultural stereotype involves part of a system of beliefs about typical characteristics of members of a given ethnic group, their status, societal and cultural norms. A national stereotype, or nation ...
in modern China, believing it prevented reform from happening. In his speech ''Silent China'', Lu Xun said that Chinese likes the reconcilable and the compromised. "For example, people will not allow you to add a window to a dark room, but when you threaten to uncover the roof, they would compromise to the idea of adding a window. Without a radical proposal pushing them, Chinese won't permit even the mildest reform."


Translation and study

Andrew H. Plaks Andrew Henry Plaks (; born 1945) is an American sinologist who specializes in the study of the vernacular fiction of the Ming and Qing dynasties. From 1973 to 2007 he taught at Princeton University, becoming full professor in 1980. He moved to the ...
wrote the essay "The mean, nature and self-realization. European translations of the ''Zhongyong''", which was published in '' De l'un au multiple: Traductions du chinois vers les langues européenes''. In his essay Plaks argues that since the text of the ''Doctrine of the Mean'' is "too easy", this factor is, as paraphrased by Joshua A. Fogel, an author of a book review for the ''De l'un au multiple'' book ''
The Journal of Asian Studies ''The Journal of Asian Studies'' is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Association for Asian Studies, covering Asian studies, ranging from history, the arts, social sciences, to phil ...
'', a "major impediment" to translation.Fogel, p. 161. The
Tsinghua bamboo slips The Tsinghua Bamboo Strips () are a collection of Chinese texts dating to the Warring States period and written in ink on strips of bamboo, that were acquired in 2008 by Tsinghua University, China. The texts were obtained by illegal excavation, pr ...
feature the text "Bao xun" (保訓) which shares the topos of centrality with the ''Zhongyong''.


See also

*
Argument to moderation Argument to moderation ( la, argumentum ad temperantiam)—also known as false compromise, argument from middle ground, and the golden mean fallacy
*
Golden mean (philosophy) The golden mean or golden middle way is the desirable middle between two extremes, one of excess and the other of deficiency. It appeared in Greek thought at least as early as the Delphic maxim "nothing in excess", was discussed in Plato's Phile ...
, a tenet of the philosophy of
Aristotle Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of ph ...
, in which he endorses temperance between the extremes of excess and deficiency. Cf.
Via media ''Via media'' is a Latin phrase meaning "the middle road" and is a philosophical maxim for life which advocates moderation in all thoughts and actions. Originating from the Delphic Maxim ''nothing to excess'' and subsequent Ancient Greek philoso ...
. * Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics Book II: That virtues of character can be described as means *
Argument to moderation Argument to moderation ( la, argumentum ad temperantiam)—also known as false compromise, argument from middle ground, and the golden mean fallacy
(fallacy) * Middle Way in Buddhism *
Naive dialecticism Naïve dialecticism is a collection of East Asian public beliefs characterized by the acceptance of contradiction and the expectation of change in everyday life. Within cultural psychology, naïve dialecticism explains some of the cultural differe ...
*
Phronesis ''Phronesis'' ( grc, φρόνησῐς, phrónēsis), translated into English by terms such as prudence, practical virtue and practical wisdom, or, colloquially, sense (as in "good sense", "horse sense") is an ancient Greek word for a type of w ...
in ancient Greek philosophy *
Wasat (Islamic term) In Islam, ''wasat'' (moderation) is one of the most basic terms and deliberately used topics. In the sense of shariah, it is a central characteristic of Islamic creed and has been used from the very beginning of Islam. It refers to a justly balan ...


Notes


References

* Fogel, Joshua A
''De l'un au multiple: Traductions du chinois vers les langues européenes'' (book review)
''
The Journal of Asian Studies ''The Journal of Asian Studies'' is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Association for Asian Studies, covering Asian studies, ranging from history, the arts, social sciences, to phil ...
'', ISSN 0021-9118, 02/2001, Volume 60, Issue 1, pp. 159 – 161. Available from JStor. * Gardner, Daniel. "Confucian Commentary and Chinese Intellectual History". ''The Journal of Asian Studies'' 57.2 (1998): 397-. * Hare, John
"The Chinese Classics"
Internet Sacred Text Archive. 2008. Accessed: 27 October 2008. * Riegel, Jeffrey
"Confucius"
''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy''. 2006. Accessed: 23 October 2008. * Pound, Ezra (translation and commentary). "The Great Digest & Unwobbling Pivot". New York, New York, USA: New Directions, 1951. * Smith, Huston. ''The World's Religions: Our Great Wisdom Traditions''. New York, New York, USA: HarperCollins, 1991. * Williams, Edward T. "Ancient China" ''The Harvard Theological Review'' vol.9, no.3 (1916): 258-268. * Wing-Tsit Chan. "Neo-Confucianism: New Ideas on Old Terminology" ''Philosophy East and West'' vol.17, no. 1/4 (1967): 15-35.
"Zhongyong"
''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Accessed: 27 Oct 2008


Further reading

* Plaks, Andrew.
The mean, nature and self-realization. European translations of the ''Zhongyong''
"
Archive
In: Alleton, Vivianne and Michael Lackner (editors). '' De l'un au multiple: traductions du chinois vers les langues européennes Translations from Chinese into European Languages''. Éditions de la maison des sciences de l'homme (Les Editions de la MSH, FR), 1999,
Paris Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, most populous city of France, with an estimated population of 2,165,423 residents in 2019 in an area of more than 105 km² (41 sq mi), ma ...
. p. 311-331. , 9782735107681.


External links


''Doctrine of the Mean''
description and excerpts at
Chinaknowledge Chinaknowledge, with the subtitle "a universal guide for China studies", is an English-language hobbyist's web site that contains a wide variety of information on China and Chinese topics. The site was founded by and is maintained by Ulrich Theo ...

''Doctrine of the Mean''
an English translation by A. Charles Muller
''The Doctrine of the Mean''
an English translation by
James Legge James Legge (; 20 December 181529 November 1897) was a Scottish linguist, missionary, sinologist, and translator who was best known as an early translator of Classical Chinese texts into English. Legge served as a representative of the London ...

''The Doctrine of the Mean''
an English translation by
Wing-tsit Chan Wing-tsit Chan (; 18 August 1901 – 12 August 1994) was a Chinese scholar and professor best known for his studies of Chinese philosophy and his translations of Chinese philosophical texts. Chan was born in China in 1901 and went to the United St ...

''Zhong Yong''
Chinese text interspersed with an English translation by
James Legge James Legge (; 20 December 181529 November 1897) was a Scottish linguist, missionary, sinologist, and translator who was best known as an early translator of Classical Chinese texts into English. Legge served as a representative of the London ...
(at the
Chinese Text Project The Chinese Text Project (CTP; ) is a digital library project that assembles collections of early Chinese texts. The name of the project in Chinese literally means "The Chinese Philosophical Book Digitization Project", showing its focus on books ...
) {{Confucian texts Confucian texts Chinese classic texts Four Books and Five Classics